Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Karin Nestesovä

The African American Family and Its Portrayal in American Sitcoms: A Comparative Analysis of Black-ish and The Cosby Show Bachelors Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Jeffrey Alan Vanderziel, B.A.

2020 / declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

Author's signature I would like to thank my supervisor Jeffrey Alan Vanderziel, B. A. for his time and valuable advice he provided me during the writing of this thesis. Table of Contents

Introduction - 5 -

1. The African American Family Structure - 9 -

2. Features of the African American Family -19 -

Parenting Strategies and Relationships in the Family - 20 -

Racial socialization - 23 -

Cultural Maintenance - 26 -

The Black Church - 27 -

3. African American Families on American Television - 30 -

Stereotypes and Stereotypical Portrayals - 31 -

An Overview of African American Families on Television - 35 -

4. Analysis of Selected Motifs in The Cosby Show and Black-ish - 44 -

Methodology - 44 -

Race and Racial Issues - 45 -

Racial Socialization - 54 -

The Black Church and Religiousness - 57 -

The Extended Family and the Black Community - 59 -

Conclusion - 63 -

Works Cited - 66 -

Summary - 76 -

Resume - 77 - Introduction

African Americans are an ethnic group which has faced oppression and racism alongside racial prejudice for centuries in the United States. Although the social status and the position of African Americans in American society have improved significantly in the years after the end of segregation, the stereotypes, racism, and prejudice towards this ethnic group persist even today. The African Americans and the African American family have been portrayed in a stereotypical manner and their media representations have been oftentimes racially prejudiced. However, the portrayal of African Americans on television has been improving in the last decades and the main objective aims at demonstrating how has the portrayal of a black family and racial issues in American sitcoms changed over the last thirty years. This thesis aims to demonstrate a positive shift in the representation of a black family in American sitcoms based on the analysis of selected themes related to the African American family in two selected sitcoms, namely The Cosby Show and Black-ish. These two sitcoms, which were created thirty years apart, provide a framework for the analysis of the representation of different themes related to the African American family. The main focus is put on the topic of race and racial issues, racial socialization, the black church and the extended family. The themes are analysed individually in each sitcom and episodes relevant to the themes demonstrate how each sitcom deals with the selected topics and portrayal of a black family.

In order to provide a comprehensive image, the first three chapters provide a theoretical framework regarding the African American family and its representation in

American sitcoms. The first chapter deals with the structure of the African American family.

It traces the origin of the structure in Africa and provides an overview of its development in the New World. The chapter further illustrates different structures and various patterns of residence of the family. The subject of a marriage of black people in Africa, during slavery

-5- and in the modern era is also discussed. The concept of fictive kin and the importance of the extended family and the black community is likewise presented in the first chapter. These concepts are discussed in relation to slavery and the history of the black family in the United

States.

The second chapter regards the functions of the African American family. This chapter discusses the primary functions of the family and the socialization of children. The chapter is divided into four subchapters. The first subchapter discusses the variety of parenting strategies that African American parents use in their children's upbringing. It also briefly discusses the relationships and bonds and their significance for the African American family. The term racial socialization is defined in the second subchapter. The importance that racial socialization has for African American children is likewise mentioned in this subchapter. The third subchapter is connected to the racial socialization; it characterizes the term cultural maintenance and its significance for the African Americans as a minority. The last subchapter is dedicated to the concept of the black church, its history and meaning for the black community. The functions of the black church are also concisely mentioned in this subchapter.

The third chapter examines the influence of different television portrayals of African

Americans on African American children. It also presents several studies of the African

American television portrayals and the perception of them by various groups of people.

Namely, the Fujioka's study of Japanese international and white students' perception of stereotypes used in the portrayal of African Americans on television and Punyanunt-Carter study of undergraduate students' perception of African American portrayal are discussed.

This chapter is divided into two subchapters. The first subchapter defines the term stereotype and examines different types of stereotypes used in the portrayals of African

Americans. The main medium for the propagation of stereotypes about African Americans

-6- and African American family in the 20th and 21st century has been television. Television can, in some situations, serve as the only source of information about African Americans, mainly to people who have never come into direct contact with this ethnic group. The influence and consequences of the stereotypes, both positive and negative, used in the portrayal are explained in this subchapter as well. The stereotypes are important to consider because they can alter both the majority's perception of African Americans, as well as the self-perception of the minority. Moreover, the perpetuation of stereotypes in media can affect the lives of

African Americans and strengthen the racist attitudes towards them, as well as their low social position in American society. The second subchapter provides an overview of the progression of the portrayal and representation of African American family on American television, namely in the genre of a situation comedy. It provides a timeline of different portrayals, as well as examples of the most influential sitcoms about a black family from different decades of American television. The sitcoms Amos 'n' Andy, Julia, Good Times, The Jeffersons, The

Cosby Show and Black-ish are discussed in greater detail in this subchapter. In examining the sitcoms, the stereotypes and family portrayals are likewise considered.

The final chapter includes the analysis of the selected themes in The Cosby

Show and Black-ish. The chapter is divided into five subchapters. The first chapter discusses the methodology used in the analysis of the selected sitcoms and themes that appear in them.

The sitcoms were selected on the basis of the year they were created, and the social-economic status of the African American family presented in the sitcom. The thirty-year difference between the pilot episodes of the two sitcoms provides an adequate span for evaluation of a positive shift in the representation of African American families. Both of the sitcoms' families are upper-middle-class and both of the sitcoms were created by an African American, which was another basis for the selection of these particular sitcoms. Each of the ensuing subchapters deals with individual themes related to the African American family, the analysis

-7 - of the themes in selected episodes and their representation in individual sitcoms. The findings are concluded at the end of each subchapter, where the differences between the representation of the selected themes in the particular sitcoms are discussed as well. The results are deduced by comparison of the two selected sitcoms and the discussed themes.

- 8 - 1. The African American Family Structure

The term African American family in the context of this thesis is used to denote the descendants of African slaves or other people who came from Africa to the American continent, more precisely the United States of America, and who established their families in the New World. The terms African American family and black family are used interchangeably in the context of this thesis. The institution of the family is a very important aspect of African American life and the black community. As Harriette McAdoo notes,

"[F]amily, as a basic unit of universal human community, is the essential focus from which core human and cultural values are transmitted and cultivated" (8). The family is essential to human development because it provides its members with love, support, protection, and it is usually in the family that people learn moral, cultural, and societal values. According to

Andrew Billingsley:

[African American family is] an intimate association of persons of African descent who

are related to one another by a variety of means, including blood, marriage, formal

adoption, informal adoption, or by appropriation; sustained by a history of common

residence in America; and deeply embedded in a network of social structures both

internal to and external to itself. (Jacob's Ladder 28)

The African American family helps to strengthen the ties between African Americans and their African ancestry, and it helps to keep the African Americans close as a community. It is a primer institution for socialization, cultural maintenance, and support.

African American family structure was not created randomly without any purpose; on the contrary, its creation was conditioned by societal problems and issues that the African

American community has faced in daily life. Billingsley notes that the structure of the African

American family "is an adaptive strategy for meeting the basic needs of its members given the

-9- situation they face in contemporary society" (Jacob's Ladder 35). Therefore, the formation of the African American family is influenced by external factors which cannot be controlled by the African American minority. Such factors are racism, oppression, and high rate of unemployment.

Regarding African Americans, people who constitute a family unit do not have to share the same household, the only important thing is that they have a history of common residence with a member of the family and therefore people who live in different households can still be considered a part of the same kinship (Billingsley, Jacob's Ladder 32). Just like any other family, the African American family has various structures. Billingsley notes, "The three, major structures that have emerged—nuclear families, extended families, and augmented families—have given rise to twelve different subtypes, depending on gender and marital status of family heads, and the presence or absence of children, other relatives, or nonrelatives" (Jacob's Ladder 32). Nuclear families are families which include only primary members—a married couple with no children, a married couple with children, an unmarried mother with children or unmarried father with children—extended families include primary members plus other relatives and augmented families include primary members plus nonrelatives (Billingsley, Jacob's Ladder 32). The extended family is an important element of

African American family structure because it enforces the notion of African American community and it provides additional support beyond the one of the nuclear family. As

McAdoo notes, "Extended family in the U.S. African American community consists of conjugal relations, blood relatives, and nonrelated persons. The prevalence of extended families is contended to be yet another cultural pattern that distinguishes African American from European American families in the United States" (60). Moreover, Hecht et al. suggest a further description of the family structures proposed by Billingsley:

- 10- Primary families include nuclear, simple nuclear, and attenuated nuclear families. A

nuclear family is one with two married adults but no children. A simple nuclear family

refers to the popular conception of family with two adults and their child (ren). An

attenuated nuclear family is one with a single parent present as the sole provider for

children who live in the household. An extended family includes married couples with

no biological children who serve as surrogate parents or caregivers for a niece, nephew,

cousin, or some other relative. Extended families also are comprised of existing simple

nuclear or attenuated nuclear families with additional cohabitating relatives. The final

family type is the augmented family, which includes nonrelated persons such as

roomers, boarders, or long-term guests who live with a primary or the extended family.

(191-192, emphasis in original)

The contemporary African American family structure is a blend of the African family tradition and the family structure that developed in the New World during and after slavery.

The African American family has a long tradition which stems from the African continent.

Furthermore, the African heritage of the ancestors of African slaves played an important role in the development of African American families. Thus, given the long tradition of African family structure, it can be considered the basis for the formation of African American family structure and African American communities in the United States. McAdoo points out,

"African family structure' . . . refers to those organizational principles and patterns common to the different ethnic groups whose members were enslaved in America" (32). The African slaves, who were the ancestors of most of the African Americans living in the United States, were primarily taken away from the western part of the African continent. "It is generally recognized that the ports from which slaves were shipped were preponderantly those along the western coast, and that south and east African points of shipment were rare" (Herskovits 33).

In other words, the contemporary families of African Americans are based on the family

- 11 - structures of the societies living in Western Africa. Billingsley describes traditional African family life as follows:

The most striking feature of African family and community life was the strong and

dominant place in family and society assigned to and assumed by the men. This strong,

masculine dominance, however, far from being capricious authoritarianism, was

supported, guided, and limited by custom and tradition, which also provided a

substantial role for the women. (Black Families 40)

To put it in another way, Billingsley's description suggests that the pre-slavery African family life was primarily patriarchal, and the family was dominated by a male authority. That further suggests that women had limited power, their role in the family was fixed and subordinate to men's and the impact of their authority in the family life was restricted. However, McAdoo argues that "even though women were subordinate in their roles as wife, as mother, and sister, they wielded considerable authority, power, and influence" (35). Therefore, the African family structure was not completely patriarchal with the only authority being male, but it was a structure where both women and men held separate but significant roles in the family.

Moreover, Billingsley believes that the pre-slavery African life was mainly based on strong community ties: "The children were provided a quality of care and protection not common in modern societies, for they belonged not alone to their father and mother, but also, and principally, to the wider kinship group" (Black Families 40). The notion that African family was founded on the principles of community is further reinforced by McAdoo who agrees,

"[S]ome features of kinship organization were almost universal lineages: large coresident domestic groups, especially in the form of extended families living together in compounds; and polygynous marriages" (32). Hence, the community played an important part in the family life of Africans in the pre-slavery era and consequently, it is an important element of

African American family. Blackwell believes that "the black community can be perceived as a - 12- social system. Within the community value consensus and congruence exist; a significant segment of its constituents share norms, sentiments, and expectations . . . Even though diversity exists within the community, its members are held together by adherence to commonly shared values and goals" (14). To put it in another way, the community is an important aspect of the African American life because it helps to endorse the values and traditions related to African American history and culture, as well as it provides a sense of unity. Moreover, another integral part of the African family and consequently of the black community was an extended family. The extended family is an element of the family structure which was preserved in the life of African Americans even in the New World after the enslavement of black people. McAdoo claims that "[t]he extended family networks that were formed during slavery by Africans and their descendants were based on the institutional heritage brought from home, and the specific forms these families took reflected the influence of European-derived institutions as well as the political and economic circumstances in which the enslaved population found itself" (38). In short, the African American family life during slavery carried elements of both African family structure as well as elements of European family life. An institution which was integral to European family structure was marriage.

However, African marriage was perceived and fashioned in a different way than its European counterpart. Marriage in African societies was partially a ceremonial economic transaction between the groom and the bride's parents, which could have been initiated either by two consenting partners or by the parents and the kin (Billingsley, Black Families 41). Thus,

African marriage did not affect only two individuals but a whole kinfolk. Therefore, it can be considered a union between groups of people rather than a union between a wife and a husband. After the marriage, the newly married couple followed various patterns of residence, but they rarely created their own, new household and instead, they usually joined the already existing household of either partner's kin (Billingsley, Black Families 42). Thus, the most

- 13- common residential pattern in Africa was a "unilocal" pattern, in which one partner usually left his or her home to live with the family of his or her spouse (Billingsley, Black Families

42).

Furthermore, the unilocal residential pattern has three varieties: matrilocal residence, avunculocal residence and patrilocal residential pattern, of which the avunculocal and patrilocal residence were the most common in western Africa (Billingsley, Black Families

42). Billingsley describes the avunculocal residence as follows:

[T]he wife left her home to live with her husband who lived, not in the household of his

parents, but in that of his maternal uncle. This happened most in those matrilineal

societies where the man had already left home at the time of adolescence and gone to

live with or near his maternal uncle, who was primarily responsible for him. (Black

Families 42)

The idea that marriage involves two sets of kinfolks—that of the wife and that of the husband—is still present in the contemporary African American society. Even though the tradition of marriage being a union between two groups rather than two individuals is still alive, the couple no longer asks parents for permission to marry although their family still needs to show support of the union otherwise the marriage would be instable (Billingsley,

Jacob's Ladder 28-29). Furthermore, the sense of community and the tradition of a close extended family is an integral part of contemporary African American marriage as much as it was an integral part of the African one. Billingsley emphasizes, "[T]he relationship between members of the two families is often so close that even after divorce of a couple, one member will continue close relations with the family of the former spouse" (Jacob's Ladder 29). In other words, the conjugality and the ensuing relationships associated with marriage are an important aspect of African American family structure and households.

- 14- Moreover, the marriage in the African societies was usually monogamous or polygynous, although polygyny was not a dominant form of marriage in West Africa and the household composition was either nuclear or extended (Billingsley, Black Families 42-43).

The structure of the extended African families was different from the traditional western perception of the term. The extended African family consisted of conjugally based family units which were composed of several parents and children and in which the children regarded themselves as brothers and sisters and correspondingly the adults were responsible for their nephews and nieces the same way they were responsible for their own offspring

(McAdoo 32). Therefore, the African family structure was based more on the principles of community, where the parent-child relationships exist between various adults and children regardless of their blood relations. This is the main difference between the African extended family and European extended family.

Even after being taken away from their homeland, Africa, the enslaved black people were able to maintain their family values and structure in the New World. However, the structure was partially adapted to the new conditions that the slaves encountered on the

American continent. As McAdoo notes, "[A]mong African Americans, the concept of 'family' meant first and foremost relationships created by blood rather than by marriage . . . Children were socialized to think in terms of obligations to parents (especially mothers), siblings, and others defined as 'close kin'" (42-43). In addition to close kin, the African American family includes an element called fictive kin. This concept of fictive kin further reinforces the notion of the importance of community in the African American society because it proposes an idea of other members of a family who are related neither by blood nor by marital ties but who act like relatives nevertheless (Billingsley, Jacob's Ladder 31). They can offer the same support and assistance like the members of the family who are blood-related or who are connected by marriage. The fictive kin are also part of the black community and the relationships in it.

- 15- Nonetheless, even though the enslaved Africans maintained some elements of the

African family structure, the structure of the black family also evolved during slavery. During this time, the family life of African Americans dependent mostly on the white masters. As

Billingsley writes, "The Negro family existed during slavery in the United States, but it was a most precarious existence, dependent wholly on the economic and personal interests of the white man, and the grim determination and bravery of the black man" (Black Families 65).

Thus, the white masters had complete control over the family life of the African Americans during slavery, mainly because a union between two slaves had an economic prospect for the master. McAdoo notes that "[the slaves] married early and, if necessary, frequently—usually with the encouragement of the owner, especially if the prospects were bright for numerous offspring, which, of course, were additional capital for him" (4). Although the slaves could not marry legally, they created illegal unions. The enforcement of the importance of marriage was one of the ways the Europeans influenced the family structure of the black family. As

McAdoo writes, "[T]he Euro-American emphasis on the primacy of marriage reinforced conjugality among African Americans, even though 'legal' marriage between enslaved blacks was prohibited" (40-41). Hence, the Christian values of the European masters influenced enslaved black people in terms of conjugality whereas at the same time the institution of slavery did not allow slaves to enter a legal marriage. Nevertheless, the family continued to be important to the enslaved people even though it was not a completely free institution during slavery. Besides, the inability to marry legally in slavery was also one of the reasons why the extended family was so significant in the lives of slaves. It was mostly the extended family that provided the support, protection and other emotional qualities of a family. To name a few reasons of family importance to the slaves, McAdoo notes that "the family was important to the slave community, if for no other reason than the lack of other institutions to which slaves could openly be committed. In the quiet and intimacy of the family, slaves could provide the

- 16- mutual support so necessary to withstand the abuses and cruelties of slavery" (4). Thus, the family provided the slaves with emotional support and a sense of commitment which helped them endure the difficult life in slavery.

After slavery, the structure of the African American family was stable, mostly nuclear, with the children living with their parents until adulthood (Billingsley, Jacob's Ladder 36).

However, throughout the years the traditional nuclear family consisting of both parents has been declining. Billingsley reports that "[a]s late as 1960 ... 78 percent of all black families with children were headed by married couples. This declined steadily to a minority of 48 percent by 1980; and to 39 percent by 1990" (Jacob's Ladder 36). Even though the traditional nuclear family has been on the decline, the female-headed single-parent family, on the contrary, has been rising steadily. As Billingsley notes, "Consisting of a minority of 20 percent of families with children in 1960, this family form had increased to 33 percent by

1970, to 49 percent by 1980, and to a whopping 57 percent by 1990" (Jacob's Ladder 36-37).

These findings suggest a change in the family structure from the extended family form, where several generations of the family live together, which was a traditional family form in African communities as well as in enslaved communities in America, to single-parent nuclear families. This shift suggests, on one hand, a decline in African Americans' aspiration to marry and on the other hand a rise in divorces or separations of parents. However, marriage is not the only thing defining a family and as was previously mentioned, the sense of community is an important aspect of the African American family. Nevertheless, even though the single- parent family consisting of a mother and children is very prevalent, the extended family still plays an important role in the life of African Americans. As McAdoo notes, "Out of necessity, these women depend on the extended family to help rear their children" (98). Therefore, even though the traditional extended family, where several generations live together in one

- 17- household, is not the principal family structure of African Americans, it continues to still be an important element of contemporary African American families.

- 18- 2. Features of the African American Family

The family serves many functions in the life of an individual. A properly working family provides its members with emotional and economic support. Furthermore, it helps protect its members and prepare children for adulthood in society. Talcott Parsons and Robert

Bales suggest that there are two main functions of a family, "First, the primary socialization of children so that they can truly become members of the society into which they have been born; second, the stabilization of the adult personalities of the population of the society" (16).

In other words, the family's main functions are, firstly, to provide children with such means so that they will grow up to be a functioning part of the society, and secondly, to prepare them for adult life in the society in such a way that would prevent them from behaving difunctionally and that would teach them to conform to social norms. Parsons and Bales further argue, "A primary function and characteristic of the family is that it should be a social group in which in the earliest stages the child can 'invest' all of his emotional resources, to which he can become overwhelmingly 'committed' or on which he can become fully

'dependent'" (19, emphasis in original). Thus, the emotional aspect of the family functions is essential in the upbringing of the children. However, the child's dependency on the family must be transitory and therefore, another important function of the family is to help the children with its emancipation from his or her dependency on the family in due time, usually after reaching adulthood (Parsons and Bales 19). The black family differs from those of other ethnicities. The most important characteristics of black families are strong kinship bonds, strong work orientation, adaptability of family roles, strong achievement orientation and strong religious orientation which all were adaptations to life in the racially oppressed environment and therefore they can be considered strengths of African American families

(Robert Bernard Hill 4). The family's primary function and responsibility is the socialization process of the children. "For parents, the general goal of the socialization process is to make

- 19- children familiar with statuses, social roles, and prescribed behaviour. In addition, part of this process should be to prepare them to recognize their position within the larger social structure" (Thornton 201). In other words, the parent's main goal is to raise their children to be able to recognize their position in the wider society and to function in society accordingly.

The socialization of children is not one dimensional but consists of different aspects.

According to Baldwin:

Socialization of any behaviour takes place in a sequence of phases consisting of (1)

permissiveness, (2) establishing a strong basis of love through support by the warmth of

the socialization agent, (3) the introduction and presentation of adult norms, and (4)

rewards and punishments to bring the child into conformity with adult norms. (517,

emphasis in original)

Hence, the socialization process includes both an emotional aspect as well as a level of discipline. The primary goal of the socialization process is to learn societal roles and norms and consequently prepare the child to adulthood in society.

Parenting Strategies and Relationships in the Family

The family is the primer institution that teaches the children social roles, relations, and norms for the children to be able to function in the society. However, other institutions influence the way children socialize as well. For instance, Toliver states, "There are numerous other socializing agents (schools, neighbourhood, siblings, peers, media) responsible for individual development to adulthood, and many of these are, to a great extent, beyond the parents' control" (125). Nevertheless, the parents and their parenting techniques play an essential role in the development of children. The parenting strategies of African American parents tend to differ from those of other ethnicities, especially those of white families.

McAdoo believes that "African American parents tend to be stricter and require a higher level

-20- of responsibility for self-help and for coping with racism and negative stereotypes than other groups of parents do" (165). Since African American parents tend to have an experience of racial discrimination, the topic of race is one of the most discussed among the African

American families. The parent-child discussion of race and the issues related to it is called racial socialization and it is discussed in greater detail in the next subchapter.

Moreover, the parenting techniques of African American parents rely heavily on discipline and responsibility. African American parents' approaches to the discipline of their children, often described as "harsh," "rigid," "no-nonsense," are distinct and peculiar

(Chilman; Peters; Young qtd. in McAdoo 209). Furthermore, black parents often use various discipline strategies to maintain or reinforce their parental authority and instil in their children responsibility. The most common discipline methods include physical punishment and loss of privileges, although most parents try to use reason, logic, and communication in a place of physical punishment (Shirley A. Hill, African American Children 68). "Having children obey and be respectful is an important cultural value among blacks, where respect for the elderly is emphasized and is reinforced by traditional religious ideologies that teach the subordination of children and advocate the use of physical punishment" (Shirley A. Hill, African American

Children 156). In other words, responsibility and respect towards the elderly are essential features of parent-child socialization in the African American family. Another noteworthy aspect of the parent-child relationship in the black family is the prominence of parental authority. "The emphasis on obedience and respect ties in with the greater tendency among blacks than whites to view being a disciplinarian as their most important role" (Shirley A.

Hill, African American Children 156).

The black family does not emphasise gender in the socialization process. McAdoo claims, "Children's behaviours are viewed more in terms of the child's competence and age than in terms of the child's gender" (209-210). Furthermore, the African American family is -21 - more based on gender equality and children are socialized the same regardless of their gender.

Hill agrees, "Gender neutrality in child socialization is sometimes viewed as the norm among

African Americans" (Shirley A. Hill, African American Children 158). Moreover, Hecht et al. claim, "Gender communication and expectations of siblings in African American families emphasize role flexibility, responsibility for maintaining close kinship bonds, and resilience"

(200). In other words, the gender of the child is not an important aspect of socialization in the

African American family. Conversely, everyone is expected to maintain a level of flexibility in their family roles and consequently, the children are taught that the gender roles are not rigid. The emphasis on equally divided tasks among the family members is also essential in the black family and therefore, the tasks are not divided by gender or age. "Adult and adolescent family members share the workload in the home and have been socialized to see shared division of labor as ordinary, rather than unfair or burdensome as in some European

American households" (Taylor et al. qtd. in Hecht et al. 200). Thus, the crucial aspect of the upbringing in the African American family is the emphasis of helping around the house equally, maintaining strong family ties and role flexibility. Hecht et al. emphasise:

With increased role flexibility and household chores for children often comes increased

accountability. That accountability typically leads to a greater responsibility even in

caregiving as exemplified when older siblings participate in babysitting, younger sibling

bed-time preparation, and sometimes in overall household decision-making. (200-201)

Thus, African American children learn to be responsible and accountable from an early age which results in early mental maturity. Hecht et al. claim that "[the increased accountability] is partly done to instill independence, maturity, and resilience, which are characteristics that are essential for African American youths in low-income urban neighborhoods" (201).

-22- Racial socialization

"Black Americans live in a unique but mundane extreme environment of subtle to overt racism" (Pierce qtd. in McAdoo 212). This kind of hostile environment influences the way black parents socialize and raise their children. Nobles et al. found in their study that the preparation of African American children by their parents to racial bias and racism in the white society is an integral part of socialization in African American family (qtd. in McAdoo

74). This kind of socialization is called racial socialization and it prepares the African

American children for life in a racially unequal environment where racial bias, discrimination based on skin colour and racism are common. McAdoo agrees, "In fact, the unique child- rearing techniques found in African American families seem to be geared to prepare children for a particular kind of existence in a hostile racist environment. Children are in effect prepared to take on appropriate sex and age roles as well as the racial role" (74). To put it in another way, African American children, in contrast to white children, need to learn not only their gender role but their racial role as well in order to be able to function in racially biased society. According to Hughes et al., "The terms racial socialization and ethnic socialization are each used broadly to refer to the transmission from adults to children of information regarding race and ethnicity" ("Parents' Practices" 748, emphasis in original). The information is transmitted in order to help the children assimilate into the predominantly white society and at the same time to reinforce black pride and stronger cultural feeling in the

African American children. Taylor et al. believe that racial socialization is "[the parents'] attempt to prepare their children for the realities of being black in America" (994). It is a way by which African American parents try to make their children's lives in a racially biased society easier. Racial socialization is usually transmitted by various messages. Lesane-Brown proposes:

-23- [R]ace socialization is defined as specific verbal and non-verbal messages transmitted to

younger generations for the development of values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs

regarding the meaning and significance of race and racial stratification, intergroup and

intragroup interactions, and personal and group identity. (400)

The socialization messages used by the parents are numerous and they differ from family to family. McAdoo believes that the messages involve "racial pride, racial barriers, egalitarian perspectives, and self-development" (126). The content of the messages themselves can be either race-specific or non-race-specific (Smith et al. qtd. in McAdoo 126). The race-specific messages are those that highlight the importance of black culture and history and that reinforce in the child racial pride, but the race-specific messages can also deal with racism, racial prejudice or white privilege (McAdoo 126). Non-race-specific messages are those that are egalitarian and that motivate the children to get better at things that are not related to race, for example, academic success, hard work and equality (McAdoo 126). To put it another way, the race-specific messages are messages that directly deal with one's race, culture and ethnicity, while the non-race-specific messages' content deals with topics that are related to one's ability not directly influenced by race. The cultural socialization is connected to the children's race or ethnicity and thus, it is supposed to teach the children their ethnic heritage, customs and traditions connected to it and it should help promote ethnic pride (Hughes et al.,

"Parents' Practices" 749). The racial socialization can be accomplished through various approaches. "Examples include talking about important historical or cultural figures; exposing children to culturally relevant books, artifacts, music, and stories; celebrating cultural holidays; eating ethnic foods; and encouraging children to use their family's native language"

(Hughes et al., "Parents' Practices" 749). All of the mentioned examples help to impart the

African Americans with their culture and heritage as well as the history and the importance of their community in the United States. "Moreover, any particular ethnic socialization message

-24- is multi-layered and can be characterized in terms of the content of the message, the mechanism of transmission, and the beliefs and goals underlying it. Multiple socialization themes and multiple underlying goals can coexist within any particular instance of socialization" (Hughes et al., "How to Catch" 228). In other words, ethnic or racial socialisation varies from family to family and it can have multiple forms and intentions.

Parents can emphasise various themes through racial socialization. According to Hughes et al:

the most common themes to have emerged to date include an emphasis on cultural

knowledge, history, and traditions (which we term cultural socialization ), discussions

about stereotypes, racial bias and discrimination (which we term preparation for bias ),

an emphasis on the value of diversity and equal treatment across groups (which we term

egalitarianism ), and messages that emphasize the need for wariness and mistrust of

other groups (which we term promotion of mistrust). ("How to Catch" 229, emphasis in

original)

The racial pride is important for African Americans in order to be able to function in a racially biased society where they frequently encounter discrimination based on the colour of their skin. Hill argues, "Historic and contemporary racism has been the major force in shaping the child socialization patterns in African American families" (Shirley A. Hill, Class Race Gender

495). Racial socialization is closely connected to maintaining one's culture, traditions and cultural heritage. Regarding African American parents, Hughes et al. believe that "[w]hile they themselves hold close the traditions, beliefs, values, and folkways that constitute their cultural roots, they do so with the knowledge that their children may not embrace them, as they often vary from those of the dominant culture and may not be legitimized or affirmed"

("How to Catch" 226). In short, even though the United States is a culturally diverse country, according to 2019 census, 76.5% of the American population is white (U.S. Census Bureau). -25- Thus, the dominant culture is white and therefore it is important for ethnic minorities, for example, African Americans, to pass their culture on to their children. The main concepts of racial socialization according to Hughes et al. are "exposure to cultural practices and objects, efforts to instill pride in and knowledge about African Americans, discussions about discrimination and how to cope with it, and strategies for succeeding in mainstream society"

("Parents' Practices" 748). Thus, the most important ways of socializing African American children racially are through teaching the children about their heritage and culture and therefore cultural maintenance is an important part of the socialization process.

Cultural Maintenance

Racial socialization is closely related to another term regarding one's race, ethnicity, and culture and that is cultural maintenance. Cultural maintenance is an important aspect of socialization in the African American family as it helps the African American children to create and maintain a connection with their African heritage. Furthermore, it helps the transmission of a minority's culture from generation to generation in a society where the dominant culture is that of another ethnicity. "Culture is commonly viewed as a system of shared actions, values, and beliefs that guides the behavior of group members" (Gibson and

McRoy 237). Therefore, it is important for the minority to preserve its culture in order to maintain its integrity in the majority society. Cultural maintenance is a way for the African

American family to appreciate its culture and incorporate it into the family life and the life of the community (Gibson and McRoy 238). It is expressed in various ways, for example by language. Gibson and McRoy believe that "[cultural maintenance] is implied in terms and phrases such as 'brother,' 'sister,' 'African American tradition,' 'black people,' or 'black culture'" (238). Besides, one's culture can be expressed through behaviour, language, dance, clothes, music or art. Cultural maintenance is a dynamic process that can be conveyed in many ways, and thus, each family has its unique ways of expressing it (Gibson and McRoy

-26- 239). In addition, there are factors that influence the way the family expresses cultural maintenance. According to Gibson and McRoy, there are two types of factors, internal and external:

Internal factors are the family's level of personal connection to its cultural heritage and

how that connection is expressed. External factors reflect how others in families'

environments interpret their culture and respond to the members, including the

theoretical assumptions they use to explain and understand cultural maintenance within

African American families and communities. (239)

To put it bluntly, the way a family conveys cultural maintenance is affected both by the degree of cultural awareness of people who do not belong to the family, as well as by the degree of connection to the cultural heritage of the family itself. The cultural maintenance is noteworthy also because it encourages and strengthens positive ethnic identities as well as it boosts self-esteem and lowers internalization of problems in the youth (Hughes et al.,

"Parents' Practices" 764).

The Black Church

Another important institution closely connected to African American families, that also helps with the socialization of the members of the family, is the church, more precisely the black church. One of the reasons why the church is so important to the black family and the overall black community is because it was one of the first institutions which were under complete control of black people during and after slavery. Billingsley states:

[Church] represented freedom, independence, and respect for its leadership, as well as

the opportunity for self-esteem, self-development, leadership, and relaxation ... the

black church was a community center and recreational center that encouraged

-27- education, business development, and democratic fellowship beyond its members.

(Jacob's Ladder 354)

To put it succinctly, the black church has served an important educational and recreational function in the life of African Americans. It helped with the building of the black community and it helped to create strong ties among its members. Moreover, it encouraged personal development and supported its members emotionally. "Specifically, it transmitted and reinforced values and behaviours leading to optimum fulfilment of dominant expectations regarding economic and conjugal behavior" (Scanzoni 52, emphasis in original). It encouraged marriages and economic rationality within the black community.

The support system of the extended family, that was described in more detail in the first chapter, along with the fictive kin are in many functions related to the black church. For instance, it is not unusual in the African American community that the church functions as an extended family in the upbringing and socialization of children, many times not related, and helps to create strong, family-like ties between its members (McAdoo 98). The church is also important in the life of single mothers, who depend on the extended family or the church regarding the upbringing of children and emotional support (McAdoo 98-99). Besides, the

African American church is influential when it comes to racial socialization of African

American children and the encouragement of racial pride (McAdoo 126). Thus, the African

American church can be considered an integral part of the African American family. Besides, the black church has played an important role in the fight against racism and segregation of

American society. The religion has always been used in the African American community as a survival mechanism, for example, during slavery it helped start numerous rebellions and likewise, it helped with the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s (Robert Bernard

Hill 33). As Hill notes, "Black ministers frequently used their sermons to transmit coded messages to the congregation. Negro spirituals were often used for similar purposes, -28- particularly in assisting runaway slaves" (Robert Bernard Hill 33). Hence, the church has played an important role not only in the socialization of the African American family or the emotional support of individuals, but it also aided with the emancipation of African

Americans and the achievement of civil rights.

-29- 3. African American Families on American Television

Television has a great impact on how we perceive the world. Therefore, television portrayal of African Americans and other minorities can influence the way people see them.

Fujioka claims that "[p]ositive minority television portrayals may create favourable public attitudes, while negative minority portrayals may cause unfavourable public views of minority groups" (55). Ultimately, the television portrayal of minorities can influence the majority's perception of them. Indeed, Punyanunt-Carter's study of undergraduate students' perceptions of African American portrayals on television found that irrespective of race and gender, viewers tend to perceive the occupational roles and negative personality traits of the African

American characters on television as authentic and realistic (Punyanunt-Carter 250).

Therefore, the manner in which African Americans are portrayed is important in forming the majority's opinion as many people consider the television portrayals to be true to life.

Moreover, a television portrayal can be the only source of information about African

Americans for people who lack real-life contact with the members of this ethnic group. For instance, Fujioka's study of Japanese international and white students' perception of African

American stereotypes found, that the television messages have a significant impact on the viewer's perception of African Americans and the stereotypes about them when there is no direct contact with African Americans (Fujioka 67). Besides, television can play an important role in the socialization of African American children. Television is a form of media from which children draw their behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs and thus it is an important secondary source of socialization (Berry 234). A part of the socialization process is social learning called modelling through which children model different behaviours that they learn from other people, especially those they admire (Berry 233). Findings suggest that African

American children imitate behaviour that they see on television (Stroman, The Socialization

91-92). Berry believes that "when the learned behaviours are positive portrayals of Black

-30- family life, the child gains pro-social messages and values from the content . . . misrepresented or destructive images can produce undesirable attitudes and behaviours in the developing child" (238). In other words, the positive representation of African Americans leads to black children having a positive perception of the society as well as of themselves as members of the minority. On the other hand, negative representation of African Americans can lead to negative attitudes towards the society in the developing child, as well as to a negative self-perception. In short, the way the African Americans are depicted on television can affect the self-esteem and the self-perception of black children and youth. Banks believes that "[s]ome of the images of Blacks portrayed on television may reinforce or instill a negative value for Blackness" (13). Furthermore, the lack of representation on television can have a negative impact on the black community as well. When African Americans are excluded from being represented on television, the African American children may feel like their existence in the society is unimportant which can lead to self-esteem and identity issues

(Powell qtd. in Stroman, Television's Role 318). Thus, it is essential that the African

Americans are represented on television and the television portrayals to be authentic, unbiased, and not perpetuate negative stereotypes.

Stereotypes and Stereotypical Portrayals

Since the beginning of American television, the African American family has been portrayed in various ways. "Black families have been represented in television programming scheduling since the 1950s" (Merritt and Stroman 492). The African American family and its members have been stereotyped and not portrayed accurately or true to life, which, as has been previously mentioned, has an impact on the way the majority perceives them. In the

1950s, the advertisers wanted the programs they sponsored to create a happy, problem-free atmosphere which would go along with the television commercials that promised their products would make problems disappear (U.S., Commission on Civil Rights 5). Therefore,

-31 - the portrayals of African Americans and other minorities were heavily stereotyped and edited to fit the advertisers' demands. "Programs which might realistically portray blacks and other minorities were likely to raise social and economic problems which could not easily be whisked away" (U.S., Commission on Civil Rights 5). Moreover, Stamps believes that "the depiction of the African American family has been skewed to fit what is considered comfortable and safe for viewers rather than showcasing realistic characters" (407). In other words, the African American family has been altered to fit the expectations of the white majority. This has led to the depiction of the black family which has entailed various stereotypes. According to Stangor, "[Stereotypes represent the traits that we view as characteristic of social groups, or of individual members of the group, and particularly those that differentiate groups from each other" (2). Stereotypes can be either positive or negative.

"Both [of these types of] stereotypes have the potential to be problematic as they create generalizations" (Stamps 407). The stereotypical portrayals of African Americans on television result in the stereotypes being perpetuated and considered as real characteristics of black people. Especially the negative stereotypes can have a negative effect on the life of

African Americans. The formation and perpetuation of stereotypes lead to different political policies being created to fix and alter the way African Americans live, which preserves the notion that there is something wrong with their way of life (Stamps 407). Moreover, a research conducted by Ford found that "when whites are exposed to negative stereotypical television portrayals of African-Americans, they are more likely to make negative judgements of an African-American target person" (271). Thus, the negative stereotypes about African

Americans being perpetuated in the television portrayal can be harmful on the way African

Americans are perceived as well as on the political stance of the majority towards the minority. Moreover, positive stereotypes can also impact African American life negatively.

Stamps claims:

-32- The 'model African American' placates to white fear. This creation allows the disruption

of policies and government programs that were created to aid communities in need.

Generalizing all African Americans as being the same and pushing a notion that

everyone can succeed if they work hard dismisses the truth that many lack access to

education, wealth accumulation, and/or community support. (407)

Consequently, it can be concluded that the representation of African Americans and the implementation of stereotypes have an impact on the quality of their life, and the majority's perception of them.

The way in which African Americans are portrayed on television varies according to the type of the program and the racial composition of the casts. Banks's research found that there are two typical representations of African Americans; the traditional portrayal with negative stereotypes which was typical for all-black cast programs and a novel portrayal with positive stereotypes that used to be found on programs with a cast composed of white as well as black actors (12). There have been many stereotypes related to black people used in their portrayal.

The negative stereotypes have been more pervasive; for example, The U.S. Commission on

Civil Rights found that most portrayals of African Americans usually depict them as inferior, dishonest, lazy, clownish and without ethics (4-6). Furthermore, Cummings notes that "[p]rior to the 1960s the roles of 'coon,' 'bafoon,' and 'pickaninnies' were dominant among African

American characters on television, which created a stereotype labelling them as a loud and conniving race" (Cummings qtd. in Stamps 408). "Their language was replete with conspicuously mispronounced multisyllabic words. Referred to alternatively as coons and

Sambos, these characters frequently lacked any redeeming qualities—save their ability to prompt laughter" (Turner 121). Gray claims, "These stereotypes were necessary for the representation and legitimation of a racial order built on racism and white supremacy" (74).

The portrayal of African Americans did not improve in the 1970s. "With the 1970s situation -33- comedies on the black family, we were told once again that all Blacks lived in the ghetto, were poor, lazy, unemployed and if not on welfare, were living from hand to mouth"

(Cummings 78, emphasis in original). Many of the stereotypes have also revolved around

African American women and mothers. Baptiste found that maternal dominance, where the mother makes most decisions regarding her children and the family, and where she dominates her husband, is a pervasive theme of African American sit-coms (45-47). "By portraying black families as either predominately maternally dominated, single-parented, or female headed, television is subscribing to stereotypical belief about black family structure and unwittingly this is reinforcing the myths about black families" (Baptiste 45). In other words, it is reinforcing the stereotype of an absent black father and dominating mother.

Many studies of African American television portrayals found differences between the portrayal of black and white people. For instance, Greenberg and Atkin found that many

African American television characters were depicted as having low socioeconomic status and two-thirds of them being unemployed, while on the other hand one-half of white television characters had a job (Greenberg and Atkin qtd. in Ford 267). Furthermore, the study of

Greenberg and Brand found that African Americans were often portrayed as less educated and with lower status than the white characters (Greenberg and Brand qtd. in Punyanunt-Carter

243). Moreover, research conducted by Seggar and Wheeler found that African American characters with a job were generally portrayed as blue-collar workers or private household workers (206). In contrast, Donagher et al. found that the representation of black men contrasted with that of white men, who were typically portrayed as a threat, rule-breaking and callous aggressors. On the other hand, the black men were depicted as altruistic helpers with a lack of aggression and black women as virtuous and empathetic (Donagher et al. 1031-1032).

To sum up, the representation and the manner in which African Americans are portrayed affects the way they are perceived. As Stamps notes, "Television has the power to shift

-34- cultural norms, educate audience members, and change negative stereotypes" (409).

Therefore, it is important to keep the portrayal realistic and avoid stereotypes.

An Overview of African American Families on Television

The African American families started being represented on American television around the 1950s (Merritt and Stroman 492). "Television's fictional relationships usually concentrate on immediate family members—wife, mother, daughter, sister, and their counterparts in male roles" (Johnson, Davis and McNamee qtd. in Glennon and Butsch 264). More than 218 fictional families, both white and minority, have been portrayed on American television since

1946 (Glennon and Butsch 264). Sitcoms are one of the least diverse programs and they are the only genre of television programs where all-black casts occur (Children Now 11). Sitcoms are one of the least diverse programs because there rarely are mixed casts in them (U.S.,

Congress 39). Moreover, the majority of programs, both white and black, have been produced by white majority producers. McDonald notes that 93 per cent of black shows in the late

1980s were produced by white people (MacDonald qtd. in Zook 17). The most notable producer of sitcoms in the 1970s was Norman Lear, a white American television writer and producer. He produced many popular sitcoms about African American families; for example,

Sandford and Son, The Jeffersons, What's Happening!!, and Good Times. "Norman Lear . . . has also been instrumental in establishing a trend of realism in situation comedy. His technique has been to treat realistically—and humorously—controversial issues and contemporary social and personal problems" (U.S., Commission on Civil Rights 19). This kind of portrayal was different from the ones of the previous decades. "The realistic situation comedies differ from those of the 1950s which featured a white, middle-class, suburban family whose wholesomeness and warm-heartedness were a reassuring confirmation of

American family life" (U.S., Commission on Civil Rights 19). The situation comedies of the

1970s addressed heavier topics such as death, illnesses, mental health issues, financial

-35- insecurity and other topics which the 1950s sitcoms purposefully avoided (U.S., Commission

on Civil Rights 20). Stamps describes this new way of portrayal as follows:

When entertainment media projects images of the African American family and those

characters and story lines are uniquely diverse, presenting a multitude of situations and

circumstances that are relatable to the public at-large something real happens.

Stereotypes are challenged, knowledge becomes universal, and discourse becomes

prominent in circles where at times it did not exists and was considered taboo. (408)

By challenging the stereotypes associated with African Americans they can be refuted and

gradually removed from public awareness.

The representation and portrayal of a black family on television have been a gradual

process. "The 1950's are mostly aptly characterized by their exclusion of minorities from the

lily white screen except for stereotyped roles in such programs as 'Amos 'n' Andy'" (U.S.,

Commission on Civil Rights 25). Amos 'n' Andy was an American television sitcom which

was based on a radio show created and voiced by two white actors Freeman Gosden and

Charles Correll. The sitcom, set in Harlem, centres around two main characters Amos Jones

and Andrew Hogg Brown and their families. It ran from 1951 until 1960. Both main roles

were played by black actors. Amos was played by Alvin Childress and Andrew, better known

as "Andy", was played by Spencer Williams. "Although the Jones family, consisting of

Amos, Ruby and their daughter Arbadella, were the first black family to be depicted in a

prime-time television series, episodes seldom chronicled the Joneses' family life" (Turner

121). Nevertheless, the Amos 'n' Andy show had some positive aspects to it. For example,

Amos 'n' Andy was a show that highlighted the talent of African Americans and it showed

that black people can live rewarding lives outside of ghettos and slums and be good parents to

their children (Cummings 76). Nonetheless, Cummings concedes, "These positive images,

-36- however, were shown very seldomly and were often profoundly overshadowed by the negative and racist imagery projected by the series" (Cummings 76). The characters in Amos

'n' Andy Show were shown as immature, childish, always pranking each other and imitating the white society, which did not represent the African Americans in a positive or real way, and it perpetuated the notion of black inferiority (Cummings 76). "[Amos 'n' Andy's] traits of eccentric manners, dialect, and other cultural baggage were perceived not as vestiges of a national culture but as the mocking of racial subculture that was an aberration of white

American culture" (Cripps 34). The show perpetuated negative stereotypes about African

Americans and added to the notion that black people are inferior. The black women in the show were portrayed as domineering and overbearing and the black men were minstrel caricatures who spoke ungrammatically and were never shown working (Cummings 76).

Moreover, the show did not discuss racial, social or political issues and there was no discrimination, which suggested that black people were satisfied with their condition

(Cummings 77).

"In the 1960s, the civil rights movement forced the inclusion of blacks—as actors and as newsmakers—onto the television screen" (U.S., Commission on Civil Rights 25). In 1968,

Hal Kanter, a former writer for Amos 'n' Andy created the pilot of a new sitcom Julia (Turner

123). The sitcom ran for three years, until 1971. The main character is a widowed single- mother Julia Baker, who works as a nurse, and her six-year-old son, Corey. Julia was played by African American actress Diahann Carroll. "Julia Baker was the most assimilated black character ever to appear in the American mass media" (MacDonald, Blacks and White 115).

"Kanter and his team made careful decisions about the characters of Julia and Corey, and the plots they developed were colored by their sense of what audiences did and did not want to see in its first black family of the 1960s" (Turner 123). "Julia's producers made a conscious effort to stay as far away from any of the conventional black caricatures . . . Kanter and his

-37- colleagues developed characters whose only discernible black feature was their complexions"

(Turner 123). By making Julia a widow, whose husband died in a war in Vietnam, Kanter avoided any negative stereotypes regarding single black mothers (Turner 124). In other words, Julia's targeted audience were not African Americans but the white majority.

Consequently, the show was created and adjusted in such a way to not offend white viewers.

The sitcom avoided any mention of race or racial discrimination. Cummings notes, "Julia only continued to aggravate the racial stereotype of the Black matriarch because she never encountered racial prejudice at work nor in the integrated, well kept, very middle class apartment building in which she lived" (77). "The Julia series was such a 'white wash' that even white people began to feel uncomfortable with this patronizing portrayal of how Black life could be if Blacks did not riot, but wait their turn, and work within the capitalist system"

(Cummings 77). The show showed that not all black people live in ghettos, that they can work professional jobs, have fewer than 5 children, speak grammatically and not deal only with issues related to race (Cummings 77-78). The show showed a version of a black family and an African American woman that would be non-threatening to the white audience and that would not affect the audience's beliefs about what the typical black family looks like.

"Julia Baker was a 'white Negro,' the overly good, overly integrated fantasy projection of white writers acting, they felt, in a manner sensitive to decades of TV prejudice" (MacDonald,

Blacks and White 116).

"The television programs involving blacks in the 1970s were largely representations of what white liberal middle-class television program makers assumed (or projected) were

'authentic' accounts of poor black urban ghetto experiences" (Gray 77). The sitcoms of this era were set in poor urban communities, the characters were unemployed or underemployed, but they were nevertheless portrayed as happy and racially united (Gray 77). Examples of sitcoms about African American family from the 1970s include Sanford and Son, Good

-38- Times, The Jeffersons and What's Happening!!. Good Times was created by African

American screenwriter Eric Monte, African American actor Mike Evans and executive producer Norman Lear. It ran for six years, from 1974 until 1980. Good Times follows an

African American family in an apartment in a housing project situated in a poor, black neighbourhood of Chicago. The main characters are mother Florida Evans played by Esther

Rolle, the father James Evans played by John Amos, and their three children. The shows of

1970s mixed seriousness with ridiculousness, however with Good Times the ridiculous outweighed the serious issues (Cummings 79). Good Times perpetuates various negative stereotypes about African Americans. "J.J., the loud mouthed, grinning 'coon' of a son on the show received too much attention from the writers and therefore considerable negative criticisms from the public" (Cummings 79). Moreover, the stereotype of a dominating African

American woman is also prevalent through-out the seasons. The matriarchal theme is pervasive in Good Times particularly after the departure of Jon Amos, who played the character of the father, when female dominance becomes overt through the actions of the mother Florida, the neighbour Willona and daughter Thelma (Baptiste 45).

Another example of the 1970s sitcom is The Jeffersons, created by Norman Lear as a spin-off of All in the Family. It ran for ten years, from 1975 until 1985. The main characters are George, played by Sherman Hemsley, and Louise Jefferson, played by Isabel Sanford.

Sherman Hemsley, who played George Jefferson, portrayed in The Jeffersons a stereotype of a black man, the "coon", who is loud, conniving and ostentatious (Cummings 78-79).

Moreover, the stereotype of a dominating African American woman is also present. The show's Louise Jefferson and Florence the maid represented the stereotype of "mammy", loud, but lovable and caring black woman (Cummings 78). The Jeffersons showed that black family can be middle class and that black people can be successful; George Jefferson had his own

-39- dry-cleaning business and well-behaved son to whom he taught black pride and consciousness

(Cummings 79).

"By the 1980s comedic television was an arena where African Americans were on equal footing with their nonminority counterparts, but dramatic series still lacked diversity" (Stamps

409). "As time progressed and characters began to show more diversity, television continued to avoid real issues that the African American community faced, including social, economical, and political issues" (Stamps 409). Some examples of sitcoms about a black family from

1980s include Charlie & Company and The Cosby Show.

The Cosby Show is "the most successful black prime-time two-parent family in television history" (Turner 132). It was co-created by Bill Cosby who also starred as the main character Cliff Huxtable. The sitcom ran from 1984 until 1992. The Huxtables are an upper- middle-class, relatively wealthy family, living in a house in New York. The main characters are Cliff Huxtable, an obstetrician, his wife Clair, who is an attorney played by Phylicia

Rashad, and their children Sondra, Vanessa, Denise, Rudy and Theo. The Cosby Show avoided basing the humour on racial stereotypes, which distinguishes it from the sitcoms of the 1960s and 1970s. "The Cosby Show presents the antithesis to the stereotype of blacks on welfare and without professional training or gainful employment" (Real 233). According to

Lewis, "After decades of negative or degrading media images, the Huxtable family presented black characters that black and white audiences could relate to" (159-160). As Turner states,

"Cosby and the producers demonstrated that a program about a black family could keep the audience laughing with rather than at the situations in which modern American families find themselves" (133). The Cosby Show introduced a family that was not stereotypic ally black, poor or living in ghetto urban areas. Moreover, the sitcom presented an example of an

American family in which healthy relationships, strong bonds and communication between the relatives are possible. According to MacDonald, "Here, for the first time, network TV -40- offered a black nuclear family that was believably human—where parents nurtured their children, and children loved their mother and father and related with each other respectfully; where audiences laughed with the witness, not at the pejorative tomfoolery, of its leading characters" (One Nation 249). In other words, The Cosby Show provided the white majority with a unique outlook on the black family, its relationships and problems within it. However,

The Cosby Show has also been criticised for its avoidance of mentioning race and racial issues. The topic of race has never been mentioned or commented on overtly. As Gray puts it,

"In The Cosby Show, blackness, although an element of the show's theme, character, and sensibility, was mediated and explicitly figured through home life, family, and middle - classness" (80). The Cosby Show does not overtly deal with racial issues or prejudice, but it is nevertheless a black show because it is filled with symbols of black pride and black identity

(Cummings 83). For example, Cummings notes, "The main character, Cliff Huxtable, wears sweat shirts from black colleges and universities; black paintings fill his home; famous black people appear on the shows; and black teachers, among other, who represent strong role- models are introduced" (83). Although there are covert symbols and icons of blackness, the thing that The Cosby Show fails to deal with is the topic of issues related to race. Real agrees that "[rjacial discrimination and conflict are never directly raised, despite the emphasis on black pride" (236). Furthermore, by showing the audience that a black family can be middle- class and well off without acknowledging the racial discrimination that many black people have to face, the show suggests that anyone can lead ideal life if they want to and it, in essence, ignores racism. "The show never offers us the slightest glimpse of the economic disadvantages and deep-rooted discrimination that prevent most black Americans from reaching their potential" (Lewis 161). As Lewis puts it, "The Huxtables ultimately sustain the idea that 'anyone can make it,' the comforting assertion of the American dream; a myth that sustains a conservative political ideology that is blind to the inequalities that hinder those born

-41 - on mean streets and pamper those born on easy street" (162). To put it another way, the show fails to point out that racial discrimination and prejudice often prevent black people from academic and professional success. However, the show also gave African Americans hope that they can succeed in life if they want to. In The Carmichael Show's "Fallen Heroes" episode, Jerrod Carmichael notes, "The Cosby Show was so important ... it made us realize that we could go to college. I mean we didn't, but we knew we could" (00:06:33-00:06:40). It showed African Americans that they have an opportunity to lead a successful and comfortable life, but it neglected to mention the racism and discrimination many black people endure.

More recent examples of sitcoms about African American family include Family

Matters, Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, The Parkers, The Hughleys, Everybody Hates Chris, Are

We There Yet?, The Carmichael Show, Black-ish and Mixed-ish. Black-ish is the most successful of them. The show was ABC's most-watched sitcom and number three sitcom of all broadcast television in 2014 during its first season (Carter). The sitcom was created in

2014 by African American writer and producer Kenya Barris. It is currently on its sixth season. The plot of Black-ish revolves around upper-middle-class African American family living in a mostly white neighbourhood. The main characters are Andre 'Dre' Johnson played by Anthony Anderson and his biracial wife Rainbow 'Bow' Johnson played by Tracee Ellis

Ross. They have five children, daughter Zoey, son Andre Jr., twins Jack and Diane and son

Devante. Both of the parents are educated and successful; Dre works as a marketing executive and Bow as an anesthesiologist. Unlike The Cosby Show, Black-ish treats race and racial issues along with discrimination in an obvious and overt way. Regarding race, Khaleeli notes that in Black-ish:

Race is not treated as an incidental background detail but part of the show's identity.

The Johnsons are not a family who "happen to be black" but a family who are black. If

-42- that doesn't sound revolutionary, it's enough to ensure this broad, warm-hearted

comedy confronts issues of race, class and culture every week. (Khaleeli)

Race, culture, and identity are major themes that are being dealt with in the show. The "n- word," racism, police brutality, the 2016 presidential elections, postpartum depression and marriage problems are examples of topics that are discussed in the sitcom. However, the topic of race and "blackness" is decidedly the most prevalent. "The show is unapologetically black and the show holds no punches when it comes to how Anderson's Dre Johnson deals with his family's cultural assimilation, and the material privileges that come along with that transformation" (Carter). Therefore, although the show is similar to The Cosby Show in that it does not depict a typical African American family, it nevertheless provides a realistic view of

African American life and struggles connected to race.

-43- 4. Analysis of Selected Themes in The Cosby Show and Black-ish

Methodology

The method of content analysis was used to analyse the progression of the portrayal of a black family and the representation of blackness in American sitcoms. The main objective of the analysis is to demonstrate how the portrayal has changed over the last thirty years.

Seventeen episodes of The Cosby Show and twenty-one episodes of Black-ish were selected for the analysis. The sitcoms were selected as they both portray the life of an African

American nuclear middle-class family. Both sitcoms were created by an African American person; The Cosby Show was co-created by Bill Cosby and Black-ish was created by Kenya

Barris. The sitcoms were created thirty years apart; The Cosby Show in 1984, Black-ish in

2014, which provided an adequate time difference for the analysis of the progression in the portrayal of the African American family. Both families include a mother and a father and five children. The casts consist of mostly African American actors. The Huxtable family consists of father Dr Heathcliff "Cliff" Huxtable, played by Bill Cosby, mother Clair Hanks

Huxtable, played by Phylicia Rashad, daughter Denise, played by Lisa Bonet, Rudy, played by Keshia Knight Pulliam, Sondra, played by Sabrina Le Beauf, Vanessa, played by Tempestt

Bledsoe, and son Theo, played by Malcolm-Jamal Warner. The Johnsons family consists of father Andre "Dre" Johnson, played by Anthony Anderson, mother Dr Rainbow "Bow"

Johnson, played by Tracee Ellis Ross, daughter Zoey, played by Yara Shahidi, son Andre Jr., played by Marcus Scribner, twins Jack and Diane, played by Miles Brown and Marsai Martin, and another son DeVante born in the third season of Black-ish. The topics and themes chosen for the analysis are race and racial issues, racial socialization, the black church and spirituality, and the extended family. The topics were selected since they are characteristic of a black family. The episodes were selected according to their relevancy to the analysed topics.

Only the most relevant episodes were analysed and presented as examples of the themes

-44- occurring in the sitcoms. The analysed episodes of the two sitcoms were then compared to demonstrate a similarity or a difference in the portrayal.

Race and Racial Issues

Race and racial issues, such as racial prejudice, racial discrimination, or racism, are treated differently in The Cosby Show and Black-ish. The Cosby Show does not deal with racial issues explicitly. The Huxtable family is certainly black because the characters are played by black actors. Moreover, there are references to black culture in the show. For example, in the seventeenth episode of the sixth season "Not Everybody Loves the Blues" written by Mark St. Germain, the character of blues singer Riley Jackson is played by a famous African American blues singer B. B. King and the whole episode revolves around the cultural significance of blues (00:03:17). Furthermore, in the sixteenth episode of the first season "Jitterbug Break," the writer Matt Williams incorporates hip-hop dancing and breakdancing of the younger generation in contrast to swing dance of the parents' generation

(00:21:14). Both of these dances are attributed to the African American community, and therefore, the episode highlights the black culture. Moreover, the twenty-fifth episode of the third season "Hillman" written by Matt Robinson, is about the fictional black college Hillman, which Denise attends, and which Cliff and Clair also attended. In the episode, President

Zachariah J. Haynes gives a speech on the occasion of his retirement. During the speech, he highlights the themes that he will not address: "Those topics are social justice; I am not going to talk about that. Racial harmony. I'll not talk about that. And peace on Earth. I will not make mention of that" ("Hillman" 00:21:17-00:21:32). He does not want to talk about them because he believes that his students know his opinion on those topics ("Hillman" 00:21:43).

His stance is similar to the stance of The Cosby Show, which also does not address the issues, and instead, it relies on the audience to catch the few implications in the sitcom. The racial issues, discrimination or racism, for example, are not mentioned or discussed explicitly

-45- throughout the whole eight seasons of the show. However, there are few instances in the show that hint at racial injustice. For instance, in the seventh episode of the fifth season "The Birth

Part 2," the character Sondra gives birth to twins that she names Winnie and Nelson

(00:42:25). This is a nod to Nelson Mandela, the anti-apartheid political leader, and his wife.

Besides, there are two episodes in which the topic of racial issues is intertwined into the plot.

In the fourteenth episode of the second season of The Cosby Show "Vanessa's Bad Grade," the writer Ross Brown included the Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech at the end of the episode. The whole family and Vanessa's boyfriend listen to the speech on television quietly together in the living room ("Vanessa's Bad Grade" 00:22:37). The quietness and stillness of the characters signify the importance of the speech. It is a subtle implication that the Huxtables are aware of their race and racial issues without explicitly stating it. Moreover, in the twenty-sixth episode of the sixth season "The Storyteller" written by Lore Kimbrough, Aunt Gramtee talks about slavery; how it was illegal to teach a slave to read, and that their great-great-great-aunt Lucinda, who was a slave was determined to learn to read and learned it from the owner's daughters (00:11:17). However, the episode does not include any information about the hardship of black people during slavery or the severity of the punishment of slaves who learned to read behind the master's back. Moreover, in the fourteenth episode of the fifth season, "Mrs. Huxtable Goes to Kindergarten" written by John

Markus, Carmen Finestra and Gary Kott, Clair is invited to be a guest on a Sunday morning talk show. However, other two white male guests treat her as inferior because she is a black woman. When the host is told to be more inclusive, he notes, "Then let her speak when we get to the black topics" ("Mrs. Huxtable Goes to Kindergarten" 00:15:19-00:15:21). To this racist statement, Clair responds, "I am a woman who is black but I'm also a human being who is attorney, a mother of five and somewhat knowledgeable about history which is why I thought

I was invited here. But when you look at me, this is all you see? A black woman?" ("Mrs.

-46- Huxtable Goes to Kindergarten" 00:15:31-00:15:43). This exchange is an example of covert racism because the host sees Clair only as a black woman, and thus, he thinks she is capable to talk only about things related to her race.

Furthermore, in the sixth episode of the third season of The Cosby Show "The March," the writer Gary Kott brings attention to the racial issue in the United States when the character

Theo complains to his parents and grandparents about the grade he got for his essay on the

March on Washington (00:11:30). The March on Washington was a political demonstration of more than 200,000 people in Washington, D.C. in 1963, who protested racial discrimination and demanded equal rights for African Americans ("March on Washington"). When Theo says that he thought he had done enough research in the library, Theo's grandmother observes, "You could have done research with us, the few people in this room who were there" ("The March" 00:11:44-00:11:46). This statement is a confirmation that the Huxtable family participated in the fight for the civil rights of African Americans in the 1960s.

However, the episode does not discuss the actual reason for the March, the fight for equal rights. For instance, Theo has written in his essay only plain facts about the March; how many people attended, that Martin Luther King gave a famous speech, without actually talking about the speech, and he named all the celebrities that came to the March ("The March"

00:13:28-00:14:16). The character Clair notes that "you could have written more about the people, you know. Why they got involved and what they felt" ("The March" 00:17:20-

00:17:24). This statement is a hint at the importance the March had for the African

Americans, and it indicates the racial inequality that led to the protest. However, Clair's statement is not elaborated on, instead, the characters go on to discuss that the weather the day of The March was rather hot and that they were lucky to be on an airconditioned bus ("The

March" 00:17:25-00:17:33). The characters mention the buses without mentioning the segregation that was mandatory in the buses during the 1960s, which is another example of

-47- how the show avoided talking about racial issues. The characters seem to have pleasant memories on that day, and Clair notes, "Oh, we have a whole draw full of reminders from that day" ("The March" 00:18:55-00:18:57). The fact that Clair and Cliff have a drawer where they keep reminders from the March shows how important the event was for the Huxtable family. Nonetheless, the reason why the March was so important is never stated explicitly.

Although the March was an important milestone in American history, the topic is discussed very lightly and with jokes. The real importance of the March is suggested when the character

Theo states, "It must have been great knowing you guys were gonna be part of history" ("The

March" 00:18:57-00:19:00). The character of Cliffs mother notes, "That wasn't what it was about. We were just expressing what we felt then" ("The March" 00:19:03-00:19:07). The characters mention feelings a lot in connection to the March on Washington, but it is never clearly stated what kind of feelings they mean. The feelings could have been of anger because of racial discrimination or feelings of hope for a better future. This is however never explained, but from the way the characters speak about the March, it is visible that it was an important event in their life. The last hint of the true importance of the March, the racial inequality and African American rights are visible when the character Clair states, "To stand in front of Washington Monument surrounded by two hundred and fifty thousand people. To be heard" ("The March" 00:19:22-00:19:29). The last sentence is important because it indicates that African Americans did not have a voice in the 1960s, but at the March they were finally heard. Thus, it is the last reminder of the true significance the March has had for the black community in the United States.

On the other hand, Black-ish deals with race, racial issues, and racial discrimination very openly immediately from the beginning of the show. The first episode of the first season

"Pilot" written by Kenya Barris, addresses the racial division in a workplace. Dre's voiceover states, "At Stevens & Lido, there was a clear separation between lower management and

-48- upper management" ("Pilot" 00:06:17-00:06-22). Minorities hold mostly lower positions in the company. Dre's voiceover notes, "There was so few of us at Stevens & Lido that being black made you feel like you were part of a little family. So, when one of us made it was kind of like all of us did" ("Pilot" 00:04:48-00:04:57). Therefore, Dre is astounded when he is not promoted merely to be the new senior vice president, but to be the senior vice president of the

"urban" division, which he feels is not as lucrative ("Pilot" 00:07:59). This promotion is a predicament because although Dre is promoted and not passed over for a white co-worker, he is promoted to a position that is created uniquely for an African American and thus in his eyes it is not equal to the position of the senior vice president.

Moreover, in the twelfth episode of the first season "Martin Luther Skiing Day," the writer Lindsey Shockley shows how the Johnsons family celebrates the Martin Luther King

Day when the character Dre states, "So every year to properly celebrate Martin Luther King

Day, the Johnsons partake in long-standing tradition we in the community call 'Black Ski

Weekend'" ("Martin Luther Skiing Day " 00:00:17-00:00:28). When Junior's white friend

Zach mentions that his family does charity work by teaching literacy in the local prison on the

Martin Luther King Day, Jack asks Andre why they never do something like that on the

Martin Luther King Day ("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:00:55-00:01:01). Andre responds by stating, "Because we're black. All year long. They're white. They have to do extra credit"

("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:01:02-00:01:05). Thus, Dre feels that the white people are responsible for racial inequality and they should compensate for it by doing charity work on

The Martin Luther King Day, while the Johnsons being a black family can go ski. This highlights the racial issues that are still present in the United States and the inequality that black people still feel. Another scene in the episode that highlights racial prejudice is when

Dre's white boss Mr Stevens states, "So, we are going to have a lot to do on Monday, but I understand, Dre, Charlie, that it's a holiday for you two so feel free to take the day off

-49- ("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:03:09-00:03:16). Charlie is Dre's black colleague, so the implication that The Martin Luther King Day is "their" holiday is subtly racist, and it implies that the day is only important for African Americans. Dre highlights the importance of The

Martin Luther King Day for all Americans, black and white, when he states "MLK is a national holiday, not a black holiday" ("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:03:22-00:03:25).

Furthermore, in the first episode of the second season of Black-ish "The Word," the writer Kenya Barris introduces the issue of the n-word. Jack performs the explicit version of

Kanye West's "Gold Digger" at a school talent show and gets suspended for hate speech because he says the n-word ("The Word" 00:02:00). Bow is shocked that Jack used such a word while Andre states that "It is his birth right. Jewish kids get to go to Israel, black kids get to say this" ("The Word" 00:03:26-00:03:31). Thus, Andre believes that black people should be able to say the n-word because they are black. However, Bow disagrees and notes,

"Nobody should say it. It is an ugly, hateful word with an even uglier and hate-filled history"

("The Word" 00:03:33-00:03:39). To this Dre notes, "Yeah, of it being said to us, not by us"

("The Word" 00:03:39-00:03:43). Dre's statement draws attention to the fact that the n-word has had a hateful meaning to the black people because it was used as a derogatory term by the white people. However, Dre argues that its meaning is different when it is said by a black person. The character of Dre's mom Ruby claims, "It's only a judgment said with disdainful indictment" ("The Word" 00:04:21-00:04:26). To this Dre notes, "Pops, you and mom's generation used the word for self-hate. You made it negative. My generation, we reclaimed it, and we use it as a term of colloquialism and power" ("The Word" 00:04:27-00:04:38). This discourse demonstrates the generational difference between the perceptions of the word's meaning. Later in the episode, Zoey says that her white friends use the n-word all the time

("The Word" 00:14:09). After Dre asks her why she lets her white friends say the word, she states, "It's not like they mean anything by it. It's just a word" ("The Word" 00:14:34-

-50- 00:14:37). Pops then blames Dre's generation and the rap culture connected to it for making the n-word mainstream ("The Word" 00:14:47). This demonstrates the generational conflict once more. Pops knows the true meaning of the n-word because he lived during segregation when it was common for black people to be called the n-word as an insult. Dre, on the other hand, belongs to the generation that reclaimed the n-word and made it a positive word in the black community. However, Dre is aware of the racist connotation the word can have when said by a white person. Conversely, Zoey grows up in more inclusive times and environment.

Thus, she does not understand that when said by a white person, the n-word has a pejorative and derogatory meaning. This brings awareness to the issue of young people, irrespective of skin colour, not knowing the full meaning and history behind the word. Furthermore, the show sends a clear message about who can say the n-word when Dre ends the discussion about the issue at work by stating to his white colleagues "All you need to know is that it's not okay for you to say the n-word" ("The Word" 00:07:08-00:07:12).

Moreover, in the fourteenth episode of the second season of Black-ish "Sink or Swim," the writer Gail Lerner draws attention to racial stereotypes when Johnsons' neighbour Janine organises a pool party and does not invite the Johnson family. The character Dre notes,

"Janine doesn't want us in her pool because she probably thinks that we can't swim" ("Sink or

Swim" 00:01:30-00:01:38). A Dre's voiceover then explains how the stereotype about black people not being able to swim was created ("Sink or Swim" 00:01:48). Moreover, in the office, the character Mr Stevens brings up the stereotype by stating, "Why would you want to be invited to this woman's party, Dre. It's not like you can swim" ("Sink or Swim" 00:06:39-

00:06:44). He then goes on and supports this claim with a statement: "It's a science, Dre.

Your bones are denser, you would sink like a stone" ("Sink or Swim" 00:06:50-00:06:54).

Not only is this statement untrue, but it is also essentially racist. Later, after the Johnsons are finally invited to the pool party, Janine makes Dre sign a liability waiver ("Sink or Swim"

-51 - 00:09:58). However, at the pool party, Janine can be heard saying to one of her white guests

"If anybody asks, you signed a waiver" ("Sink or Swim" 00:13:00-00:13:02). This proves

Dre's suspicions about Janine not inviting them because of the stereotype that black people cannot swim.

Furthermore, Black-ish also deals with the topic of colourism. Merriam-Webster dictionary defines colourism as "prejudice or discrimination especially within a racial or ethnic group favoring people with lighter skin over those with darker skin" ("Colorism"). The tenth episode of the fifth season "Black Like Us" written by Peter Saji deals with this issue.

At the beginning of the episode, Kendrick Lamar's song Complexion (A Zulu Love), a song essentially about how all skin shades are good, is used. The topic of colourism is discussed when the character Diane can be hardly seen at the group school photo ("Black Like Us"

00:01:37). Dre's voiceover then briefly explains colourism; how African Americans have different tones of complexions, how OJ Simpson's photo was darkened so he would appear more villainous, and how the colourism in the black community started during the slavery when the slaves were divided by the colour - the darker-skinned slaves worked on the field while lighter-skinned slaves worked in the house ("Black Like Us" 00:02:16). The episode discusses the issue of colourism in the community and the family. The character Ruby states,

"Light-skins don't have problems" ("Black Like Us" 00:07:30-00:07:32). This statement minimizes the problems that light-skin black people face. In addition, Dre and Ruby say that light-skin people have the light-skinned privilege to which Bow notes, "When I walk down the street people don't see my privilege, they see a black woman" ("Black Like Us" 00:10:20-

00:10:24). The episode also discusses that the light-skin is considered more beautiful than the dark skin in the black community. Ruby notes, "You can act like you're hurt if you want to,

Rainbow, but if you got to complain about few jokes, I get to complain about how light-skin is the black standard of beauty. Who do women with deeper skin tones have to look up to?"

-52- ("Black Like Us" 00:08:39-00:08:53). Because the light-skin woman is the beauty standard, the women with darker skin tones are rarely chosen to star in movies or to be models, and thus, the darker-skinned women are underrepresented in the media. This can result in various self-esteem issues which the episode also discusses when Diane explains how it affects her life that she is dark-skinned ("Black Like Us" 00:14:29).

Black-ish also addresses the struggles with care for black hair. In the eleventh episode of the sixth season "Hair Day," the writer Marquita J. Robinson discusses the effort that black people need to put into their hair. The episode also includes clips of different African

American women talking about their haircare and struggles connected to it.

To conclude, the former analyses of the episodes of The Cosby Show and Black-ish demonstrate the differences in the portrayal of a black family and racial issues on an

American sitcom. Concerning the representation of blackness and racial issues, Black-ish is much more explicit than The Cosby Show regarding racism and topics related to it. Black-ish addresses topics such as police brutality, colourism, racial discrimination at the workplace and racial stereotypes. All of these topics are relevant to the real-life experience of African

Americans. The Cosby Show, on the other hand, treats race and racial issues very subtly without offending the white viewers. The sitcom failed to address racial discrimination and racism, and thus it, in essence, maintained an impression that it no longer exists. By portraying an upper-middle-class black family without any racial issues perpetuated the idea that it is black people's fault and not the racial discrimination that prevents black people from reaching a high status in society. On the other hand, it showed African Americans in the

1980s that it is possible to be affluent, go to university and have respectable employment. The analysis showed a positive change in the presentation of race-related issues in the last thirty years. As the analysis of the episodes of Black-ish demonstrated, racism and racial

-53- discrimination are now discussed and addressed openly and deliberately. Thus, the portrayal of a black family and its problems are nowadays more authentic.

Racial Socialization

Like racial issues, racial socialization of children is not mentioned in The Cosby Show.

There is no episode that overtly or covertly addresses racial socialization of the Huxtable children. Thus, The Cosby Show ignores any racial discrimination that the children might encounter in their life.

Conversely, the Johnson family in Black-ish prepares their children for various forms of discrimination and teaches them how to behave in their community. The twelfth episode of the fourth season "Bow Knows" written by Laura Gutin Peterson addresses racial socialization of black children. Dre's work Stevens & Lido Advertisement prepares a campaign for Procter & Gamble Company about "the talk" that black parents have with their children. The character of Lucy, Dre's colleague, asks what is "the talk" and Dre wants to explain it but Mr Stevens interjects and reads the definition from his notes: '"The talk' focuses on the conversations black parents have had with their children through the decades to prepare them for the racial bias that they may face in the world" ("Bow Knows" 00:01:34-

00:01:44). When one of the colleagues asks whether "the talk" is truly that important that there needs to be a campaign about it, Dre responds, "Yes. It's a big deal. Because the talk goes on in every black household. It prepares our kids for what they're gonna go up against when they go out into an unfair world" ("Bow Knows" 00:02:23-00:02:34).

Another instance of racial socialization in Black-ish is in the third episode of the first season "The Nod," where the writer Kenya Barris highlights the importance of community when Dre's voiceover states, "But the thing that always helps you through your struggle is having a sense of community" (00:00:44-00:00:48). The episode revolves around "the nod"

-54- which, according to Dre, '"The nod' is important. It's the internationally accepted, yet unspoken, sign of acknowledgment of black folks around the world" ("The Nod" 00:01:33-

00:01:41). When Dre nods to another black parent on the way to school and Junior does not nod to the black child, Dre asks Junior: "Why didn't you give that kid 'the nod'?" ("The Nod"

00:00:54-00:00:56). However, Junior does not understand why he has to nod to someone he does not personally know ("The Nod" 00:01:01). Dre then states, "What does that matter?

You two have something in common" ("The Nod" 00:01:02-00:01:04). The common thing to which Dre refers is their skin-colour; both are black and thus in Dre's eyes they belong to the same community. But Junior does not understand what they have in common which shocks

Andre ("The Nod" 00:01:10). This episode again shows a generational difference between opinions. Dre and Pops do not understand how Junior cannot see another black student as part of his close community because they lived during more racially divided times. Bow notes,

"The truth is that the Junior's generation has a different perspective on the struggle than you and Pops" ("The Nod" 00:01:59-00:02:05). Considering that Junior's generation is more racially inclusive he has other struggles than the racial ones that he has to deal with.

Moreover, the sixteenth episode of the second season "Hope" written by Kenya Barris is an important episode about police brutality and police killings of unarmed African Americans.

The family watches the news about the recent killing of a young unarmed African American who was shot dead by a police officer. The Johnsons wait for news about whether the police officer will be indicted. The police brutality and police shooting of African Americans have been a problem for a long time and the show addresses it when Pops notes, "Police beating up an unarmed black man. That's a story I've been hearing all my life" ("Hope" 00:05:25-

00:05:30). Moreover, Dre and Bow debate whether they should tell Diane and Jack about the police brutality and systemic racism that African Americans face. Bow thinks they are too young and still children, while Dre notes, "They are not just children. They are black children

-55- and they need to know the world that they're living in" ("Hope" 00:04:22-00:04:27).

Furthermore, when Zoey wants to go do her Spanish homework, Dre does not let her leave because he wants her to watch the news with the rest of the family ("Hope" 00:03:46). The episode revolves around conflict of opinions. While Bow believes that not all police are bad and not always against black people, Dre and Pops disagree ("Hope" 00:09:25). The conflict is resolved at the end of the episode when the whole family except for Ruby and the youngest children, Diane and Jack, goes to the protest for police indictment ("Hope" 00:21:57).

In the twelfth episode of the first season "Martin Luther Skiing Day," Dre tries to teach

Junior about police racial profiling when a police officer stops their car. When Junior says that he does not understand why the officer stopped them when they were not doing anything wrong Dre responds, "Exactly, son, we're being pulled over for DWB. Driving while black"

("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:07:50-00:07:55). Moreover, when the policeman asks for licence and registration, Andre states, "Yeah, because he doesn't think we have it" ("Martin

Luther Skiing Day" 00:08:13-00:08:14). The police officer is, however, polite and explains that he stopped them because of expired tags but he lets them go because it's a "holiday weekend" ("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:08:42). Next, Dre wants to show Junior the black discrimination and prejudice by provoking a white shop owner. Dre wants to look like he is stealing things, but he ends up taking free candy ("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:11:27). The owner is nice and polite to them until Charlie starts to eat nacho cheese straight from the ladle, then the owner asks them to leave ("Martin Luther Skiing Day" 00:11:47).

To summarize, The Cosby Show failed to show racial socialization which is an essential element of the African American upbringing. As it has been explained in the second chapter, the racial socialization is a socialization practice that every African American child receives from parents when growing up. It prepares African American children for life in a racially divided world. However, the Huxtables were not shown socializing their children for life in a -56- racially prejudiced world, which means that The Cosby Show ignored an important aspect of the black family. On the other hand, Black-ish addressed racial socialization categorically in a separate episode. In that sense, Black-ish'?, portrayal of a black family is more authentic than

The Cosby Show's one. Additionally, there are many episodes in which the racial socialization of the Johnson children is illustrated. Thus, it can be concluded that similarly to the presentation of racial issues, the presentation of racial socialization in sitcoms about African

American family has improved and became more authentic in the last thirty years.

The Black Church and Religiousness

As has been mentioned in the previous chapters, the black church and religion have been a very important part of African American life ever since slavery. In The Cosby Show, the Huxtables are religious and they attend church regularly, which is particularly demonstrated in two episodes. Firstly, in the sixteenth episode of the third season "Denise

Gets an Opinion" written by Gary Kott, the Huxtable's church-attendance is mentioned.

Vanessa's ex-boyfriend Robert asks Cliff where Mrs Huxtable is, and Cliff replies, "She's still at church doing some committee work" ("Denise Gets an Opinion" 00:03:36-00:03:38).

This statement confirms that the Huxtables are regular churchgoers, and it even indicates that

Mrs Huxtable helps with the church's maintenance. Moreover, at the end of the episode, Cliff and Clair talk about their Sunday morning at the church, and there is also a mention of Clair singing in the church choir ("Denise Gets an Opinion" 00:20:50). Therefore, it can be concluded that the Huxtables are devoted churchgoers and a religious family.

Moreover, in the twenty-sixth episode of the sixth season "The Storyteller," the writer

Lore Kimbrough includes the topic of churchgoing when the character Olivia wants to go to the zoo instead of church. The character of Gramtee tells Olivia that she has to decide for herself whether she wants to go to the church ("The Storyteller" 00:15:55). At the end of the

-57- episode, there is a scene of black sermon and gospels ("The Storyteller" 00:18:50). Moreover, the minister in the episode is played by Reverend Eugene Callendar, who was an actual minister and a civil rights activist.

Black-ish deals with religion and the topic of churchgoing explicitly in two episodes.

However, throughout the whole show, the characters Dre and Ruby express their religious beliefs verbally. In the fifth episode of the second season "Churched," the writer Corey

Nickerson introduces the topic of churchgoing. The Johnsons are not regular churchgoers which Dre implies when he says to Bow, "We're "CEO" churchgoers at best; Christmas and

Easter only" ("Churched" 00:03:45-00:03:50). The episode also includes an explanation on why the church is so essential in the lives of African Americans as well as the history of religion among black people during slavery ("Churched" 00:02:37). Dre's voiceover notes,

"For centuries, it's been the backbone of our community dating back to when we first got here" ("Churched" 00:02:37-00:02:41). In the episode, the Johnsons go to a white church and love it at first but the next Sunday they realize the sermons are repetitive ("Churched"

00:11:28). Then they try to go to the black church which Ruby attends, but they do not like it either because the sermon is too long ("Churched" 00:15:34). In the end, they decide that they will try to find a church and community that will fit them the best ("Churched" 00:19:50).

In the second episode of the third season "God" written by Laura Gutin, Zoey expresses her doubts about her belief in God (00:01:11). The episode shows how important religion is for Dre when he states, "Zoey, as long as you live under my roof you will believe in God"

("God" 00:02:05-00:02:09). Also, Dre again highlights the importance of faith in the lives of slaves and he notes, "It's no coincidence that slaves became the strongest believers. They were looking for something to get them past what they were going through and that something was God" ("God" 00:04:02-00:04:13). In addition, the episode shows the Johnsons saying grace before their meal, which is another example of their religiousness ("God" 00:01:04). -58- In conclusion, regarding the black church, The Cosby Show presents a more traditional view of religion. The Huxtables are regular churchgoers and no one in the family is shown to question their belief in God. Conversely, Black-ish presents a more complex picture, because although the Johnsons are religious, they do not attend church every Sunday. Additionally, in one episode, Zoey questions her belief in God, and in another episode, the Johnsons experience different types of churches and sermons in order to find one that fits their lifestyle.

From the analysis of the episodes, it can be concluded that both sitcoms portray a religious family who believes in God. However, the portrayal has slightly changed. While the

Huxtables are regular churchgoers, the Johnsons family presents a more casual attitude toward the church and churchgoing. Furthermore, Black-ish also addresses the history of the black church and the importance it has for the black community.

The Extended Family and the Black Community

Both Black-ish and The Cosby Show include scenes with the extended family. One of the main differences between the shows is that the Johnsons live with Dre's divorced parents,

Pops and Ruby. In The Cosby Show, all of the families are two-parent, living separately and the grandparents have been married for a long time. For instance, in the third episode of the third season "Golden Anniversary" written by Carmen Finestra, Cliffs parents celebrate 50th anniversary (00:02:41). The show does not include many scenes with other members of the extended family apart from the ninth episode of the second season "Clair's Sister" written by

Elliot Shoenman and John Markus when Clair's sister comes to visit her to announce that she is getting married (00:02:10). There are few instances in the show where the grandparents, especially Cliffs parents, help to supervise children. For example, in the fourteenth episode of the third season "Rudy Spends the Night" written by Carmen Finestra, Ruby spends the night at Cliffs parents (00:08:38). Another example is the fifteenth episode of the fifth season

"The Lost Weekend" written by John Markus, Carmen Finestra and Gary Kott, where Cliffs

-59- parents again take care of Rudy and her friend Kenny while Cliff and Clair spend a weekend in a cabin in the Poconos Mountains (00:09:40). In the twenty-fifth episode of the fifth season

"Day of the Locusts" written by John Markus and Carmen Finestra, Clair's and Elvin's mother take care of the twins while Sondra is sick with a strep throat (00:05:37). Moreover, in the twentieth episode of the fifth season "It Comes and It Goes" written by John Markus and

Gary Kott, Elvin's parents, Cliffs and Clair's in-laws, come for a visit and give the new parents, Sondra and Elvin, marriage advice (00:09:37). The sixth episode of the third season

"The March" written by Gary Kott, both Clair's and Cliffs parents teach Theo about the

March on Washington (00:11:44). Finally, in the fourth episode of the seventh season "Period of Adjustment," the writers Gordon Gartrelle and Lore Kimbrough introduce Clair's teenage cousin Pam who comes to stay with the Huxtables (00:02:31). The relationships in the

Huxtable family are very amicable and there is no animosity between the members of the nuclear or the extended family. The Cosby Show does not include episodes or scenes where the black community is mentioned.

On the other hand, Black-ish includes a lot of conflict between the members of the family. For example, Ruby does not like Rainbow which is demonstrated in the eighth episode of the first season "Oedipal Triangle" written by Vijal Patel when Ruby comes to visit and eventually stays with the Johnsons, and she is shown doing things to make Bow angry

(00:02:31). Moreover, in the sixteenth episode of the first season "Parental Guidance" written by Corey Nickerson, the animosity between Bow's and Dre's parents as well as between Dre and Bow's mother is expressed ("Parental Guidance" 00:10:44). In contrast to The Cosby

Show, Black-ish includes many episodes involving the extended family. In the sixth episode of the second season "Jacked o' Lantern" the writer Jenifer Rice-Genzuk Henry introduces

Dre's cousin June Bug and Andre's nieces and nephews (00:06:23). In the twenty-second episode of the first season "Please Don't Ask, Please Don't Tell" written by Peter Saji,

-60- Andre's lesbian sister Rhonda comes to visit the Johnsons (00:00:45). The seventeenth episode of the fourth season "North Star" written by Laura Gutin Peterson includes Bow's white side of the family and the clash between white cuisine and traditional African American meals (00:12:36). Furthermore, Black-ish introduces the idea of fictive kin when in the eleventh episode of the second season "Plus Two Isn't a Thing" written by Njeri Brown and

Lisa McQuillan, "Aunt" Gigi, Dre's best friend, comes to visit (00:02:35). Moreover, the show also deals with the loyalty and closeness between members of the black community. In the fifteenth episode of the third season, "I'm a Survivor" written by Hale Rothstein, Dre attends the funeral of his friend from Compton and decides to help his old friends from the neighbourhood despite Bow's objections (00:11:41). The importance of the black community is highlighted when Ruby notes, "This is your family. You help them however you can" ("I'm a Survivor" 00:12:00-00:12:03). In the seventh episode of the fourth season "Please Don't

Feed the Animals" written by Hale Rothstein, Dre wants to help his godbrother Omar who is about to be released from prison (00:13:05). Another example of Dre helping his community and family is in the eleventh episode of the fifth season "Waltz in A Minor" written by Robb

Chavis and Lisa Muse Bryant, Dre's teenage cousin Kyra comes to stay with the Johnsons because her mother is in prison (00:06:34). Dre highlights the importance of helping the community and relatives by stating, "This is a privilege. To take care of our own, that's what we do. Ever since the Great Migration when our people had to leave the Deep South to escape oppression. The only way we were able to do that is if our relatives took us in" ("Waltz in A

Minor" 00:04:49-00:05:02). In addition, Black-ish also deals with grief and the death of a family member when in the twenty-third episode of the fourth season "Dream Home" written by Graham Towers and Steve Vitolo, Bow's father dies (00:14:18).

To sum up, both sitcoms include several scenes where distant relatives and the extended family appear. The Cosby Show displays a family without divorce or conflict between the

-61 - family members, whereas Black-ish presents a family with difficult relationships. Given that the grandparents in Black-ish live in the same house as their grandchildren, they actively take part in the upbringing of the Johnson children and the socialization of the children. The grandparents in The Cosby Show do not appear as often as those from Black-ish, and although they do occasionally help with the Huxtable children, they are not an active part of the children's rearing. Furthermore, The Cosby Show refrains from mentioning the black community while Black-ish highlights the importance of it. In conclusion, the analysis show that both sitcoms include the extended family but only Black-ish addresses the importance of the black community.

-62- Conclusion

The African American family has been portrayed variously since the beginning of

American television. It has been a target of stereotypes, prejudice, and misrepresentation. This thesis focuses on the African American family as a whole, as well as on its functions, relationships within the family and television portrayal in American sitcoms. As a result of a positive shift in the current society regarding the fight against racism and the fight for equal civil rights, it is assumed that the television representation of African Americans and the black family has improved in the last decades. Thus, the main objective of the thesis is to demonstrate a positive shift in the portrayal of the African American family and the issues related to it.

The structure of the African American family has its roots in Africa, and it gradually evolved in the New World during and after slavery. Some aspects and features of the African family structures were preserved, for example, the strong kinship bonds, the importance of the extended family and fictive kin, the close-knit black community, and spirituality. The structure was not created randomly, on the contrary, the development was conditioned by external factors and problems, that African Americans have faced. The issues include racism, racial prejudice, and discrimination.

It is important to focus on the African American family because family is one of the most important aspects of one's life. The institution provides socialization of its members, emotional support and it prepares the children for adult life in the society. The African

American family is characterized by strong kinship bonds, strong work orientation and religiousness. The parenting strategies of African American parents rely heavily on discipline and responsibility. This means that African American children are taught obeyance and respect for their parents and other authority figures in their lives. One important aspect of the

-63- African American families is racial socialization, which prepares African American children for racial bias and discrimination that they might experience in the racially prejudiced society.

Another aspect of African American family is cultural maintenance, which helps African

American children to maintain an affiliation with their cultural heritage. Religiousness and spirituality have been important elements in the lives of black people even before slavery.

Therefore, the black church is an integral part of the African American family and the black community. The church was one of the first institutions that black people controlled in the

New World. It has served an educational and recreational function, and it helped with the creation of the black community. It is, in a sense, related to the extended family and fictive kin because it creates family-like bonds among its members. It helps with the socialization of the children and with problems that the members experience. The black church was also important during the civil rights movement when it helped with rebellions and transmission of coded messages.

Because television has an impact on how we perceive the world, it is important for television portrayals to omit stereotypes and racial bias. Many studies of television portrayals have found that they can impact people's opinion of minorities. For example, Fujioka's study of Japanese international and white students' perception of African American stereotypes reveals that stereotypes used in television portrayals can significantly change the perception of African Americans by viewers who have never had direct contact with this minority.

Punyanunt-Carter's study of undergraduate students' perceptions of African American portrayals on television found that viewers perceive television portrayals as authentic. Both positive and negative stereotypes influence the majority's attitudes toward the minority. The negative stereotypes can further impact the self-perception of African Americans and the absence of representation can cause a sense of unimportance.

-64- The analysis of selected themes in episodes of The Cosby Show and Black-ish demonstrated a positive shift in the portrayal of African American family and race-related issues. There is a colossal difference in the representation of racial issues and racial identity itself. Black-ish deals with racial issues and racial discrimination more explicitly than The

Cosby Show, which treats race as more of a secondary element of the show and does not address any racial issues directly. Similarly, The Cosby Show fails to portray racial socialization between the black parents and black children, while Black-ish has a whole episode which discusses this element of African American family. Both families in Black-ish and The Cosby Show are religious, however, Black-ish also addresses the value church has had for the black community. The importance of the extended family and the black community is more prevalent in the Black-ish, which directly expresses their importance in several episodes. Moreover, the extended family, namely the grandparents, play an active part in the socialization of children in Black-ish. Overall, it can be concluded that Black-ish provides more authentic representation of an African American family than The Cosby Show.

In conclusion, the thesis shows the importance of authentic representation of African

American family without the employment of stereotypes and racial bias. The analysis demonstrates a positive progress in television portrayal of an African American family in situational comedies with Black-ish representing positive change in the television portrayal of both black family and black-related issues. It is important for this trend to continue and for the portrayals to remain authentic for both the majority and minority.

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-75- Summary

The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate a positive shift in the television portrayal of

African American family in American sitcoms by analysing four different themes—race and racial issues, racial socialization, the black church and religiousness, the extended family and the black community—in selected episodes of The Cosby Show and Black-ish. The pilot episodes of the show were created thirty years apart which provides an adequate span for evaluation of the differences in the portrayal. Television portrayal can influence viewers' perception of certain groups of people; therefore, it is important for the portrayals to be authentic and without destructive stereotypes. The thesis further explains the structure of the

African American family and its primary functions including racial socialization, cultural maintenance, parental strategies, and the importance of kinship bonds. This study reveals an overview of previous television portrayals of African American families in American sitcoms from the 1950s until the present and it also provides examples of the most influential sitcoms about African American family. The matter of stereotypes and biased portrayal is likewise discussed alongside with illustrations of the influence of the stereotyped portrayal on the perception of African Americans by the white majority. Altogether, this work analyses a positive shift in the portrayal of the African American family in two sitcoms, The Cosby Show and Black-ish, by analysing the representation of four black-family-related themes in selected episodes.

-76- Resumé

Cílem této práce je demonstrovat pozitivní posun v televizním zobrazení afroamerické rodiny v americké situační komedii analýzou čtyř různých témat—rasy a rasových otázek, rasové socializace, afroamerické církve a náboženství, rozšířené rodiny a afroamerické komunity—ve vybraných epizodách sitkomů The Cosby Show a Black-ish. Pilotní epizody obou sitkomů byly vytvořeny s odstupem třiceti let, což poskytuje přiměřené rozpětí pro vyhodnocení rozdílů v zobrazení. Televizní zobrazení může ovlivnit vnímání Afroameričanů určitou skupinou lidí. Proto je důležité, aby zobrazení byla autentická a bez použití destruktivních stereotypů. Práce dále vysvětluje strukturu afroamerické rodiny. Její primární funkce včetně rasové socializace, udržování kultury, strategií využívanými rodiči při výchově dětí a významu silných vazeb mezi příbuznými. Tato studie odhaluje přehled předchozích televizních zobrazování afroamerických rodin v amerických situačních komediích od 50. let do současnosti a uvádí také příklady nej vlivnějších situačních komedií o afroamerické rodině.

Rovněž je diskutována otázka stereotypů a předpojatého zobrazení spolu s ilustracemi vlivu stereotypního zobrazení na vnímání Afroameričanů bělošskou většinou. Celkově tato práce zkoumá pozitivní posun v zobrazení afroamerické rodiny ve dvou situačních komediích, The

Cosby Show a Black-ish, pomocí analýzy čtyř témat souvisejících s afroamerickou rodinou prezentovaných ve vybraných epizodách sitkomů.

-77-