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Voice in the Poetry of Selected Native American

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Voice in the Poetry of Selected Native American SPEAKING THROUGH THE SILENCE: VOICE IN THE POETRY OF SELECTED NATIVE AMERICAN WOMEN POETS by D’JUANA ANN MONTGOMERY Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Arlington in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT ARLINGTON MAY 2009 Copyright © by D’Juana Ann Montgomery 2009 All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Knowing where to actually begin in acknowledging all of those who have helped make completing this process possible is daunting—there are so many who have contributed in so many ways. Dr. Kenneth Roemer, my dissertation chair, has been an invaluable source of guidance and encouragement throughout the course of my doctoral work. Dr. Tim Morris and Dr. Laurin Porter have also been invaluable in helping me complete the final drafts of this project. I must also acknowledge my English Department colleagues Diane Lewis, Dessita Rury, and Dr. Amy Alexander at Southwestern Assemblies of God University. These wonderful friends have been a continual source of strength and encouragement and have seemingly never tired of listening to me talk about the ups and downs of my project. My heartfelt thanks also goes to Kathy Hilbert, my good friend and colleague from Hill College who has read the drafts of my chapters almost as many times as I have. Finally, and perhaps, most importantly, I must acknowledge the support and sacrifices of my family. My husband Max has always been my biggest supporter; he has never failed to encourage and support me in any way possible. Thanks, Max, for doing all those dishes! My children, Elizabeth and Daniel, have also been supportive, even when my work took me away from spending precious time with them. It is with heartfelt thanks that I say to all: Thanks for riding my rollercoaster! May 15, 2009 iii ABSTRACT SPEAKING THROUGH THE SILENCE: VOICE IN THE POETRY OF SELECTED NATIVE AMERICAN WOMEN POETS The issue of voice in Native American poetry is vital to understanding the culture and traditions of past and present-day Native American people. The voice of Native American women poets/writers has emerged as a strong force; one that has attempted to remain connected to its ancestral heritage while connecting with modern and post-modern culture. The Native American women poets selected for this study include Leslie Marmon Silko, Luci Tapahonso, Joy Harjo, Linda Hogan, and Wendy Rose. These Native American women poets not only raise concerns particular to their Native American culture, but their voices also address issues of importance and concern for all women. The defining parameters of the concept of voice are examined in relation to key issues surrounding the poetry of Native American women poets. For the Native American woman poet, this allows the incorporation of stories, rituals, and ceremonies that are inherently connected to the importance of the historical, authoritative role as culture bearer and also allows the voice of historical witness to iv move out of the realm of mediator into a realm that allows for cultural traditions and values to be incorporated into the lives and stories of contemporary Native Americans, projecting a voice of authenticity and authority. The key issues of authenticity and authority are examined through the voice of intimacy, experience, and historical witness. From a gender perspective, the issues of authenticity and authority are examined through the tribal roles of Native American women as storytellers and culture bearers that emphasize the importance of the woman-line. The poetry of the selected Native American women poets project a commitment to telling the stories “the way they must be told” from a woman’s perspective, creating a bridge between the past and present. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. iv Chapter Page 1. BREAKING THROUGH THE SILENCE: EMERGING VOICES……… ................................................................. 1 1.1 The Power of the Spoken Word.............................................................. 1 1.2 Voice and Its Function............................................................................ 2 1.3 Characteristics of Voice.......................................................................... 4 1.4 Cultural Constructs of Voice………………………………………….. 11 1.5 Selected Poets of Influence…………………………………………….. 19 1.6 Significant Publications……………………………………………….. 22 1.7 Project Overview………………………………………………………. 27 2. TELLING THE STORIES: THE VOICE OF THE STORYTELLER....................................................................... 37 3. SPEAKING FROM THE MARGINS: THE VOICE OF IDENTITY................................................................... 73 4. SPEAKING FOR THE PAST: THE VOICE OF PROTEST……….. ............................................................................ 113 5. SPEAKING THROUGH THE SILENCE: HEARING THE VOICE OF WOMEN…………………………………………….. 150 6. SPEAKING FOR THE GENERATIONS: VOICES IN CONTEXT…………………………………………………………. 192 vi NOTES…………………………………………………………………………. 210 REFERENCES..………………………………………………………………… 211 BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION…………………………………………… 223 vii CHAPTER 1 BREAKING THROUGH THE SILENCE: EMERGING VOICES 1.1 The Power of the Spoken Word The concept of voice in Native American poetry is a complex one, and while it is present in virtually every literary work, for many Native American texts, voice is a concept of utmost importance. It is tied not only to the message of the poem, but also to the language of the poem. Words are very powerful; they are believed, especially in oral traditions, to carry the power to make things happen. Even though oral traditions are based upon the spoken word, they encompass much more, tending to be all inclusive, and thereby becoming the consciousness of the people because they involve all levels of the personal and cultural strata. According to N. Scott Momaday, the attitude toward language is one of the “common denominators” of oral traditions. Momaday states that “ ‘a word has power in and of itself. It comes from nothing into sound and meaning; it gives origin to all things’” (qtd. in Evers 300). Momaday further states that “it is only through words that a man is able to express his relation to place . it is only through shared words or ritual that symbolic landscapes are able to exist . without them there would be no community” (qtd. in Evers 300). In his touchstone piece, “The Man Made of Words,” Momaday posits that language is “who we are,” 1 stating that “in a certain sense we are all made out of words” and that “our essential being consists of language,” becoming “the element in which we think and dream and act” (82). He tells the story of a Kiowa arrow-maker sitting in his tipi with his wife, making arrows and straightening them with his teeth. The man notices movement outside the tipi, but he calmly continues to work. The man mentions the presence of a stranger to his wife and suggests they act as if nothing is wrong. He continues to work on the arrows and draws one as if to test it. As he aims the arrow at various places in the tipi, he tells the stranger, in the Kiowa language, to speak his name and be welcomed as a friend. When the stranger remains silent, the arrow-maker releases the arrow and kills his enemy. Thus, words, or the lack of them, are seen to have both creative and destructive qualities. In the case of the arrow-maker, the story is about language. Momaday suggests “the principle fact is that he [the arrow-maker] speaks, and in so doing he places his very life in the balance” (108). Kenneth Lincoln concurs, stating that “words are penetrant as arrows, the finest shafts bearing marks from the mouths that shape them. A well-chosen word, like a well-made arrow, pierces the heart” ( Native American Renaissance 44). Words, then, also have the power to define and to anchor people, a culture, a community, a gender, and an individual in a myriad of ways, incorporating both traditional and non-traditional methods. 1.2 Voice and Its Function Addressing the issue of voice in Native American poetry is vital to understanding the culture and traditions of past and present-day Native American 2 people. This project will seek to show how the Native American voice, particularly the voice of selected Native American women poets, has attempted to remain connected to its ancestral heritage while connecting with a modern and post-modern culture. Even though this study will focus on the variations of voice within the context of Native American women poets, it will illustrate that Native American women not only raise concerns particular to their Native American culture, but their voice also addresses issues of importance and concern to all women. The idea that it is not necessarily the techniques that make poetry specific to an ethnic group, but rather how those techniques are applied will also be addressed. While issues that have already been addressed in some manner may be examined, the focus will be narrowed from a generalized to a specific discussion of the variations of voice and how those variations are specific to Native American women poets. The issues raised through the voice of first-person (as well as third-person) narrators are central to understanding the authorial stance found in much Native American literature that draws upon oral storytelling traditions to
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