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Mini Review Aspects Min Miner Sci ISSN 2578-0255 Metals from : An Introduction

Fathi Habashi* Department of Mining, Laval University, Canada

*Corresponding author: Fathi Habashi, Department of Mining, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Laval University, Quebec City, Canada Submission: October 09, 2017; Published: December 11, 2017

Introduction of metallic . Of these about 300 are used industrially in the chemical industry, in building materials, in fertilizers, as fuels, etc., chemical composition, constant physical properties, and a A is a naturally occurring substance having a definite characteristic crystalline form. Ores are a mixture of : they are processed to yield an industrial mineral or treated chemically and are known as the industrial minerals Figure 3. to yield a single or several metals. Ores that are generally processed for only a single metal are those of , aluminium, chromium, tin, mercury, , tungsten, and some ores of . Gold ores may yield only gold, but is a common associate. ores are always associated with , while lead and zinc always occur together in ores. All other ores are complex yielding a number of metals. before being treated by chemical methods to recover the metals. Ores undergo a beneficiation process by physical methods and grinding then separation of the individual mineral by physical Figure 2: Metals and metalloids obtained from ores. Beneficiation processes involve liberation of minerals by crushing methods (gravity, magnetic, etc.) or physicochemical methods pyrometallurgical, and electrochemical methods. Metals and (flotation) Figure 1. Chemical methods involve hydrometallurgical, metalloids obtained from ores are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Classification of minerals. A metallic mineral may be used for the production of a metal, or after a minor treatment for the production of refractoriness

Figure 1: Production of industrial minerals and metals of aluminium: 90% is used in the manufacture of the metal from ores. or pigments. For example Table 1. Bauxite, the main source

Classification of Minerals and 10% in the manufacture of refractoriness, abrasives, and manufacturing certain refractoriness as well as chemicals for the chemicals. Chromate, the main mineral for chromium, is used for tanning industry. is used for iron production and as a metallic. Metallic minerals are the chief raw materials for the black pigment. Zircon, the main zirconium mineral is used for the Minerals may be classified into two groups: metallic and non manufacture of metals. Non metallic minerals which constitute production of specialized refractoriness. , the main beryllium about 75% of all the minerals, are so-called because they are not mineral, when occurring in large transparent , is a gemstone. used for the manufacture of metals and also because of their lack When a mineral is used for more than on purpose, then its grade

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and the impurities present are the decisive factors in its utilization An at least 75% MnO2 suitable for the manufacture of for metal production or otherwise. For example: Chromites ores batteries.

An ore at least 80% MnO suitable for use as an oxidizing a high chromium content (minimum 68% chromium) and the 2 [1]. These are classified into three grades: Metallurgical Ore with agent in chemical processes or in the production of potassium chromium/iron ratio must not be less than 2.8/1, will be suitable permanganate and other manganese chemicals. for the manufacture of ferrochrome or chromium metal. and which are iron sulphides are usually Table 1: Metallic minerals for other uses than metal production. considered as metallic minerals because of their metallic lustre but Mineral Metal Produced Non-metallic Use they are mainly evaluated for their sulphur and not for their iron content, they are used to make sulphuric acid. Few plants however, Bauxite Al Refractories process the remaining ferric oxide to extract traces of nonferrous Refractories, Chromite Cr Chemicals used for making iron. The presence of pyrite and pyrrhotite in metals contained in them; the purified ferric oxide may then be Magnetite Fe Pigment sulphide ores is undesirable and usually methods have to be found to remove them [2]. Zircon Zr Refractories is a source of titanium as well as iron. Although Beryl Be Gemstone titanium minerals are used for producing titanium metal, yet 99% of the tonnage is used for TiO pigment manufacture. Furthermore, Refractory Ore with a high aluminium oxide (the sum Cr O and 2 2 3 ilmenite reserves are far larger than those of rutile; ilmenite Al O is more than 59%) would be suitable for the manufacture 2 3 supplies about 85% of the world demand and retile the remaining of refractoriness. Chemical Low-grade chromites, that are those 15%. with high iron content, are mainly used for the manufacture of dichromatic needed for the electroplating and tanning industry While dolomite, (Mg,Ca)CO3, is used for producing metallic Table 2. magnesium and to some extent as a refractory, magnetite, MgCO3, is Table 2: Classification of chromite ores. mineral. One reason for that is that MgO prepared from magnetite used mainly as a refractory: hence it is classified as a non-metallic has a higher melting point than (Mg, Ca)O prepared from dolomite Grade Specifications Use hence more suitable as a refractory.

68% Cr minimum Metallic Production of ferrochrome alloy Metallurgical or chromium metal Table 4: Gives a list of the most important metallic minerals Cr/Fe ratio <2.8/1 classified according to chemical composition.

Group Minerals Composition Refractory Cr2O3 + Al2O3 Manufacture of Refractories

≥58% Manufacture of dichromates Gold Au Chemical Low-grade ores for electroplating and tanning industry Silver Ag Table 3: Classification of manganese ores.

Grade Specifications Use Electrum Au-Ag

Manufacture of ferromanganese Platinum Metallurgical >40% Mn Pt, Ir, Os, Ru, Rh, Pd and special manganese alloys metals Native Metals Battery >75% MnO Manufacture of batteries 2 Copper Cu

As oxidizing agent in chemical processes, potassium Awarite FeNi2 Chemical >80% MnO2 permanganate, and other manganese chemicals

Josephinite FeNi3 with high manganese content (minimum 40% Mn) are suitable for Native Manganese ore classified as follows Table 3. Metallurgical Ore Hg the manufacture of ferromanganese and special manganese alloys. mercury

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How to cite this article: Fathi H. Metals from Ores: An Introduction. Aspects Min Miner Sci. 1(1). AMMS.000502. 2017. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2017.01.000502 10 Aspects in Mining & Mineral Science Aspects Min Miner Sci

Beryllium Beryl 3BeO•Al O •6SiO Gibbsite Al(OH)3 2 3 2

Anhydrous Lithium Spodumene Li O•Al O •4SiO Aluminium Böhmite AlOOH 2 2 3 2 Zirconium Zircon ZrSiO Diaspore AlOOH 4

Cesium Pollucite 2Cs2O•2Al2O3•4SiO2•H2O Cu2O

Hydrated Copper Cu3(OH)2•Si4O10•nH2O Tenorite CuO

Copper Nickel Garnierite (Ni,Mg)3(OH)4•Si2O5•nH2O

Malachite CuCO3•Cu(OH)2 Antimony Stibnite Sb2S3

Azurite 2CuCO3•Cu(OH)2 Realgar As4S4

Magnetite Fe3O4 Arsenic Orpiment As2S3

Hematite Fe2O3 Arsenopyrite FeAsS

Iron Ilmenite Fe2O3•nH2O Cobalt Linnæite Co3S4

Goethite FeOOH Chalcocite Cu2S

Oxides, FeCO CuS Hydroxides 3 and Digenite Cu S Magnesium Dolomite (Ca,Mg)CO 9 5 Carbonates 3

Copper Bornite Cu5FeS4 MnO2

Chalcopyrite CuFeS2

Manganese Mn2O3•H2O Cubanite CuFe2S3 Hausmannite Mn O 3 4 Sulfides Enargite Cu3AsS4

Rare Bastnasite LnFCO3 (Ln=lanthanide) Pyrite FeS2

Tin Cassiterite SnO2 Iron Marcasite FeS2

Titanium Rutile TiO2 Pyrrhotite FeS

Lead Galena PbS Pitchblende U3O8 Uranium Mercury Cinnabar HgS Uraninite UO2 Molybdenum Molybdenite MoS Zincite ZnO 2 Nickel (Fe,Ni)S Zinc Hydrozincite ZnCO3•2Zn(OH)2

Silver Argentite Ag2S Smithsonite ZnCO3 Zinc Sphalerite ZnS

Chromium Chromite Cr2O3•FeO Monazite LnPO4 Nb O •(Fe,Mn)O Phosphate Rare earths 2 5 Xenotime LnPO Niobium 4

Pyrochlore Nb2O5•(Ca,Ba)O•NaF Lead Anglesite PbSO4 Complex Sulphate Tantalum Ta 2O5•(Fe,Mn)O Aluminium Alunite KAl (SO ) (OH) Oxides 3 4 2 6

Titanium Ilmenite TiO2•FeO Telluride Gold Calaverite AuTe 2

Arsenide Cobalt Smaltite CoAs Scheelite WO3•CaO 2 Tungsten

Wolframite WO3•FeO according to chemical composition of no technical importance Ln Table 4 Classification of the most important metallic minerals Silicates stands for lanthanide.

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How to cite this article: Fathi H. Metals from Ores: An Introduction. Aspects Min Miner Sci. 1(1). AMMS.000502. 2017. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2017.01.000502 11 Aspects in Mining & Mineral Science Aspects Min Miner Sci

Native metals

Figure 4: Museum samples of native metals. Native mercury of no technical importance.

Table 5: Analysis of telluric and .

Telluric % Meteoric %

Nickel 0.5-4 5–20

Cobalt 0.1–0.4 0.5–0.7

Carbon 0.2–4.5 0.03–0.10

Basalt 5–10 nil

Pyrolusite, MnO 2 Pitchblende, U3O8

Figure 5: Museum samples of common oxide minerals.

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How to cite this article: Fathi H. Metals from Ores: An Introduction. Aspects Min Miner Sci. 1(1). AMMS.000502. 2017. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2017.01.000502 12 Aspects in Mining & Mineral Science Aspects Min Miner Sci

Figure 4 shows museum samples of native metals. Iron also content, usually less than 0.7%. These were extracted from occurs in a rare form of large boulders 20 to 80 tonnes, which may the by the natives by crushing and then cold-hammering the be mistaken for a , but because of its different analysis Table 5 absence of Widmanstätten structure characteristic of groves in bone and use them as [3]. collected metallic particles into coin-sized flakes to insert them into meteoric iron when a piece is polished, etched, and examined by the Oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates optical microscope, it is known as , i.e., terrestrial iron. These comprise the important minerals of aluminium, iron, The major occurrence of telluric iron is in association with magnesium, manganese, rare earths, tin, titanium, and uranium; the of Western . Large boulders are on exhibit those of copper and zinc are of minor importance. Figure 5 shows at the Natural History Museums in Stockholm, Copenhagen, and some common oxide minerals. Complex oxides comprise minerals Helsinki. Telluric iron is found also as small millimetre-sized pea- of chromium, niobium, tantalum, titanium, and tungsten. shaped grains disseminated in the basalt, characterized of their low Table 6: Formation of hydrated silicates.

3KAlSi3 O 8++→ 4 H 2 O 2 CO2 Al 4 ( Si 4 O 10 )( OH ) 8 + 2 K 2 CO 3 + 8 SiO2 orthoclase kaolinite

4MgSiO3++→ H 2 O CO2 Mg 3( Si 4 O 10 )( OH ) 2 + MgCO3 enstatite talc magnesite

4Mg2 SiO 4+→ 6 H 2 O Mg6 ( si 4 O 10 )()2() OH 8 + Mg OH 2 forsterite serpentine brucite

4Mg2 SiO 4++→ 4 H 2 O 2 CO2 Mg6 ( si 4 O 10 )( OH ) 8 + 2 MgCO3 forsterite serpentine magnesite

3KAlSi3 O 8++→ H 2 O CO2 KAl2( AlSi 3 O 10 )( OH ) 2+ K 2 CO 3 + 6 SiO2 orthoclase muscov ite

Silicates: These may be anhydrous and hydrated silicates Table Sulphides: These comprise the most important minerals of antimony, arsenic, cobalt, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, zirconium, while the second group comprise those of caesium, nickel, silver, and zinc. Figure 6 shows some common sulphide 6. The first group comprise minerals of beryllium, lithium, and copper, and nickel. minerals.

Realgar, As4S4 Figure 6: Museum samples of common sulfide minerals.

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How to cite this article: Fathi H. Metals from Ores: An Introduction. Aspects Min Miner Sci. 1(1). AMMS.000502. 2017. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2017.01.000502 13 Aspects in Mining & Mineral Science Aspects Min Miner Sci

Others: Phosphates are mainly the rare earths in the form of Abundant: These are abundant in all geologic environments, monazite sand. Sulphates of lead, gold telluride, and cobalt arsenide used in large amounts, and are relatively cheap. For example, clay, -all are of minor importance. limestone, sand, gravel, and stones. Strictly speaking, some of the members of these groups are not minerals but ores having a Non-metallic and industrial geological name. For example, phosphate rock is neither a rock nor According to their abundance, industrial minerals can be a mineral; it is a geological name for a certain type of formation containing phosphate minerals associated with gangue minerals quantities, in limited areas, used in small quantities, and command a such as calcite, iron oxides, clays, etc. The major classified into three main groups: Rare: These occur in small high price. For example, diamonds, sheet mica, , corundum, of economic value in this type of deposit is apatite, which is precious stones, and the semi-precious stones. Widely available: principally calcium phosphate. Similarly, clay is a geological name These occur in large quantities in few geologic environments, are for a large variety of hydrated aluminium silicate minerals, of which used in appreciable amounts, and command a moderate price. For kaolinite is one. Table 7 gives an alphabetical list of these minerals example asbestos, , phosphate, gypsum, kaolin, potash, salt, and their chemical composition. Industrial minerals can also be diatomite. sulphur, talc, trine, barite, borates, , fluorite, magnetite, and classified according to their use as shown in Table 8. Table 7: Chemical composition of important industrial minerals. Mineral Composition Remarks

Apatite Calcium phosphate Ca10(PO4)6X2 [X is F, Cl, or (OH).] Main mineral in phosphate rock

Asbestos Hydrated magnesium silicate Mg6(Si4O12)(OH)3 Barite Barium sulphate BaSO Filler for pigments 4 In form of long fibres

Betonies A clay mineral (Al,Mg)8(Si4O10)3 (OH)10•12H2O Agglomeration additive

Borax Sodium borate Na2B4O7•10H2O Clays Hydrated aluminium silicates Used in paper making

Cryolite Na3AlF6 Low melting point

Diamond -industrial SodiumCrystalline aluminium carbon fluoride C The hardest mineral Diatomite Hydrated silica Marine fossils, large surface area Feldspar A mineral group K, Al silicates

Fluorspar CaF2 A group of silicates that crystallize Garnet Calcium fluoride MainAbrasives, source gemstones of fluorine in the cubic system Graphite Carbon (crystalline) C

Gypsum Calcium sulphate CaSO4•2H2O

Kaolinite A clay mineral Al4(Si4O10)(OH)8

Limestone Calcium carbonate CaCO3

Magnetite Magnesium carbonate MgCO3

Marble Calcium carbonate CaCO3 crystalline Mica K, Al silicates Nepheline syenite Sodium aluminum silicate

Potash Potassium chloride and carbonate KCl, K2CO3 Fertilizer Porous, light, volcanic rock, large Pumice Silicate surface area

Quartz Silica SiO2 Salt Sodium chloride NaCl

Sand and gravel Silica SiO2 Sulfur Sulfur S

Talc Hydrated magnesium silicate Mg3(Si4O10)(OH)2 Also known as soapstone

Trona Sodium carbonate Na2CO3•NaHCO3•2H2O Vermiculite Hydrated silicates Expands and swells on heating

Zeolite Hydrated alkali alumino silicates Nax(AlO2)x(SiO2)y•nH2O Ion exchanger

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How to cite this article: Fathi H. Metals from Ores: An Introduction. Aspects Min Miner Sci. 1(1). AMMS.000502. 2017. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2017.01.000502 14 Aspects in Mining & Mineral Science Aspects Min Miner Sci

Table 8: Classification of industrial minerals according to their use.

Industry Minerals Used Remarks Corundum

Abrasive Sandstone Diamonds (industrial)

Sand, gravel

Building Limestone Gypsum

Clay Ceramics & Glass Feldspar

Clay Cement

Sulfur Sulphuric acid

Salt Alkali, chlorine

Trona Sodium carbonate

Chemical Gypsum Cement Borax

Fluorite

Zeolite HydrogenWater fluoride treatment and fluorine Diatomite Adsorbent

Phosphate rock

Fertilizer Potash Nitrates Chile is the main supplier

Coal Used to make coke

Lignite

Peat Fuels Natural gas

Petroleum Distilled into many fractions

Tar sands Petroleum

Asbestos Insulation Mica

Diamonds (gem)

Jewellery Amethyst Aqua marine

Quartz (flux) Limestone

Pigment Iron oxides Yellow, red, black Clay Pigment Filler Barite

Clay

Refractories Magnetite Chromite

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How to cite this article: Fathi H. Metals from Ores: An Introduction. Aspects Min Miner Sci. 1(1). AMMS.000502. 2017. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2017.01.000502 15 Aspects in Mining & Mineral Science Aspects Min Miner Sci

Metals from the Sea which contain minerals of these metals. Magnesium is the only metals obtained from sea water. Magnesium is the only metal produced today from sea water. Sea water contains 0.13% magnesium from which magnesium References hydroxide is precipitated and magnesium metal is produced. Dead 1. Habashi F (2003) Metals from ores. An introduction to extractive. Sea on the other hand contains a higher percentage of magnesium. 2. Habashi F (2016) Industrial minerals through the ages. Summary 3. Habashi F (2009) Metals from ores a look to the future. In: Krausz S (Ed.), In Proceedings of the XIII Balkan. Mineral Processing Congress, Metals used in daily life are produced by treatment of ores Romania, pp. 919-924.

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How to cite this article: Fathi H. Metals from Ores: An Introduction. Aspects Min Miner Sci. 1(1). AMMS.000502. 2017. DOI: 10.31031/AMMS.2017.01.000502 16