The Chronicles of Narnia"

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~~~--,-~-~"="~~~=-·~----"-~-~=~,·-~=--~~,~~-~~-~~-,-~~~-=~~==~=-·=1 I I CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE I

C. S. LEWIS' "THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA":

TOWARDS A DEFINITION OF THE GENRE OF

THE CHRISTIAN APOCALYPSE

A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in

English

Peter Wilhelmsson

August 23, 1976 The thesis of Peter Wilhelmsson is approved:

David M. Andersen

Mahlon Gaumer III

1 Stephen ~eid

California State University, Northridge

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I give special thanks to Dr. David Andersen who

patiently worked with me to see this work completed and to

!all my friends who have been to Narnia: Lars, Don, Hal,

Ricki, and Niqi.

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ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENT . ii

ABSTRACT . iv

CHAPTER I Myth and Allegory 1

I I CHAPTER II The Utopian Tradition: The City Of Man ..... 19

ICHAPTER III The Apocalyptic Tradition: The City Of God ..... 44 i l CHAPTER IV The Christian Apocalyptic Vision I 75 ' In "The Chronicles of Narnia" APPENDICES 1-7 . 126

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 144

iii ABSTRACT

C. S. LEWIS 1 "THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA":

TOWARDS A DEFINITION OF THE GENRE OF

THE CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC VISION

Peter Wilhelmsson

Master of Arts in English

Most of us are familiar with the central theme of utopia in such works as The Republic, Utopia, Looking

Backward, and Walden Two; but because the Christian apocalyptic tradition has not been defined previously, it is more difficult for the modern reader to see a common thread of prophecy and hope weaving together works such as the Old

Testament, the New Testament, Paradise Lost, Pilgrim's

Progress and the writings of C.S. Lewis. This thesis presents C.S. Lewis' "The Chronicles of Narnia" as one of the most recent of several works in the history of literature which have captured glimpses of "the city of God." Althoug this paper is by no means definitive, it picks up this thread of vision at selected times in literary history in an attempt to give the reader an understanding of------'""'""" the iv -==<=~M'"~=•-~<=ill~~·•~••~==~~""~~=~=o~•==~~W~•=-~-.. o~•·•=•c•==~-"~~-~-~cm~~=~~~===-·~-··-"~'=

allegory is seen by Lewis as factual analogy, myth is

viewed as transcending fact and portraying eternal truth.

Myth is defined as a divinely inspired product of the

imagination portraying a vision of an unseen super-natural

realm.

Man's dreams, hopes, and plans for an ideal society

constitute the core of the firmly established utopian tradi

tion in Western literature. I have identified the kinds

of historical utopians as follows: The ideal city-state of

1 the classical period, the ideal nation of the Renaissance,

and the ideal world as depicted by writers of the modern

)period. With many basic similarities to the visions of the

!utopian state, what essentially sets it off is that the

Christian apocalyptic kingdom is inspired and established

by a revelation of God's divine plan. Fallen man's

attempts to establish a perfect environment is seen as

futile by the Christian apocalyptic writers, who believe

that only God can bring it to pass. C.S. Lewis, John Bun-

yan, John Milton and the writers of the Bible all focus

Jon "the city of God" as the invading celestial city which

I will conquer this earth. I In the seven narratives of "The Chronicles of -~.. ,~~~<•··~~·~·<~,.-.~•·-••"-~"-"'"-•~-··•~----~~"''"-·-··----•~=-~~-~·~.--~·~··~-·~·"•·-·-~~•=-=·-·--·--~··•,.,...1 v arnia," c.s. Lewis reshaped Biblical myths and concepts presented earlier by other Christian apocalyptic writers.

Within his imaginative adventure stories is embedded his understanding of God's dealings with and plan for mankind.

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CHAPTER I

MYTH AND ALLEGORY

The theme of the apocalyptic vision in C.S. Lewis'

!"The Chronicles of Narnia" can best be discovered, identi ! fied, and revealed through an examination of C.S. Lewis' view and use of myth and allegory. This chapter defines, I illustrates, and expands c.s. Lewis' definition of myth and,

)allegory. The chapter "On Myth" in his book An Experiment

jin Criticism associates myth with the following six points:

1 1) perspective of the "extra-literary," 2) patterns of

life that myth mirrors, 3) lack of human sympathy, 4) ele

ment of the impossible, 5) tone of solemnity, and 6) in-

spiration of awe.

The first point maintains that myth stands on its

own without the literary frills; it has an "extra-literary"

quality. According to Lewis, the value of myth is.in its J

information. How the myth is communicated is not lmportan~

There is, then, a particular kind of story which has a value in itself [the myth]--a value indepen- dent of its embodiment in any literary works. The story of Orpheus strikes and strikes deep, of itself; the fact that Virgil and others have told it 1 in good poetry is irrelevant.l J What is important is that these myths are stories with a -

very simple narrative shape--"a satisfactory and inevitabl shape, like a good vase or a tulip." 2 If a myth could be l ~~n:c~ ~-~~.~-~!~~~~~-.~~"~e=e~~-ly-~~~~o:_.~~.::_j 1 2

Lewis said that his aim was not ". . to provide criteria

by which we can classify stories as mythical or non-mythi- 1 cal ," 3 for he defined myths by their effect upon the reader 1 .I What is myth for one man may be just an exciting 'yarn' for

another. One either relates to the truth conveyed in the

myth or one relates solely to the pattern of events in a

story. Thus, in the "On Myth" chapter Lewis defines two

types of myth readers, the "extra-literary" and the "un-

literary." For instance, the lover of myth, moved by the

myth as long as he lives, receives the substance of the

truth conveyed. He is "extra-literary," concerned with

content, not form. This myth-lover extracts the truth from

the myth, because it is his paramount focus and not the litl

erary style of the story. In contrast to the myth-lover, lis what Lewis calls the "unliterary" person who reads half lheartedly, expecting to be amused or entertained by events land literary modes to hold his attention to the story.

This person, after the initial excitement and curiosityhav

left, soon forgets any symbolic meaning extracted from the

story. In contrast to both the "extra-literary" and "un-

literary" is the literary person whose focus is on style

Ialone. I l The second characteristic of myth focuses on a 1 'world reflected by the myth story. Myth introduces us to J

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an object of contemplation as Lewis relates in AnExperimen

on Criticism:

The pleasure of myth depends hardly at all on such usual narrative attractions as suspense or surprise. Even at a first hearing it is felt to be inevitable. And the first hearing is chiefly valuable in intro ducing us to a permanent object of contemplation- more like a thing than a narration--which works upon us by its peculiar flavor or quality, rather as a smell or a chord does.4

Lewis' conviction that our real, visible world is a shimmerl ing reflection of a more real, invisible world is the basis

of h:: :::::Yo::Ym:::~pses of the higher world breaking I in the brush of our finitude, and these glimpses are 1 caught by the imagination. The simple and imagina tive narrative re-expression of these glimpses of the core of reality is what Lewis means by myth. Myths are a real, though unfocused gleam of divine univer sal truth falling on human imagination.5

Lewis believed great myth to be a vehicle which enables

man to express the inexpressible. It is the best embodi-

ment of that which transcends fact. Dr. Dabney Hart's

!repeated conclusion in her study of Lewis' conception of

myth and allegory maintains that he considered myth "the 6 1 embodiment of universal truth." l This understanding of C.S. Lewis' belief concerning lmyth is further strengthened by Gary Friesen's thesis. 1 History focuses on events, myth conveys the essence of

1those events. Myth describes the divine, operating forces 1 I and laws within historical events. According to Friesen, l 'Lewis does not, however, separate fact and truth as distinc L~.~"""""~~--~~~~-~··-~L~...... "'''·····~··"'-~"'·~-.-~"~~·-----~~~·~~---.--~--~·-~·-~·-=·---·····---~·~l 4 F:~~-~!~~~~n~~~;~- !~ h!~t~~-l cate truth. In the space novel written by Lewis, Perelandra, Ransom discovers that it is only on earth that there is a distinction between fact and myth. Lewis says that in the incarnation of Christ is seen on earth the combination of myth and fact. The birth of Jesus is the time when the great myth became Fact. Myth is an expression of reality rather than just fact. In Christ's coming myth and history became one.7

Professor Lewis saw Jesus Christ, for instance, as the

"Eternal Reality" and "The Eternal Fact" well able to inte-

grate myth and fact.8 Christ claimed to be the Messiah

jabout whom the Old Testament Scriptures prophesied, he who

fulfilled the scores of prophecies concerning the coming

one. I believe the clearest picture of the Messiah in the

Old Testament Scriptures is found in the fifty-third chap-

ter of the book of Isaiah where he is revealed as God's

"suffering servant." Here is a rather complete description

of the person and ministry of the anointed one of God.

Lewis also saw other glimpses of Christ throughout

the myth of the Old Testament Scriptures; Christ's exist-

ence was mirrored in the writings of the prophets who

received revelations of Him. In accordance with Lewis'

definition of myth and his strong belief in the deity of

Jesus Christ,· Christ was seen by Lewis as the gleam of

divine truth and the coming Messiah. Christ existed in a

higher world, that of the spirit. When Jesus Christ was j physically born he became historical fact. In linking land fact the divine myth became manifest in flesh and

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previous centuries. Due to the fact that Christ's eternal

existence was manifested on the earth in human form He

becomes the origin and union of myth and history.

C.S. Lewis viewed mythology as divine revelation

to man. He did not limit divine inspiration to the Bibli- '

cal \vriters. Great myths of the Bible and of pagan litera-

ture (i.e., the myths of Orpheus, Persephone, Balder,

Ragnarok9) throughout the ages were seen by Lewis as des-

criptions of reality. In Reflections on the Psalms Lewis

!contends that a "Divine pressure" rested upon the pagan

mythmakers:

Thus something originally merely natural--the kind of myth that is found among most nations--will have been raised by God above itself, qualified by Him and compelled by Him to serve purposes which of itself it would not have served. Generalising this, I take it that the whole Old Testament consists of the same sort of material as any other literature- chronicles (some of it obviously pretty accurate) , poems, moral and political diatribes, romances, and what not; but all taken into the service of God's word. Not all, I suppose, in the same way. There are prophets who write with the clearest awareness that Divine compulsion is upon them . . On all of these I suppose a Divine pressure; of which not by any means all need have been conscious.lO j In the same book he further clarifies his conception of the l relationship between pagan and Christian mythologies:

Other Christians who think, as I do, that in mytholo gy divine and diabolical and human elements (the de sire for a good story), all play a part, would say: "It is not accidental. In the sequence of night and day, in the annual death and rebirth of the crops, in the myths which these processes gave rise to, in the strong, if half-articulate, feeling (embodied J lj in many Pagan 'Mysteries') that man himself must

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undergo some sort of death if he would truly live, there is already a likeness permitted by God to that truth on which all depends. The resemblance between these myths and the Christian truth is no more accidental than the resemblance between the sun and the sun's reflection in a pond, or that be tween a historical fact and the somewhat garbled version of it which lives in popular report, or be tween the trees and hills of the real world and the trees and hills in our dreams." Thus all three views alike would regard "Pagan Christs" and the true Christ as things really related and would find the resemblance significant.ll

Pagan mythmakers were visionaries with glimpses of divine

light. To Lewis, the Old Testament myths, "the carriers of

the Y.lord of God," were certainly purer, more complete por-

trayals of divine life and law. Pagan mythology contained

glimpses but God's purest revelation to man, of Himself

and of his plan, was to be found in the "Holy Scriptures,"

according to the thinking of Lewis.l2 Far more important

than the authenticity of Old Testament facts was the author1 ity of Old Testament spiritual principles and truths. In

"The Chronicles of Narnia" Lewis took the scriptural truth~

cut away the antique trappings of the straight forward

Biblical myth narrative, and reshaped the message in a new,

more imaginative form, basically that of a fable (where I principal characters are talking animals). Lewis was theret

J fore through this myth-fable a conduit of the spiritual l l truths of the Scriptures. He did not create these scriptural truths; he reshaped them.

j Knowledge of spiritual reality, Lewis believed, ,

1 comes more totally through one's imagination (the gatewayJ Ito divine revelation) than through one's rational thinking. -.,-,~-~""''"'=--=>"'""-""-....--""="""''~~--~--= .... »=--·-----·--~=.,....,,,.,.==--.,.,~------~·-~ 7

Lewis stated that when allegory is at its best, " . it

approaches myth, which must be grasped with the imaginatio~

not with the intellect."l3 Richard Cunningham, a Lewis

biographer, accurately conveys the view of Lewis who postu-

lated that the symbolism incorporated in myth cannot be

understood by rational patterns of thought:

Through mythology the imagination has an immediate non-conceptual apprehension of reality, grasps what baffles the intellect and sees what reality is like in a more central region. The validity of the mytho poeic imagination is not open to reason's examina tion, for mythological images strike roots far beneath the surface of the mind as though one had broken out of his normal mode of consciousness.l4

This type of thinking suggests that more divine truth has

!presented itself in mythopoeic literature than has been

revealed in myriads of volumes of theological studies for-

mally and systematically devoted to the scientific study

of Biblical truths.

C.S. Lewis did not approach his process of creating1 fiction through logical planning:

Some people seem to think that I began by asking myself how I could say something about Christianity to children; then fixed on the fairytale as an in strument; then collected information about child psychology and decided what age group I'd write for; then drew up a list of basic Christian truths and hammered out allegories to embody them. This is pure moonshine. I wouldn't write in that way at all. Everything began with images; a faun carrying an umbrella, a queen on a sledge, a magnificent lion. At first there wasn't even anything Christian about them; that element pushed itself in on its own accord. It was part of the bubbling. Then came the Form as these images sorted themselves l lnto· events . . . . 15 !,

I To Lewis myth was vision which transcended this world of J'

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~~-·~···~~·~"==~·'"~--~··=··="~~~-~-="=~~~·-=·~~··="==~-~1 !the mundane into a numinous higher world.

The third point in Lewis' definition of myth states!

that human sympathy is at a minimum:

We do not project ourselves at all strongly into the characters. They are like shapes moving in another world. We feel indeed that the pattern of their movements has a profound relevance to our life, but we do not imaginatively transport ourselves into theirs. The story of Orpheus makes us sad; but we are sorry for all men rather than vividly sympathetic with him, as we are, say, with Chaucer's Troilus. 1 6

The non-sympathetic quality of myth is necessitated by the

!nature of truth in visionary myth; it moves the responder jfrorn the personal to the eternal-universal. For example,

in the above quotation, Lewis' words describing a characteristic response to myth, "but we are sorry for all men" Iprojects a universal quality. With Orwell ' s 19 8 4 , the read- 1er does not merely feel empathy for the character Winston,

!but rather for all mankind living in that society. Myth j applies to mankind because it contains a truth that relates! to all men in spite of cultural differences. Furthermore, there is an eternal quality you can read into his words-- that sense of "all rnen"--those who have existed always and those who always will. The truth contained in the myth lis timeless, and is pertinent to all epochs of man--past, present and future. This universal, eternal quality of myth is the reason that myth is the great incubator for archetypes. Horner's The Odyssey is a myth that establishes the universal, eternal archetype of the lost wanderer grop- ing through adverse circumstances to find his way horne. r~-"~~-=~e·•=••c•=···=~----·=·-~=·~-'~-=c•-~-=~~·~=~----·~~~--~~--~~~-~~~--~·~·-·=-l That myth always in some way deals with the 1

"fantastic" is the fourth point that Lewis perceives.

Myths are loaded with improbables and impossibles. Since

Ia myth introduces to us another world we are not familiar

jwith, it is natural for us to impose our norms and stand

ards of what is and is not possible on this newly exposed

world of myth. j Literary history has been a reflection of man's

!conflict between "mysticism" and "scientism." Medieval

'religious, cosmological, and mystical literature was a

reflection of its time. During the Enlightenment the

!,rationalists' criticized the supernatural in society and I !literature. The French realism of the eighteenth century land the naturalism in American literature of the twentieth jcentury drew the focus away from the supernatural to the

!natural. However, writers such as William Blake, Carlos lcastaneda, Alan Ginsberg and Alan Watts have dealt with I !our psycho-physical environment, the abandonment of an

"interior" (spiritual) reality. Today's psychological and

philosophical presupposition of objectivism, reductionism,

!positivism, and pragmatism have greatly influenced the l literature of the twentieth century. and supernatural, rejected by the unseeing sophistication l of this present age should not be lightly dismissed. This I pragmatic disbelief is a barricade behind which many Ipeople stand unable to peer beyond, into the revelatory

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-·-~~~-. ===-=~-~~==-==•«~~~-•-c<~~""•··"~--~~=~==<=-~=~=-=~-~="~~~~~==~~·-~ form of myths and fairy tales. Lewis' autobiographies, ,

The Pilgrim's Regress and Surprised by Joy portray the

tortuous path Lewis followed in the renewing and transfor-

mation of his mind, escaping narrowly the philosophical-

scientific speculations and Zeitgeist of his time.

According to Lewis' fifth point in defining myth,

"The experience of the myth may be sad or joyful but it is

always grave. Comic myth (in my sense of myth) is impossi-

ble."l7 Myth always has the note of solemnity upon it be-

cause it is instructive and revealing, plucking at the !heartstring of all mankind and evoking the solemn response l that resounds from a person who is confronted by an awesome1

truth.

According to the sixth point of Lewis' definition,

not only is the mythical experience a sober one but beyond

jthat, awe-inspiring with that element of the spiritual and lmystical. "We feel it to be numinous. It is as if some thing of great moment had been communicated to us."lS Myth

as a conveyor of divine revelation brings a sense of awe

to people.

A further understanding of Lewis' view of myth can

be obtained by studying his conception of allegory and the

comparisons and contrasts he makes between the two. In

The Allegory of Love, Lewis discusses the development and

I distinction between symbolism (myth) and allegory. Lewis

J identifies allegory specifically as the conscious represen-j' l~. .,=~~"-·~-~~=······-- -~---~~ .. ~~----·~'"-·~~~----~~ .. ·--~~"-~-~~~-~-~~~~-~-·~-·-· ~- 11

tation of the human psyche:

On the one hand you can start with the immaterial fact, such as the passion which you actually experi ence; and can invent "visibilia" to express them.l9

Illustrating this definition in The Allegory of Love, Lewis points out that wherever Cretian in the medieval classic, I Roman a la Rose turns inward or is portrayed psychologicalll

lthe work becomes allegorical. Through the immaterialpsych

!abstractions of the inner life take on form, and thus alle

gory is created.

If allegory represents a psychological reality, syrn+

bolism can then imply a supernatural, spiritual reality. I Again in The Allegory of Love Lewis goes on to define the

symbolism of myth by contrasting it to allegory:

If our passions, being immaterial, can be copied by material inventions, then it is possible that our material world in its turn is the copy of an invisi ble world!20

,For Lewis, the eternal is the real: the substance of mater~~ l ial things is the reflection of this reality. Lewis' thinkT

ing then is basically platonic in nature 1 that is, those

things on this earth are only forms and imperfect copies of

the idea-realities of a higher world. Barnet, Berman, and

Birto in A Dictionary of Literary Terms reinforce Lewis'

concept by defining symbolism in the following way: l Where the allegorist commonly inverts a world ! (Bunyan's man named Christian in The Pilgrim's Progress meets a Giant named Dispair) in order to talk about the real world, the symbolist commonly 1. presents the phenomena of what we usually call the I real world, and he uses it to reveal a higher eternal \ world in which the symbol is a part.21 , ~""'~'"'"--~--~••·~=•~•~••a>"-~~-·.~-·-·~·~~· ~"-"'·-~·~''~''''"''-'~''~'''~'""'~'"~'"'~~~~·-•~••••~-=~-•.,~·-'<~•·~·-·••••~ .. -· J 12

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physical world (symbols) can bring the individual in touch ~~ with the eternal reality. The word "symbolism" is derived

from the Greek, symballein, meaning, "to throw together."

Thus, symbolism performs the basic functions of drawing two

worlds together: the spiritual and the natural. Lewis'

writings draw together the world of modern man (the world

of symbols) and the other world of spiritual reality (the

world of mythical truth) . The magic wardrobe in the first

book of "The Chronicles of Narnia" serves as a bridge

between the two worlds of England and Narnia (spiritual

reality).

Myth is sustained symbolism through which eternal

truth can be communicated. C.S. Lewis had a similar con-

cept of myth and allegory as William Blake. Blake recog-

nizes the supernatural element in myth in his collection of

jwritings called "A Vision of the Last Judgment":

Fable and allegory are a totally distinct and inferior kind of poetry. Vision or Imagination is a Representation of what Eternally Exists. Really and unchangeable. The Hebrew Bible and the Gospel of Jesus are not allegory but Eternal Vision of Imagination of all that Exists.22

Fables, parables, and allegories have essential similari- ' Ities. All three are narratives which enforce a moral doc- 1 trine. In fables, animals talk and act like human beings. lA parable is more general in nature than either a fable or

allegory. It is merely a short fictitious story which 13

a lesson the author is giving. The moral of an alle-

is brought out by the actions of abstract personifica-

tions.

Allegory is an extended metaphor, ". . to repre-

sent what is immaterial in pictural terms."23 Figural

allegory involves a series of personified ideas: 1) In

the medieval play Everyman, for instance, the reader is

introduced to such personified ideas as Good Deeds, Death,

and Fellowship. 2) In the Old Testament one finds a great

deal of figural allegory. For instance, the book of Pro-

verbs personifies Wisdom as a woman who says things like

"My fruit is better than gold, yea, than fine gold; and my

revenue than choice silver [Proverbs 8:19]." 3) Another

example of figural allegory which is much more subtle and

open to varying interpretations is the passionate dialogue

between the bride and bridegroom in The Song of Solomon.

Lewis, along with many other Christians, saw this relation-

~ ship as a prophetic figural allegorization of the relation-

ship exemplified in the epistles of the New Testament

between the Church and Christ.

A narrative allegory uses a simple story to convey

a truth: 1) The Good Samaritan parable (Luke 10:25-37)

and the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32) are two lof many narrative allegories found in the New Testament.

2) Simple stories such as these didactically convey a

moral or spiritual lesson much in the same way as Aesop's 14

The difference between the story of a narrative

and the story of a myth is that the former is more

direct and intentional, the message therefore more easily

grasped. Narrative allegory is a rational illustration

planned to get a point across. Myth is an unplanned story

in which is hidden an important truth. Although myth may

have allegorical and fableistic elements in it and can

often be interpreted as a narrative on those levels, it is

essentially a vehicle of a deeper, spiritual truth.

Allegory is a created work having a definite pur-

pose which C.S. Lewis defines in the preface to The

Pilgrim's Regress:

But in fact all good allegory exists not to hide but to reveal, to make the inner world more palp~~le by giving it an (imagined) concrete embodiment.

The Pilgrim's Regress is Lewis' most pure allegory. His

other works such as "The Chronicles of Narnia" and "The

Space Trilogy" were not pre-planned with allegory in mind,

rather he entered into those works with mythical vision.

In other words, according to Lewis' definition of myth, the

creating of these works was launched by his imagination which was fed by the bright glimpses of the higher, unseen world--the realm of myth and divine truth.

The allegory took shape as he organized his visionll representing one level of meaning of the greater myth in

these works. Lewis says:

My view would be that good myth (i.e., a story out of which ever varying meanings will grow for different 1 ~·-=T><-·=-...-~---~-·~·~·---·-=--==~"~"'"·--~--~------~ 15

r=~~~iff:;~:~-~h~~~,~ an allegory (into which one meaning has been put) . l Into an allegory a man can put only what he already I knows: in a myth he puts what he does not yet know and could not come by in any other way.25

Lewis' use of the symbols in The Pilgrim's Regress illus-

trates the fact that allegory is constructed with purpose-

ful rationality and logic, for he knew and consciously con-

veyed to his readers his message through the use of distinc

figural and narrative allegory. Drudge, Mr. Humanist,

Virtue, and Contemplation are some of the distinct personi-

fied ideas which come and go throughout the book. John's

conversation with Mr. Angular is one of many narrative

allegorical incidents. In the dialogue it becomes evident

that Mr. Angular leans upon unsubstantiated church author-

ity, glibly advising others on matters he has not experi-

enced or is not knowledgeable about. Lewis uses this partil1 lcular simple dialogue to warn John of the false authority of the clergy.

Although most of The Pilgrim's Regress is in stricti

allegorical form, most of Lewis' other fiction is a mixture!

of allegory and myth, where allegory approaches myth throug

the invasion of the imaginative element into the logical.

The language of myth is imagination. In literature it

incorporates imagery, metaphor, symbolism, and rhythm to

bring forth infinite ideas, feelings and truth. Both alle-~ gory and myth use the intermediaries of representation and !~narrative to illuminate truth. Whereas the representation l L~.~-_,_~~-·------·~---,--~· . ---=-----J 16 of the :r::-::::::;:-::-c~n~=~~=-=el ma;::-l mind, the representation of the latter works through the deeper, subconscious level of the spirit. Thus, myth has meaning " beyond the conscious awareness of the creator or the reader of it."26 17

MYTH AND ALLEGORY ENDNOTES

lc.s. Lewis, An Experiment in Criticism (London: Cambridge University Press, 1961), p. 41. 2 . Lew1s, Criticism, p. 42.

3L ew1s,. Criticism, p. 45. 4 . Lew1s, Criticism, p. 43. 5 Jacob E. Hoff, The Idea of God and Spirituality (Rome: Institute Theologiae Spiritualis Pontificiae Universitatis, 1969), p. 147. 6 Dabney Hart, "C.S. Lewis' Defense of Poesie" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1959). 7 Garry Lee Friesen, "Scripture in the Writings of C.S. Lewis" (unpublished M.A. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary, May 1973), P~ 42. 8 For an examination of Lewis' belief and devotion to Jesus Christ the Me~siah read his book Mere Christianity (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1943). 9 These are listed by Lewis as great myths in An Experiment in Criticism, p. 42. 10 Lewis, Reflections on the Psalms (New York: Har court, Brace, 1958), p. 111. 11 Lewis, Reflections, p. 106-107. 12 c 1 y de Kilby , --=T~h:...:e~C:...:h..:,;r=-=.i_s-=t--=i::....a-=n=--W=---:;-o_r_l....cd-.-o'-f-=-C-'-7-._s__;..--;;Lc-:e::-w~l-=-· .,-s (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdman's Pub., 1964), pp. 159-160. 13 C.S. Lew1s,. T h e P1 . 1 gr1m . I s Regress: An All egor1ca. 1 Apology for Christianity, Reason, and Romanticism (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1974), p. 13. 14 Richard B. Cunningham, C.S. Lewis: Defender of the Faith (Philadelphia: The Westminister Press, 1967), pp. 7 75. I ----~~-"------J 18

~-~~~~'''''=••-==•••,••••••••••oa••t•••s•'"''''"''''''"_,''"'"""''·~~~~~------~-~--w-~ . 15 c.s. Lewis, "Sometimes Fairy Stories May Best Say hat's to be said," The New York Times, Book Review Sectio~ Children's Books Section, 18 November 1956, p. 3. 16 . Lewls, Criticism, p. 44. 17 . Lewls, Criticism, p. 44. 18 . Lewls, Criticism, p. 44. 19 c.s. Lewis, The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition (London: Oxford U. Press, 1936), p. 44, 45. 20 Lewis, Allegory, p. 45. 21 Sylan Burnet, Morton Berman, and William Burto, A Dictionary of Literary Terms (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1960), p. 84. 22 william Blake, "A Vision of the Last Judgment," The Poetry and Prose of William Blake (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1965), p. 544.

23 Lewls,. A11 egory, p. 44 . 24 Lewis, Pilgrim's Regress, p. 13. 25 Lewis, "Letter to Father Milwood," Wheaton, Ill.: Marion Wade Collection, Wheaton College, Sept. 22, 1956. 26 Jeanette Anderson Bakke, "The Lion and the Lamb and the Children: Christian Childhood Education Throughout the Chronicles of Narnia" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, August 1975), p. 33. CHAPTER II

THE UTOPIAN TRADITION: THE CITY OF MAN

It is beyond the scope of this thesis to explore

the interpretations and ideologies represented within

sphere of the definition of utopia. For our purposes

topia will represent a political-social philosophy

pressed by a fictional state which is an idealized vision

state. Utopia is society planned without

the limiting restraints and handicaps of existing institu-

tions and individuals. Lewis Mumford, for instance, sees

utopia as a combination of human reason and wild hope:

The word utopia stands in common usage for the ulti mate in human folly or human hope--vain dreams of perfection in Never-never Land or rational efforts to remake man's environment and his institutions and even his own erring nature, so as to enrich the possi bilities of common life.l

Utopian writers in seeing the imperfections of the world round about them are motivated to construct, in hope, a better world.

The Classical Utopia

Plato's The Republic was written as a dialogue dis- cussing the nature of justice. Justice, Plato finally con- eluded, results from the harmonious cooperation of the classes, each doing its duty, so that everyone does the job best suited for his capacity. The utopia analyst,

19 Neg~e;:-:~e::;:;.u.lized-;lato-:-:-==~-~j~ His society was [is] characterized by absolute communism amongst the guardians (including community of women), equality of the sexes, class division, and slavery, by the materialism of a city-state based on a permanent army and by the proscription of new ideas from abstract.2

ccording to Plato, all individual self-will and selfishnes, subordinated to the common will and common good j s dictated by the spiritual and intellectual guides. j

~~hese rulers only govern justly as they become capable of

Fontemplating the Idea of the Good--not the moral but the ; etaphysical good. The educational system of Plato's utopi

is the primary means by which superior men and women are

selected and developed to rule the state. Plato's society,

in The Republic, is a harsh militaristic one. In a later

ork, The Laws, he liberalizes his harsh ideas of the ideal

state and makes changes accordingly. He eliminates the ictatorship of philosopher-rulers, and the common posses- l ion of mates, children and property. Plato replaces these tj ith a mixed constitution, combining the best features of monarchy and democracy. Numerous laws and restrictions are

used to keep human nature in line.

In Politics, Aristotle challenges some of the poli-

tical structures of Plato's The Republic, and gives the

reader a blueprint of his ideal government. Aristotle's

underlying attitude towards government was quite different from Plato's: I ! Presupposed in Aristotle's discussion is his view j L~---=--,---~-~~~~~~-··--~-~------~~~~----·~------~--~-l 21

that a state is a plurality, a collection of individ uals organized under a certain constitution in order to meet certain needs, not an organism [as in The Republic] in which individual parts lose their iden tity by being fused together into an undifferentiated and unified whole.3

istotle objected to Plato's communism and his abolition

f the family as an institution--measures which Plato made

lear were only to apply to the guardians (inclusively, the

and soldiers) and not to artisans and

Plato in The Republic sees money as the root

he abolishes it along with private property.

Aristotle believed that existing evils did not arise from

private property, but from the wickedness of human nature.

most important issues about which Plato and

Aristotle were in concord, regarding their respective

utopias, were: 1) Thinkers are at the apex of human hier-

archy, that is, human self-realization comes through intel-

lectual ~ontemplation, not sense-pleasure or political

success. 2) Education should make children loyal to the

state, and 3) gymnastics and music are the basis of public

education.

The Republic, The Laws, and Politics are three

classical works describing ideal states. All of these

states revolve around the city-state structure prevalent

at that time. In contrast to later utopian plans, these were not patterns for international systems of government

but blueprints for the revision of a small city-state.

These utopias are specific and practical in spelling out 22

r~-~-~-~·----~-~~- the steps for governing the mundane activities of the ·

people of those times.

The Renaissance Utopia

The next major group of western utopian writings

(sparked by Thomas More's Utopia) comes during the European

Renaissance. Erasmus considered Utopia, first published in

Latin in 1516, to be a social criticism. But More's

planned society was so elaborate and well thoughtoutthat

l it clearly transcends the meager confines of Erasmus' eval-l

uation and is probably the most popular and influential

utopian work in fiction.

More, "enlightened" by the humanistic philosophy

permeating that period, excludes the Christian religion

from the foundation blocks of his society. Utopia is an

11 enlightened," humanistic, moderated, disciplined society

jbased on common ownership. Since More sees the evils of I society as largely economical and managerial (in regards to

the means of production) , he accordingly suggests remedies

for its reorganization by eliminating economic evils and

overthrowing harassing conventions. In contrast to

Aristotle, More strived for the equality of all citizens,

abolishing all class distinction before the law:

More has in mind the abolition of class distinction and the equality of all citizens, before the law; consequently the abolition of private property and the establishment of common possession is the surest l way of bringing about equality of claim and the , l abolition of crime.4 I L.~.~-~--~~-~~~~~--.---~---~----~·--~-~·-~~·----·~---~...... ,..j 23

N:;:::~::::~~~el:~:::~~uali ~Z~th::l

maximum in Utopia. As in The Republic, education, as an J

indoctrinating tool of the state, is the important key of

success in Utopia. Therefore, at communal meals in More's

utopia, lectures are given and conversations encouraged

that reinforce beliefs of the society.

More uses the character of the traveler, Hythloday,

to point out the various evils in England and describe the

civilization of Utopia. Thus, while Utopia is fantastic,

yet Hythloday describes it in such a way that banishes dis-

belief and transports us into a land that actually exists. lMore uses a relaxed descriptive style with an abundance of

humor and convincing human portrayals to make the reader

feel at home in Utopia. It is not portrayed in theory but

rather in charming, practical reality. The following pas-

sage from Utopia illustrates how More, with his uniquely

!personal approach, is enchanting and convincing: In the meantime gold and silver they used so that l none of them esteem it more than the nature of the . deserves. And who does not plainly see how far it is inferior to iron? Of gold and silver they make I commonly chamber pots and other vessels that serve for most vile uses, and chains wherein they tie their bondmen. Finally they hang rings of gold about the ears and necks of offenders. Thus they have gold in reproach and infamy. They gather also pearls and diamonds by chance, and therewith they deck their young children. None but children do wear such trifles. Ambassadors of the Anenolians came to Amaurote while I was there, determined in the gorgeousness of their apparel to dazzle the eyes of the Utopians. There I came four ambassadors with gold harygiqg at their ears, with gold rings and bracelets. How proudly they dis- j j played their peacock feathers! You should have seen 1 L---···~=-~~--~=~---~·---- ~·------,-~ 24

=-,~ chi~d'i;~hei~"";-;th';~~=·~nder the sid~; ~ saying, "Look, mother, how great a bubber! Yet wears pearls and precious stones as though he were a child." But 1 the mother, "Peace, son," says she, "I think he is one of the ambassador's fools."S

The word utopia means both "no place" and "good

place." Hythloday describes Utopia as a long island con-

taining fifty-four cities. All participate in some farm

1work and specialized work for six hours a day. Rule is by

Ia benevolent monarChy with some rudimentary checks and

balances, and a good portion of popular control on the

lower levels of government. The family unit is preserved

as an important foundation of society. This is in contrast

to the concept of Plato and many other utopian writers.

~More entices the reader with stories of the wealth and hap

piness of the Utopian natives, and convinces him of the

success of his utopia.

A century after Utopia was written, another influ-

ential utopian classic took root in Europe. The City of

lthe Sun by Tommaso Campanella was first published in Latin

in 1623. As in The Republic, the economic system is com-

munistic, man's private conscience and personality are

subordinated to the collective conscience or personality;

family and property are sacrificed to the state. Campanel-

la rejects the forces of human personality as sources of

corruption, divisions, and crimes:

As a result, in The City of the Sun, the state comes first; a man's condition depends upon his services to it. His aptitude is judged from his services, and he is classified accordingly. All work is for L~~--~~~.:-~.9E}.~n! .. ~ikewise, belong to the 25

state and as national workers they must produce the best possible future citizens.6

Mating is arranged by the state. There is much less free-

dom than is found in More's Utopia. As in Utopia, however,

crime has been abolished by eliminating the needs and sel-

fish desires that motivate it. This state is ruled by a

kind of high priest, Hoh, who is assisted by three princes.

!The four work together but Hoh has the last word. The pic-

ture of utopia painted by Campanella is more somber than

the lively portrait of More, but it is essentially the same

scene. The significance of this work is that in it Campa-

nella gives the reader one more step toward the technocra-

tic utopias of the twentieth century. It stands in the

direct line of the development of utopian thought, particu-

larly in its emphasis on eugenics, education, and the aris-

tocracy of merit and education.

In anticipation of our modern technocratic state,

Sir Francis Bacon enthroned science as the god of his seve

teenth century utopia. Science, tempered by humanistic

morality and religion, was to be the chief means for his

~marvelous transformation of the world. His utopia, New Atlantis, in contrast to other utopias discussed in this

paper, does not advocate revolution or radical change, but

carefully superimposes science and advanced knowledge on a

society which is essentially that of Jacobean England. In

New Atlantis the control of society is in the hands of a j priestly regime of technicians. He shows the potentialitie

~'<-~'.V.

r~~~---~~~~-~~-~-~ , - 6f science in its ability to improve a capitalistic soc~etyl ased on the family unit. It is dedicated to the welfare of the people, using the panacea of science and knowledge

to harness and effectively use nature for the good of mankind. Modern capitalistic societies based on the family

unit have tried to employ the cure-all of science for

society's ills, but there is a question of whether the result has been more good or more destruction. Although

it is of major importance for demonstrating the possibility of dedicating a state to the welfare of its citizens, the

improvement of mankind, and the potentialities of science, the work is rather naive in the light of subsequent human experience.

The three utopias discussed along with others of the period from 1500-1850 fully advocated efficient utilization of the available source-s of men and materials to serve a given society. Naturalistic philosophy and humanism motivated this utilitarian society. Natural philosophy and humanitarianism were the mo-st prominent forces influencing the utopian works of the Renaissance. Natural philosophy taught the infallible goodness of natural law, leading men to envisage the possibility of a model state government by

few and wise laws inductively obtained from nature and yet dominant over her. Since it was believed that error was absent from nature, it would also be absent from the state according to this philosophy. The study and application 27

of the laws of nature to the political and social structure

of the state constituted the importance of the role of

science, which was introduced by Bacon's New Atlantis as a

product of the naturalistic philosophy. Sir Thomas More's

Utopia has been the model humanistic utopia. Humanistic

thinking has its roots in naturalistic philosophy. Human-

lism, in ruling out the possibility of an active superna

jtural reality, channeled the emphasis from spiritual end to

the investigation of the physical sciences, thus issuing in

the.birth of the naturalistic philosophy. More, Campanella

and Bacon exclude God from a position of prime importance

in their societies. The influential humanistic philosophy

brought the focus of people away from God and the super-

natural and directed it toward man and the natural. The

!heart of true humanistic religion is the passion for and

faith in society. It is man's solemn duty to build a

better world. In humanistic thinking, since there is no

supreme being who is an active agent in bringing about a

!utopian ideal, man himself must save humanity. If this is

true, man cannot look to God or the supernatural for sur-

vival and salvation, but must insure his own.

The Modern Utopia and Dystopia

Although former utopian works had elements of the

modern utopia within them, the modern period of this liter lature ~s confined to the years, 1850 to the present. This

- ---~~~------~------~~-~·---·~------·----~-...... ] 28

r~-=··"~~=·~~-·... ~~-·~~~~~-~~~-=--=-- ~· ·~~~-=~ ~ ..~ . iperiod is characterized by two kinds of utopian literature: I ll) the utopian fiction which accepts industrialization jand urbanization which harnesses science and technology for

the welfare of man, and 2) the dystopia fiction which

satirizes utopian literature, warning against the naive jnotions of man's powers over machinery. Looking Backward,

~reeland, A Modern Utopia, and Walden Two are important

!works representative of optimistic modern utopian litera-

ture. Brave New World and Nineteen-Eighty-Four are the

1prominent pessimistic dystopian works of the twentieth

century.

Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward combines many

elements from utopias of the past in such an attractive

utopian state that many "Looking Backward" clubs were

formed and a "Looking Backward" movement was launched. The

main character of the book, Julian West, finds himself

awakened from his sleep in Boston in the year 2000. In 1 describing the new world, West lays out Bellamy's plan for

utopia. Economic arrangements are seen as both the source

present injustices and the means of remedying them:

Bellamy is able to maintain that human nature has remained the same by reducing human motives to the desire for economic equality or variants thereof, such as fairness in artistic competition. In this process he has separated motive from its basic human nature and is then free to assimilate motive into varying forms of economic organization.7

In Looking Backward, Bellamy advocates the equal division lof wealth among members of society. He proposes to equal- l L~~··~--~~~=-~·~--~--~-~-.-·~---- 29

=·-~--=~..,...... ,..~-~~-~~----~~~~-- ize the stigma and attraction each trade holds~~s d~a~~ ing a consistent supply of workers for all positions.

Bellamy envisions an industrial army as the most logical

and efficient way of organizing work--everyone is con-

scripted for twenty-four years of work, doing what is most

suitable to his talents and inclination. Higher education

is available for everyone. Women have equal status with

men, even though the family unit is preserved. A flexible

compromise between family privacy and public convenience

is achieved. Science and technology are developed to

further serve mankind; the arts are stimulated to flourish.

The state has faded away into an economic administration.

Bellamy's contrast is clear; it is a much more humane

world than the Boston of the 1880's.

Theodor Hertzka's Freeland was written at the end

of the nineteenth century. This practical minded Austrian

did not have time for daydreaming, and in his book he

set up an ideal but practical form of government which

eliminated every hindrance to the free exercise of self-

interest. Unlike Plato's ideal, education is free and

universal. Everyone who takes advantage of Freeland

also advances by degree according to ability~ this

concept being similar to Plato's educational scheme. As

in Looking Backward, buying and selling take place in Jl warehouses managed by the community. According to Joyce l Hertzler's, The History of Utopian Thought, this new socia I I L-~~~.-a<~=~-~~--~~----~----,-,~------·----J 30

-u~-==~·~-,-=o=~,,· ·~~,~--~---~-~-~~r.a ~~~~~ and economic order is based entirely upon the following l

five laws: 1) Equal and inalienable claim upon the whole

of the lands, and upon the means of production accumulated

by the community. 2) Community care for all who are in-

capable of work. 3) No restraints on active exercise of

one's own will that does not infringe upon the rights of

!others. 4) Equal right of vote and election by all adult

members of society in all matter affecting the common-

wealth. 5) Elector representation in the legislative and 8 executive departments of government. The importance of

one's personal liberties is emphasized nearly as much as

in A Modern Utopia.

A Modern Utopia by H.G. Wells (1905) presents many

j fresh ideas such as travel as a tool of education and

j machines as the prime labor force. Wells emphasizes the I necessity for people to be set free from the stranglehold

of past restraints, seeing their constructive, creative

, minds released. Wells puts more emphasis on the importanc1 of man's individual freedom of expression than any former

utopian writer. Personal freedoms are of utmost importanc

in A Modern Utopia, whereas the "older" utopias stressed

uniformity and communism. Absolute freedom of travel is

one of the most encouraged freedoms in the new state.

Wells looks for science to provide the knowledge and I technology by which mankind would conquer nature and l

J transform the world. Mechanical perfection via technology 1 L~-=-~~~·~~~·~-. ·~-,~~~-~=--~--~~--. ,~-~- ~--·~J 31

~~----··~~~,~~----·~=~===~-·~~-·~"·~·~=-===·-~~-~~-~-~-~~~---· -~~=~~-~-==l [ is to lighten the burden from the laboring classes, and simplify and improve the life of Utopia in every respect.

Like Plato, Wells believed in a voluntary nobility

to govern the ideal society. As in The Republic, the best

of mankind is chosen to provide the leadership. Men and

'women "samurai" hold practically all political power.

A Modern Utopi~ is a world ruled by self-disciplined,

socially-minded, and recognized experts. There are four

classes of human beings according to Wells: the poetic,

kinetic, dull, and the abase. The last two kinds of

people are excluded from the educational system and many !other functions of society.

I In contrast to the thinking of most utopians, Wells

jbelieved that money is both good and necessary in civilized

j life when used correctly. The extent of a man's property

is largely the measure of his freedom. Legitimate propert

consists of all those things that are extensions and ex-

j pressions of his personality, all the values that man's I toil, skill, foresight and courage have brought into being. IThe state, however, regulates property acquisition so that one man's liberty does not encroach upon the next. Prom-

is cui ty is not allowed in the utopias of Wells. Very

definite marriage laws are fixed, with a minimum age set

for marriage.

I Wells is in favor of a universal language and the l elimination of race and cultural distinctions: l.~~~~·~~~-=~~·-···-· .. -----·~·~~~~·•we~~~·~~--··~-~--'"·-•~--~·-·--·~---· ---~- 32

r=~~~·~-~~~~~C.C<·<~-~=-==~=·~<·•-~~"~'-••Y-=.~=·~~·-~>>-·=-·-~~· =·~--~~- =-~,--~=~~~·~

J Wells would have a world-wide synthesis of all cul- tures and politics and races into one World State l as th~ desirable end upon which all civilizing efforts 1 converge.9

Although Wells stresses the importance of the individual

freedom of expression, the actual workings-out of his state

demand a great deal of denial of these free expressions.

The sacrifice of self is essential in ensuring the order,

unity, and harmony of the state by supplying its needs for areas of collective conformity.

The most recent of the modern utopias is Walden Two by B. F. Skinner. Walden Two is the most thought out society

in terms of the psychological control of the individuals:

B.F. Skinner's Walden T~o develops a science of human nature to use psychological conditioning in stead of political action to build a better social environment. As in Plato's ideal city-state, democracy has been abandoned in favor of rule by experts, the community controlsf the moral training of its citizens, there is common ovmership of pro perty, Skinner's belief in the possibility of a utopia rests upon his faith in a behavioral based system, upon a science of human nature and under taken by scientifically trained "men of good will."lO

Walden Two crosses the boundary of de-humanization in its aim to give man freedom from the responsibility of planning and making choices. The state becomes God, the citizens become the puppets, and the rulers become the puppeteers.

Total psychological control is achieved by Skinner's effec- tive brainwashing techniques.

The dystopias have served their purpose of warning the people of the dangers of a planned, controlled, highly technological environment. All utopias require state 33

control over and cooperation of the people. This control

and coopeiation can be altruistically dedicated to the wel-

fare of the people (as in Lo'oking Backward) 1 or idealistic-

ly dedicated to the success of state goals (as in The

Republic) , or committed to the selfish desires of the few who are in power (as in Nineteen-Eighty-Four) .

Bacon's dream of the humanistic use of science for ~ the betterment of man is surrendered to a totalitarian abus

for the imprisonment of man in dystopian novels of Huxley 1

Orwell, and Zamayatan. Although it is written in the optimistic guise of utopia, Walden II is actually a dystopia.

It portrays the awesome power and control of the cold- blooded, impersonal god of science. Man is a thing, inspected and dissected, reduced to discernable bio-chemi-

,cal reactions. The state sets about to control human behav lior and destiny by chemical therapy. Whereas Huxley and

Orwell fear the surrender of human individual freedoms to the monsters of science and the state. What permeates in

Walden II, Brave New World, and Nineteen-Eighty-Four is a castrated, degraded view of man, not seen in the image of

' God, but as a complex organism, a statistic, an industrial product, a robot controlled and dominated by the state. Th struggle between individual freedom and service to the state leads to a total subservience of individuals to the purposes of state manipulators and the engineers of human existence. Man simply becomes material to be used up and 34

ccuracy of their prophetic warnings. It is interesting

to note that of all the literary utopian concepts as well

as the utopian plans and promises of political movements

and parties, not one has seemed to have either been estab-

lished or achieved its stated goals. Yet the dystopia vie

f man manipulating his society seems to have been prophet-

icly true; modern society has come closer to becoming a

nightmare than a dream. The last twenty-five years have

witnessed such things as the increase of governmental

bureaucracy, astounding development of surveilance appara

tus and discoveries of methods of altering man's genetic

character. The frightening reality is that in the last decade or so, society has developed the technological tools

to make the worlds of Brave New World and Nineteen-Eight-

Four functional.

The capabilities of science have developed to the point where it can be the blessing to mankind envisioned by Edward Bellamy or the curse to mankind envisioned by

George Orwell. A development of altruistic human motiva- tions in governing peoples does not seem to have grown with jthe development of science; hence, the predominant fear of

!dystopia arises. Totalitarian control and annihilation of masses by Hitler, Stalin, and Mao Tse-tung in addition to two world wars have justifiably made the people of the l L~~-~-·--~--~~~~--"~·~~ ~ ~= 35

=--=====.,..,~~"""'""""'~···/·,.,...... ~.,.~·-~'<=""""""~-=">"""-=~"""'''=· ~--""""~-~~~- """""'-""~=~~=""""-~-', wentiethcentury suspicious and fearful of giving a leader

or the state, stewardship over their lives.

Brave New World and Ni:neteen-Eighty-Four are utop-

ian plans that have back-fired. Brave New World is a world

where man has a perverted relationship with machine--hence,

the shallow society that follows. People are hatched from

test tubes, having been predestined scientifically to play

their appropriate economic roles. From childhood everyone

is conditioned to stay happily in his place, able to enjoy

rather than to question. Personal frustrations, political

!restlessness, and boredom are miraculously relieved by the

wonder drug soma. Sexual promiscuity has replaced love.

Old age has been made beautiful and even death has lost itsl

sting. Savage, the protaganist, would rather have freedom

than comfort and ends up withdrawing from the environment

and committing suicide. Science and technology are effec-

tively used to stifle human creativity and channel human

emotional responses for the good of the community. People

are conditioned to respond to environmental stimuli, not

their own thoughts. This guarantees the obedience of the

people to the State. The State is a hierarchy of computer~

with "Our Ford" sitting behind them and pushing the right

buttons.

George Orwell's Ninteen-Eight-Four is not a utopia

but a nightmare. It is a state in which power is the es-

sence of all. The world of Nineteen-Eight-Four is drab, L_chae.r:las.s_~~-L-~~!:Yn<;iq_~_and inefficient in everything ___ j 36

r~-"'~,=~-=~-,=~'~--~~~=~--~~,·-~·-,~-~.w=~=-=<=~~.=-·~·,.-·~~-~~-~~~~~1 except the exercise of power. Science is stagnant; the l

only lines of research encou~aged b1 the three governments !are military weapons, b~ainwashing, and methods of mind- reading. The worst of it all is that Oceania is a totally

efficient totalitarian state governing actions, speech, and

jthoughts. Big brother is always watching, ready to punish

ian inappropriate facial expression. I The state even works at the elimination of words that would express a thought contrary to its interest. If

dangerous words like "freedom" are wiped out, no one can

work for them or die for them. Newspeak is the new system

of language of Oceania which deprives men of the words by

which they can think connected and rational thoughts and

communicate them. Winston holds on to the rebellious notio

that two plus two equals four no matter what the party says what is truth to Winston is truth. When Winston is broken I by torture he is made to believe that what is truth to the I party, is truth. If the party says two plus two equals I five, then it is so.

In the tradition of The Republic, Oceania is corn-

posed of three social classes. Big brother and the inner

circle party members can be likened to the philosopher- jrulers. The outer circle party members who compose the

second class serve the state in the same capacity as the !guardians do in the Platonic state, maintaining order both i I from within and witho~t: The proles are ~he third cl:ss, J l~x.c.Lude~

-~~-~~,~-··==~-~=----=-~~,~----~~-. '~=-~,~~l lass are from the political life in The Republic. This ~ lass is not utilized by Oceania as much is it is by the Platonic state.

Big brother is a figure head representing all that 1

this dystopia stands for. The state makes his face known

and his voice heard everywhere, at all times evoking wor-

ship from the people for himr thus giving them a religion

which strengthens and reinforces their love for and loyalty

to the state.

The solutions of the modern utopian writer stem

from their struggles with great present day problems and

are based on proven potentialities. Later nineteenth- and

early twentieth-century utopias are characterized by their

acceptance of industrialization and urbanization, and the

incorporation of these trends into their ideal states. The

rise and fall of the ideal of efficiency in economic organi

zation as the main principle of the ideal society has been

,one of the most important occurrences in this period of the l modern utopias. The utopians of the latter half of the

nineteenth century turned almost uniformly to total trust lin the economic reconstruction of society as the key to the

ideal state. Two developments in utopian speculation

quickly undermined the elevated principle of economic

efficiency:

The first was exemplified by William Morris: a refusal to consider an ideal a hierarchy in which all other values were determined in respect to their relation to the economic. The other development began L-~~-- w~~ec_o~:=_~that _ tr.:.:_ community i~~~~-__j 38

As utopian writers dropped economic efficiency as the cure-

all, they turned to traditional principles that molded the

ideal state: intellectual guardianship 1 religious faith~

economic equality, the brotherhdod of man, and aesthetic

sublimation were to all work together as guiding principles

of utopia.

All of the modern utopias weave ideas from former

utopian works into their tapestry, especially the founda-

tion patterns established by Th~ Republic and Utopia.

1Peyton Richter tells of a critic with an interesting insigh linto the thread of utopia in history:

Morgan became convinced that Bellamy, his proposed scheme for the reorganization of society, had been inspired by the example of the Incas of Peru. He also found striking similarities between the sup posedly imaginary social order described by Sir Thomas More in his Utopia and the organization of the Inca empire. In Bellamy's ideal new society, in More's Utopia, and in the Peru of the Incas, pri vate ownership of land had been eliminated; public work and rotation of labor were practiced; periodi cal censuses and inventories were taken; a system of storehouses had been instituted; money was not used generally; supervision of labor was skillfully managed; and an economy of abundance had been achieved.12

The Platonic ideal state was a reconstruction of the Greek city-state system, bringing tight control and

:collectivism in shaping a benevolent oligarchy. The

'Renaissance ideal state was based on the humanistic and naturalistic philosophies, stimulating man to study and J !follow the laws of nature in building an ideal society on

L~.~~~,~~~=·~~~-~--~---~-~~-~--~----,-~-~-- 39

r·-~-~----~~~=-~-"~"··--~ws.w·~-~~--····-··=···-~---·~~--~-~---~~----=··~·-·~~~w-=~-~-~~~~-~---~--~~·===···-"'"'~''""'·'·'"''''~~~-~m"l lthe national level. Advocacy of scientific and natural l l l I i !resources was energetically proposed. The modern ideal j

jstate is only functional on the international level because)

lof modern advancements in weaponry and economic interdepen-j jdance. Industrialization and urbanization are primary 1n- l /gredients of the modern utopia. Social and political i /ingredients are borrowed from former creations to make the l

jmodern utopian cake. ~-

lli There are important qualities and goals which cha-

racterize utopias from nearly every author, country, and I Jtime period. Chad Walsh in From Utopia to Nightmare I !identifies nine universal utopian articles of faith: 1) I l !The first point is rooted in the Socratic idea that ignorancl l lis a sin which can be rooted out by education:

1. Man is basically good. H. G. Wells in A Modern Utopia makes this explicit: "The leading principle I of the utopian religion is the repudiation of the doctrine of original sin." His evil can be elimi I nated or reduced to manageable proportions by a I good environment, education, moral training, perhaps I l even by genetic controls.l3 12) Man is viewed as exceedingly moldable. Within very

/broad limits, he can be shaped and conditioned to fit into I

/whatever society one chooses to create. 3) Benevolent 1 !society can bring total happiness to its people. 4) Man I lis essentially a rational being and can become more so. I !His powers of reason can be harnessed to the task of creat-•

I 1,. I ing a society that makes better sense than any existing l 1 I I haphazard society. 5) Utopias advocate that mankind has I j I l l' I l.- ·~···-•w••••••~•-••~•~"'"~'"'~-•-••••"''~'''~''''''·-·"'''''''~'··«~•~-~~-~-·-~~··•~•~~·••••~•~------~··-·'"-~--···•••~--~=••-•·''''''~·~~--~ ''·-~-~J 40

had sufficient experience to foresee the probable conse-

quences of any course of action. Man, then, is said to be

able to learn from history. 6) The purpose of utopia is

man's earthly welfare. Such things as health, a minimum

of unpleasant labor, the chance to exercise talents and

abilities, full opportunity to develop intimate and satis

jfying relationships, and plenty of relaxation and rest are

jtraditional utopian aims. 7) People do not get tired of

!happiness. 8) The danger of tyranny is slight, and can.bel

lreduced towards the vanishing point by education, wise

!selection, ascetic discipline, and a few elementary checks

and balances. 9) The last utopian article of faith opti-

lmistically claims utopia will lead to true freedom as indi-

vidual men and women find their own destiny fulfilled by

cooperating freely with the purpose of society.

In addition to these articles of faith, one can

find areas of common ground which most utopias share. One

common feature of utopias is a class of voluntary nobility

or non-hereditary aristocracy. In addition, the utopian

analyst, Chad Walsh, points out that:

The favourite utopia art is architecture. Charac teristically it is massive, functional, glistening and clean. Music is the most favoured of the other arts.l4

economy as opposed to laissez-faire capital Iism seems to be the most prevalent form of ideal state !economics. The state, though managing the nationally im- 1 jportant industries, permits the individual to practice

1.~-,~~-~... ~~~~~-<~,-~·-=~~~-~·~---.~~-·----·-. ·~·-· ·-· -··~----· ----~~~~----~--. ~-·---·~ 41

crafts, run small businesses and some small farming enter-

prises. Family patterns vary from monogamy, polygamy,

group marriages, or even less structured social forms.

Education is nearly always a cornerstone for a utopia.

Labor is not too hard, with minimal hours and an early

retirement age.

Utopian writers have always given hope of a better

future to society. They are artists of intellectual origi-

1nality and constructive imagination. They have a commenda-

ble faith, although it turns out often to be naive. They

often are rebels and critics of their country and time,

!provoking a re-evaluation of the policies and goals of

jtheir respective societies. They encourage the desire to

experiment with social innovation and encourage a search

for still newer ideals for humanity. Utopias interject

new elements into social life; they often introduce trends

of thought which society adopts as reality and in retro-

lspect seem to be prophetic. The modern dystopian writers have created a suspi-

cion and caution in modern man concerning idealistic plans

for the future. They have warned modern man of the dangers

of a coming technocratic state and have unveiled the ugly

side of the modern industrial state. Wordsworth and other

nineteenth century Romantics who withdraw from the imper-

sonal industrial machine of England into nature or art see l l to predate the disillusionment of modern society expressed L.~-·-·~-~<>--~-----~-~-~~·-~------·-----~-J 42

by many dystopians. The dystopians have been postdated by

groups such as the hippies who have also withdrawn from the

modern industrial machine.

The utopias of the classical world, the Renaissance

and the modern world (excepting the modern genre of the

dystopia, of course) have all given people hopes and dreams

to hang on to. These are all centered on man's improvement

/of his own lot, reaching into his potential nature and ta llents. This improvement has only been achieved sporadicall

by individuals but never really actualized collectively. I

am struck by the similarities between these utopian writers

and the builders of the tower of Babel as depicted in the

Bible. Concepts and efforts born solely of human reason

and inspiration in the pattern of the tower of Babel are

destined to failure, lacking in Divine purpose.

I ..J 43

THE CITY OF MAN ENDNOTES

1 Lewis Mumford, The Story of Utopias (N.Y.: The Viking Press, 1922), p. 1. 2 Glenn Negley, The Quest for Utopia, An Anthology of Imaginary Societies (N.Y.: Henry Schuman Inc., 1952), p. 253. 3 Joyce Oramel Hertzler, The History of Utopian Thought (N.Y.: Cooper Square Pub. Inc., 1965), p. 104. 4 Peyton E. Richter, Utopias: Social Ideas and Communal Experiments (Boston: Holbrook Press Inc., 1971),1 p. 173. 5 Thomas More, Utopia, trans. by Ralph Robinson, ex- perpt appearing in Glenn Negley, Quest for Utopia, p. 274-75 6 Negley, p. 316. 7 Elizabeth Hansot, Perfection and Progress: Two Modes of Utopian Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1974)' p. 123. 8 Hertzler, p. 243. 9 Hertzler, p. 253.

10 R1c. h ter, p. 287. 11 Hertzler, p. 583.

12 R1c. h ter, p. 41.

13chad Walsh, From Utopia to Nightmare (London: Geoffrey Bles L.T.S., 1962), p. 71.

14 Walsh, p. 65. CHAPTER III

THE APOCALYPTIC TRADITION:

THE CITY OF GOD

The word "apocalypse" is derived from the Greek

word apokalypsis meaning to reveal, to uncover, to disclose

Apocalypse involves writing revelation to phenomena which

transcend the world of ordinary reality. Divine truth is

disclosed and instruction is given concerning that which

was hitherto unknown. Essentially there are two types of

apocalyptic writing:

One is concerned with a transcendental state, out side of time, which will follow history; such writing is eschatologically oriented. The other views the apocalyptic state as obtainable on earth, and describes a future state that occurs within temporal succession. Apocalypses of this type are frequently social in emphasis, with the reformed social order which is envisioned constituting a warning to contemporary society.l

The first type of apocalyptic state most resembles Bunyan's

vision, the second, type St. Augustine's. John Bunyan's

celestial city was outside of time and access to it re- lquired a transformation through physical death. Writing

!during the time of the collapse of Rome, St. Augustine

I·warned of the destruction of man's cities foreshadowing a

final earthly judgment. Though judgment includes the !death of many for their sins, it allows for some to enter the earthly paradise unscathed. Whether this future state

44 45

It is seen as a golden age in which there is an ultimate

triumph of good over evil.

The literature of the Christian apocalypse and that

utopia depicts a longing for an ideal state found within

the heart of both God and man. Carl Jung, for example, has

identified ''paradise" as an unconscious archetype associa-

ted with the longing for redemption and the fertility of

gar d en, cave, spr1ng,. an d tree. 2 These images are central

to the visions of both the Christian apocalyptic and

writers.

The books comprising the traditional canon of

Scripture lay the foundation for visions of the coming

Kingdom of God in apocalyptic literature. They contain

the original myths foreshadowing God's city which other

writers have expanded and reshaped. The New Testament

writers interpreted Old Testament prophecies typologically.

They spiritualized but did not deny the literal and the

historical. Events and people of the Old Testament times

were shadows to find their realities in the future. They

were both examples for us to follow and warnings of what

not to follow. The New Testament writers viewed the Old 3 Testament as both factual and allegorical-symbolic.

Paul identifies Christ as the second Adam (I Cor. 15:45-48)

The first Adam foreshadowed the coming of the spiritualized second Adam. All apocalyptic literature in the I l~iblical Messianic tradition points to a kingdom where thej

~==-•••oc''"''""='"~"""'~-=="=<'-~~---~~~~""""""_,..._~---~----~~-~-~--...-.-.._""_= 46

Christ rules righteously and absolutely. The government of

the New Testament apocalypse points to the complete

authority of Jesus Christ and the submission of people to

Him. There are no democratic qualities in terms of the

common right of rule. Certain saints, however, reign and

rule with Christ (Revelations 2:26, Romans 8:17) serving

as an extension of Him. Those, such as St. Augustine, who

have reshaped the myth of this apocalypse have often

claimed to have been guided by divine enlightenment. The

element of revelation is essential. Whether revelation is

by angelic visitations, dreams, visions, divine ideas, or

!illuminated Scriptures, the source of inspiration and

!knowledge is always supernatural. The writers of the

Christian apocalypse have viewed their myth as a vehicle lfor God to reveal Himself and His purposes for mankind.

Utopian literature does not attempt to describe a

city of God, but rather describes a city of man. As

already seen, the ideal state product of theories, hopes,

and dreams portrayed in literature for more than two

thousand years. These plans generally institute monarchial

governments to bring order and peac~ to mankind. Utopian

writers, rather than waiting for heaven to come, seek to

create their own heaven on earth. Their hope is the use

of man's latent capacities in founding and governing man's

I kingdom. I The two qualities which most distinguish the L=~-~~-~.~~·~~,··~-=~~-~---~~---~-. ~----~--···---~-~-----~------~~ 47

literature of the Christian apocalyptic tradition from

that of the utopian genre are: revelation and complete

theocratic rule. Christian apocalyptic literature des-

cribes God 1 s Kingdom, claiming revelations as a source of

inspiration and knowledge. Utopian literature depicts

man's ideal kingdom tapping into sources of human reason

and imagination.

Whereas the visions of utopian writers are terres- l1rial (rooted in human reason), the visions of the Christian apocalyptic writers are claimed to be celestial (rooted in

divine revelation) . Emile Brunner in Revelation and

Reason states, "The logos of reason is too abstract to be

identified with the logos of revelation. It is impersonal,

and without relation to the divine will, as we know it

through revelation." 4 The mystery of the human intellect

and reasoning is so complex that to dismiss any of its

processes is to deny its total sum of potential informa-

tion. It is not within the scope of this paper to explore lthis problem but rather to describe the two processes by

which man seems to have arrived at a utopian concept.

This one, through the socio-educational process: the other;

by a process of what I view as Divine inspiration.

The Christian apocalyptic tradition in literature

~has identified the apocalyptic writings of the New

1 Testament with those of the Old Testament. The messianicj

apocalyptic writings have been identified as prophetic l~~... -~------'"''=""'-'~------=~~. -----~ 48

visions of the rule of Christ described in the book of

RevelatLon. The Christian apocalyptic vision is founded

upon one unified revelation of God's kingdom to come, with

compatible descriptive visions of this kingdom given in

both the Old and New Testament writings.

The Old Testament prophets were not other-worldly

mystics and visionaries; they related to and were deeply

concerned for the Hebrew peoples. They were concerned

1about the perplexing social, religious, and political

problems and destinies of the land of Israel. Unlike the

idealism in community relations of the utopias, they not

only demanded proper human relations, but also a proper

relationship to God. The success of their ideal state was

totally dependent on their mutual relationship with

Jehovah. Transformations of the human nature were re-

quired for success and unity--that is why repentance is an

important theme throughout the books of major and minor

!prophets. Repentance was the cry and exhortation of all

the prophets in both the New and Old Testaments (Matthew

4:17). The Old Testament prophets in writing about their ~idealistic states, continually exhorted the Israelites to turn from their idolatry and become God's obedient, holy

!nation. Each prophet had a unique approach to his vision but it flowed with a prophetic school of thought. The prophets were stewards of a prophetic tradition, which was 1 first established under Samuel (c. 1030 b.c.). _j

~,_,.,..,.._~--~~~~~-~~-~---~-·-~-~-·=-·-~-~·~-· -·~- 49

==·,=~~-.~~~=,~--=~.~~=~-=~~~~----~ Isaiah is the first of the books of the majo;=:~~l minor prophets. The tradition of the school of prophets

held the prophets to be oracles, messengers, and arnbass-

adors on behalf of the God of Abraham, Issac, and Jacob.

More than any of the other prophetic books, the book of

Isaiah describes the kind of kingdom God will establish.

!Isaiah's vision was of Jehovah descending and dwelling

among men upon earth. All nature shall become tranquil,

and bring forth in abundance (Isaiah 35:1,7). Physical

sufferings will be no more (Isaiah 35:5,6). The animal

world will be regenerated; all fierce dangerous beasts will

become tame and gentle (Isaiah 11:6-9). International

!peace will be established:

And He will judge between the nations, And will render decisions for many people; And they will hammer their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks. Nation will not lift up sword against nation, And never again will they learn war !Isaiah 2:41.

All will be joy and gladness (Isaiah 35:10). The pride

and idols of man will be humbled; God will be exalted

(Isaiah 2:17,18). Mighty judgments must fall upon Israel

to separate the small remnant (the holy seed of God) from l the wicked, rebellious masses; the future paradise of Israel will come from this holy seed (Isaiah 1:9,25-28).

This remnant will be purged and made clean (Isaiah 1:18,25;

4:4). Jehovah shall purge the land of the wicked with 1

/judgment (Isaiah 1:27,28; 3:11-15). Jehovah's kingdom lwill be governed by a righteous being who will so change J

=-=--=<-=-...,.,..,---~=~=~~="""'"~--~~-•"'>-.,.....,,.- "'~"""'""'r===----....-~~---=-·~-=--""""-.....,._.....,.~~ 50 r:~-:bl~:-an~ ~nce:,~::-th:;sha~: ~e a-tru:- ar==-l j racy, the protectors, servants and helpers of God's l l people (Isaiah 32: 1) . Th~ fruits of the theocratic reign portrayed in Isaiah's apocalyptic vision may best

be summarized in the thirty-second chapter:

And the work of righteousness will be peace, And the service of righteousness, quietness and confidence forever. Then my people will live in a peaceful habita tion, And in secure dwellings and in undisturbed resting places [Isaiah 32:17,18];

Historian Joyce Hertzler claims of Isaiah:

. He was the first to make it clear that trust in Jehovah meant for a nation righteous government, a perfectly conducted state, a state in conformity with the divine standard of holiness . 5

As Isaiah before him, Jeremiah (c. 629 b.c.) fore-

saw that a remnant would be those who usher in and become

citizens of the kingdom of God on earth. Personal sub-

mission to and fellowship with Jehovah through what is

called a "circumcision of heart" is the message of regen-

eration in Jeremiah (Jeremiah 4:3,4). The restoration of

Israel will bring with it productivity and abundance

according to the book of Ezekiel (Ezekiel 36:1-15).

Chapters forty through forty-eight of Ezekiel describe the

New Jerusalem (the Kingdom of God) in a literal, practical

way, measuring the length, height, and breadth and

describing the architecture.

Amos (c. 787 b.c.) pleaded passionately for a 51

The new perfect society was to come about by a complete change bothe individually and nation ally in social relationships. This in turn depended upon a molding anew of the social ethics, the quickening of men's innate sense of right and justice. This was only possible as the people clung more and more to Jehovah, followed His precepts, and brought their lives into conformity with His. It decreed a change of attitude, a reconstituted group-morality, and awakened spirituality, a renewed assurance of the existence of Jehovah and of His control of the universe for a moral purpose. 6

Amos's God is weary of His people's religious rituals, He

!wants a change of heart, He wants righteousness and

justice from them (Amos 5:21-24). Hosea (c. 785 b.c.)

follows along the same theme as Amos; his revelation of

~God however appears to be more merciful. The love for

-Jehovah and the love of man to man are seen as a funda-

mental reconstructing agency. Hosea is not as harsh as

Amos with God's people. Despite a spiritual declension j d promiscuous idolatry, the prophet still urges his

people, 11 Come let us return to the Lord . [Hosea 6: 1] . 11

As Amos was the first to identify the perfect life

·and perfect state, and as Hosea was the first to make them

fundamentally a matter of love, so Isaiah (c. 760 b.c.) was jthe first to receive a revelation of faith as a condition

!for their realization. The prophecy of Joel (c. 800 b.c.)

!envisions a great army of God, the instruments of the t~dgme:~th.at~=ng -~:~uction-to the governme~an_j 52

·--~-=-=-·-~~=~~>~~-=-=~-~-=-<>~~-V---~~~-~·~·=-~J~--~~~~,--=1 and establish God's kingdom upon the earth. I

In the apocryphal lite~ature of the Old Testament,

visions of a new paradise and a new Jerusalem, earthly or

heavenly, shift and merge. The apocalypse of Baruch

(4:36-5:9) prophesies a return to Edenic happiness where

there would be no more disease, pain, hatred, lamentation

or death, but peace between man and man, and man and

animals, a consummation of corruption and the beginning of

the incorruptible. Each of the Old Testament prophets

described the coming of God's kingdom to Israel in three

stages. A remnant of God's people would repent and turn

to the Lord. As a result God would open up for them a

relationship with Himself. He would then make them

!!prosper and create a new nation of rulers and priests.

I The Christian apocalyptics do not see the continuum

of the prophetic tradition as being broken with the

!emergence of apostle and prophets in the New Testament.

jThe gospel writers portray the focus of the Kingdom of God

as a revelation of Christ, a process of His invasion within

man, and the invasion of God's judgments upon the ungodly.

John the Baptist identifies Jesus Christ with the Kingdom

of God by preaching of him in the wilderness prior to

Christ's coming: " . . Repent ye; for the Kingdom of heaven is at hand [Matthew 3:2] ." Believing in Christ is

the door to entering into the kingdom of God according to l the gospels (John 3:1-18; 10:1-19; 14:1-6). The effect of l-~'-"'~~-~-~---~~~--~~~"'"""-_,...~=..,...-·------~-"'==----.C-=<.--~-=~=-==--- ,.,,.,.~,.. 53

unto leaven, which a woman took, and hid in three measures

of meal, till the whole was leaven [Matthew 13:33] ." l !Matthew 13:24-30 and 37-43 identifies the kingdom of

heaven (which is a phrase used interchangeably with the

phrase "the kingdom of God") with the end-time judgments.

As in the Old Testament, in the New Testament God will send

judgments to separate for himself a holy remnant (I Peter

2:8-9; II Corinthians 6). Many parables and scripture

!verses speak of the kingdom of heaven as an end-time event that is ushered in by Christ bringing judgments and

then ruling upon the earth (Matthew 22, 24, and 25). The

emphasis of the Gospels and Pauline epistles upon the

historical Christ is necessary ground work for these

claims of the indwelling Christ and the second coming of

Christ. Christ is also seen by Paul as the indwelling

deity who is able to be manifested and glorified in his

saints (Galatians 4:19; II Thessalonians 1:10). In his

letter to the Philippians Paul states, " neverthe- less I live; yet not I, but Christ liveth in me I [Galatians 2: 20] . " As in the gospels, Christ is also seen in the Pauline epistles as the coming king in the escha-

tological time tables (I Corinthians 15:51-58; I Thess- alonians 4:13-17). I The book of Revelation deals with both the J

"""--"""""-"""'"""'=-·-·-~~-~~-="""~""'""'""''""----·---··...... ,.=,·.,,,,,,_,= ___ =.,.~'=""'-----~--~------54

indwelling of Christ, and the physical return of the King of kings. In his vision, John fell down and worshipped one of the saints mistaking him for Jesus Christ (Revela tion 19:10). Christ fully indwelt and was manifest within that saint. The descriptions of the Kingdom of God to be established upon the earth are similar to those found in the Old Testament. As in Isaiah, "a new heaven and a new earth" if foreseen (Revelation 21:1). For the inhabitants of the New Jerusalem there shall be no more death, sorrow, or pain (Revelation 21:4). The New Jerusalem is described as descending out of heaven from God, twelve thousand furlongs square, and resplendent with gold, jasper, and precious stones. God and the Lamb (Christ) are the spiritual and physical light thereof (Revelation 21:6-23).

A great river flows from the throne of God. And "In the midst of the street of it [the city], and on either side the river, there was the tree of life which bare twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month: and the leaves of the tree were for the healings of the nations (Revelation 22:2) ." The overcomers are destined to partake: "To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God (Revelation 2:7) ." This passage points to a res toration of the Edenic paradise with the absence of any restriction of forbidden fruit.

Both Old and New Testament Scriptures prophesy a 55

coming kingdom in which the Messiah rules. Both emphasize

repentance and turning to God as a preparatory step jn

moving into this coming kingdom. God must change man's na-

ture in order for man to be prepared to live in the per-

feet paradise restored by God. In both testaments, the

Messiah comes to gather his elect and judge the wicked. j

In both the Old and New Testament accounts of the Messiah'sll

coming, the purified remnant of God are used as instruments

to bring judgment upon the world. The Scriptures assert

that God has used human agencies to bring about His will I jon the earth. In the Old Testament when God wanted to

bring judgment upon a city, He would raise up prophets to

speak and therefore declare and create that judgment. The

God of the Old and New Testaments has dedicated himself to

move through the mouths of His apostles and prophets (Amos

3:7). God will use a remnant, a spiritual army to dethrone

the existing systems (Psalms 149:4-9; Daniel 7:18-28; Joel

2:1-32; Amos 9:11-15; Matthew 11:12; Ephesians 3:10; Romans

8:19-21; Romans 16:20; Revelation 2:26; Revelation 18-20).

1 At the time of Rome's collapse, a Catholic bishop

wrote a long book further identifying the remnant of

Christians God was raising up as citizens of His city above,

1st. Augustine described these believers and contrasted them

to the citizens of this earth. The Kingdom of God within

!the Christian life is the focus of Augustine's City of God.j !The presence of Christ in a person's life is the distin- I

t~-.,~.. -~~--""~-~---~- --~,.--=----~·--·-~---,~-~-. J 56

r;~i~;·~:;~~=:;-:,~:--civt~~en ;;-t~e cit~=~;~~~ ~~pistolae Augustine tells the reader that although Christ is everywhere, he only dwells with a few people:

But what is more marvelous is the fact that God though everywhere complete, does not dwell in all men. For it is not to all men that the Apostle could say: "Know you that you are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwelleth in you." (I Cor. 3:16) On the contrary, to some he says: "Now if any man have not the Spirit of Christ, he is none of His." (Rom. 8:9) . It must therefore be acknowledged that God is everywhere by the presence of His divinity but not everywhere by the in-dwelling of His grace . As then, God who is everywhere dwells not in all men, so too He does not dwell in all equally .. And if among all the saints some are more saintly than others, it is only because God dwells in 1 them more abundantly .... 7

!According to Augustine, with Christ dwelling in a believer !it is possible for the soul of that believer to ascend to a spiritual dwelling place of the city of God. Thus,

while living here on earth a citizen's consciousness and

awareness can be in a heavenly realm. In De quantitate

animae, Augustine discusses the seven levels in which the

human soul resides, the last of these is the spiritual

place mentioned above:

And now in the very vision and contemplation of truth, which is the seventh and last step of I soul, though this is not now a step but an abid- 1 ing place reached by the other steps, how shall I tell of the joys which are there, of the enjoy- 1 lj ment of the true and supreme good, of the spirit of peace and eternity breathing there?8 I, Augustine probably was first attracted to the I figurative, mystical term "the city of God;" in Psalms l 46:4,5 and chapter 48. Jerusalem and Zion are identi~ie~J -""~"""-~---_,,.,.... -=~~=~--""="''~"'-'""~...,~~--·-·-~--~~.,-=------~- 57

Zion; He hath desired it, for His habitation. This is my

rest forever: here will I dwell; for I have desire it

(Psalms 13-14) . 9 Augustine attributed the heritage of

"those who live according to man" to Cain and "those who

live according to God" to Abel. The origin of the two

cities is traced back to the early accounts of the book of

Genesis:

Cain was the first-born, and he belonged to the city of men; after him was born Able, who belonged to the city of God . . When these two cities began to run their course by a series of deaths and births, the citizen of this world was the first-born, and after him the stranger in this world, the citizen of the city of God, pre destinated by grace, elected by grace, by grace a stranger below, and by grace a ci tiz.en above . Accordingly, it is recorded of Cain that he built a city, but Abel, being a sojourner, built none. For the city of the saints is above, although here below it begets citizens, in whom it sojourns till the time of its reign arrives, when it shall gather together all in the day of the resurrection; and then shall the promised kingdom be given to them, in which they shall reign with their Prince, the King of the ages, time without end.l0

In the tradition of the Christian apocalyptics, Augustine'

revelation of the city of God is rooted in the Scriptures,

both its beginning and its consummation. The end of the

sojourn is seen for the citizens of the city of God as the

time when they will rule with Christ in His kingdom.

Though Christians are pilgrims on earth now, they are

destined for an eternity of rule on the earth when Christ

L_c_o_m_e_s-~a-g=a~~in~-t~---_c:._n_q_u_e_r_:nd~·~- re-i-~.~~i-1-e-~-s-~--j~o-u_r_n_e_r_o_n_m __J 58

earth, a citizen of God's city is dedicated to God and to

fellowship with the other Christians, living peaceably

with all men. According to Augustine, the reality of

Christ within the Christian heart is the basis of reality

and unity between Christians. Talking about the practical

everyday lives of Christians, Augustine asserts that while

God's citizens live in this society they have three ranges

of fellowship: the family, the state, and the city of God.

!The family is seen by Augustine as the basic structure for

!human society. Augustine lays the authority and respon-

sibility of the family upon the father. He believes that,

II . the well-ordered concord of domestic obedience and

!domestic rule has a relation to the well-ordered concord

of civic obedience and civic rule." 11 True fathers should

!also endeavor to bring their household into a knowledge land worship of God, to an abiding place in the city of

God while they are yet on this earth. As implied by the

above quote, Augustine teaches all of God's citizens to

J strive to live peaceably upon the earth:

The heavenly city, or rather the part of it which sojourns on earth and lives by faith, makes use of this peace only because it must, until this mortal condition which necessitates it shall pass away. Consequently, so long as it lives like a captive and a stranger in the earthly city, though it has already received the promise of redemption, and the gift of the Spirit as the earnest of it, it makes no scruples to obey the laws of the earthly city, where by the things necessary for the maintenance of thls mortal life are administered; and thus, as this life is common to both cities, so there is a harmony l between them in regard to what belongs to them . l L~~--·-~-~--"------~~-==-----~--~~------59

This heavenly city, then, while it sojourns on earth, calls citizens out of all nations, and gathers together a society of pilgrims of all languages, not scrupling about diversities in the manners, laws, and institutions whereby earthly peace is secured and maintained, but recognizing that, however various these are, they all tend to one and the same end of earthly peace . . Even the heavenly city, therefore, while in its state of pilgrimage, avails itself of the peace of earth, and, so far as it can without injuring faith and godliness, desires and maintains a common agreement among men regarding the acquisition of the necessities of life . . 12

Although Augustine approaches his life as a visionary, he

holds a practical view of life here on earth. He does not

advocate that the citizens of the city of God isolate them-

selves from the world. He acknowledges the necessities of

life and believes that God has set a Christian in hisuniqu

little environment for a definite purpose. Augustine is

looking for the kingdom to come--his focus is on heaven

but until he arrives in heaven or heaven arrives on earth

he is appreciative of the best kind of government and

peace that mankind can put into practice.

Augustine's city of God requires no passport to lenter, save the will and desire to love God and obey Him-- these leads you to a knowledge of God. The city of God is

an abiding place in a Christian's awareness of personal

relationship to God. According to Augustine, Jesus Christ

made this relationship and dwelling place with God

possible by his death and resurrection; now it is up to

each individual to accept it. In Augustine's eyes man is ,

occupying a battleground between two loyalties, the heaven-! L.~-~~--~-~~----~-~~·~~-~~~~----~-~~-~'"--~---~-"~=~-·=-'"~""·---~~~--~--~~"·-·-~·-"----~... -~~~~-~~.,~~j 60

ly and earthly: the self-denying love of God and the God-

denying love of self. St. Augustine gives a thorough

description of the two dwelling places of the human spirit

in The City of God:

Accordingly, two cities have been formed by two loves: the earthly by the love self, even to the contempt of self. The former, in a word, glories in itself, the latter in the Lord. For the one seeks glory from men; but the greatest glory of the other is God, the witness of conscience. The one lifts up its head in its own glory; the other says to its God, "Thou art my glory, and the lifter up on mine head." In the one, the princes and the nations it subdues are ruled by the love of ruling; in the other, the princes and the subjects serve one another in love, the latter obeying, while the former take thought for all. The one delights in its own strength, represented in the persons of its rulers; the other says to its God, "I will love Thee, 0 Lord, My strength,"l3

This passage points out that the city of God is a focus

and worship of God whereas the city of man is the focus

and worship of self and man's accomplishments. The city of

God is an attitude of the heart, a dedication to God and

His Kingdom.

Some Christians allege that the Church is the city

of God. This interpretation is too limited to be similar l to what Augustine is talking about. Frequently in Augustin Iwe see the Church as only an imperfect fragment and begin-

ning of the true city of God to come:

The heavenly city is not synonymous with the church, for it included men who lived in pre Christian times and many who came from divers nations: and to this it may be added from numerous passages in the work, that within the 61

church there are many who are impure and so do not belong to the heavenly city. The earthly city is not the Roman Empire, for it goes back to earlier times than Rome: nor, as will be seen later, is the Roman Empire as such condemned by St. Augustine.l4

To Augustine, the Church (in its present state) is

only a necessary vehicle to carry the people towards the

perfect Church of Christ's kingdom. Augustine interprets

all the forces of time as working harmoniously on toward

; the final consummation in the fulfilled "city of God" in the I !Apocalypse. Augustine's vision for the future looks to see

!the state of immortality for both the new individual and I jthe new world:

. then shall the figure of this world pass away in a conflagration of universal fire, as I once before the world was flooded with a deluge of universal water. And by this universal con flagration the qualities of the corruptible elements which suited our corruptible bodies shall utterly perish, and our substance shall receive such qualities as shall, by a wonderful transmutation, harmonize with our immortal bodies, so that, as th world itself is renewed to some better thing, it is fitly accommodated to men, themselves renewed in their flesh to some better thing. 15

Where Augustine's The City of God is an individ-

ual's revelation of, devotion to, and spiritual participa-

tion in the Kingdom of God, Milton's Paradise Lost des-

cribes the way in which this Kingdom manifests itself upo

the earth. Milton's Paradise Lost contains the strongest

eschatology of any Renaissance work. Milton was committed I I to "the city of God , " and, as Augustine, believed in tbe I Idivine au thor ity of the Scriptures . He vividly describes j ~,,,,,,_.,,.'"'-...... ,"'-"""'r,.:..·,.,,.,.....,_"'....,~"'"M--==.•;'"''''",;:~~----·---==~""'-~--·•""""-....~'~..,.....,.-..,_••-~---~-·---=---~-· __...,._..,..,,._<;J 62

r-~-~--~·-~·~~~·~"""~--=~~~"=~-·-~·~~~-.~~--.~-~"·-1 !that Celestial City and gives us a foretaste of the estab-

lishment of that kingdom upon this earth. Milton distin-

guishes the typological relationship between the lost

paradise and regained paradise.

Milton's descriptions of the Adamic earthly para-

:dise and the heavenly paradise are types or foreshadowings

of the coming apocalyptic paradise:

Milton's Heaven, after which his God in many ways patterned Paradise and the earth, repre sents the heavenly kingdom promised the saints with the coming of the new heavens and new earth.l6

lThis coming paradise for Milton becomes an emergence of the

heavenly with the earthly:

l And Earth be chang'd to Heav'n, and Heav'n to Earth,.one Kingdom, Joy and Union without end [VII: 160-0l].

I1Although Mllton's description of Eden is a more full and

extensive account than that of the Bible, this terrestrial

description is a mere token of the paradise prophesied to

come. Paradise Lost provides us with specific terrestial

descriptions of the vegetation of Paradise:

the roof Of thickest covert was inwoven shade Laurel and Myrtle, and what higher green of firm and fragr Ant leef; on either side Acanthus, and each Ordorous bushy shrub fenc'd up the verdant wall; Each beauteous flow'r, Iris all hues, Roses, and Jassamin rear'd high their £lourisht heads between, And wrought Mosaic; unqerfoot the Violet, Crocus, And Hyacinth with rich inlay broider's the ground, j More qolor'd than with stone. [IV:692-02].

!!Milton's earth is filled with God's glory; all creation ex-

presses its beauty and worship of the Creator: l~-~-~=-~---~-~.-~~~~··--~~~~~~~~-~~ 63

~-m-~·~~--~~~~- =--=-~~~~w~-·~~- · ==-~~~==--==~'~w=~~- r Ye Mists and Exhalations that now rise from Hill j Or streaming Lake, dusky or grey, till the Sun Paint your fleecy skirts with Gold, in honor to The World's great Author rise, whether to deck With Clouds the'uncolor'd sky, or wet the thirsty Earth with falling showere, rising or falling Still advance his praise, His praise ye Winds, That from four Quarters blow, breathe soft or loud; And wave your tops, ye Pines, with every Plant, In sign of Worship wave [V:l85-94].

Milton's descriptions of Heaven portray an urban community

pointing to God's terrestial city which is to come. He

saw that heaven was both city and pastoral paradise hav l ling a perfect social order combined with ultimate personal

!happiness. One of the various urban aspects of heaven is

jthe description of heaven's portal:

Heav'n op'n'd wide Her ever-during Gates, Harmonious sound On golden Hinges moving, to let forth The King of Flory in his powerful Word And Spirit coming to create new Worlds [VII:205-09].

The image of Heaven as an earthly enclosure is reinforced

by descriptions of its walls. The fortressed enclosure

!keeps the right people in and the wrong people out:

. nor shall we need With dangerous expedition to invade Heav'n, whose high walls fear no assault of Siege, Or ambush from the Deep [II:34l-44].

Milton's vision of heaven is derived from the Scriptures.

He follows the same tradition of apocalyptic literature as

Augustine and the New Testament writers. Milton's descrip-

tions of the gates and walls are similar to the more elaborate descriptions of those enclosing the New Jerusalem I found in the book of Revelation. However, he proceeds to j l~--~---~-~-~~---~~----~·· ---~-~-~~------~~·------~-----J 64 r:~~-:-m:re ·c::-::: .·:e~l-::un~:;: s~~ i ;:::::hr ::-, : urban domain than do the Scriptures:

Heaven's "Towers" (1:749) and "Battlements" (11:1049) make up the urban skyline. Heaven's pavement (1V:976), God's eternal house (V11:576) is situated on "a broad and ample rode" (V11:577). These analogies in addition to others such as "Temple" (V1:890), "Courts of God" (V:650), and ~altar~ (11:244) 17 bring together the heavenly and earthly realms.

Satan's revolt in heaven provides us with a scene contain-!

ing numerous descriptions of the celestial landscape.

This landscape is portrayed as the rugged birthplace of

earth's landscape. This is the origin of the celestial

aspects in Milton's description of the edenic paradise:

Wide the Celestial soil, and saw beneath Th' originals of Nature in their crude Conception; Sulphurous and Nitrous Foam They found, they mingl'd, and with subtle Art, Concocted and adjusted they reduc'd To blackest grain, and into store convey'd: Part hidd'n veins digg'd up (nor hath this Earth Entrails unlike) of Mineral and Stone . [V1:510-17].

Satan's description of "the bright surface of this ether-

eous mould" of heaven is a mixture of the delicate, fruitl ful beauty above the celestial floor with the crudeness

below: j This continent of spacious Heav'n adorn'd With Plant, Fruit, Flow'r Ambrosial, Gems and Gold, Whose Eye so superficially surveys. These things, as not to mind from whence they grow Deep underground, materials dark and crude, Of spirituos and fiery spume, till taught With Heav'n's ray, and temper'd they shoot forth So beauteous, op'ning to the ambient light [VI:474-81] 65

r~-=-~·--~~·-~~,·-c=<·~=·~~,~~~~=--~-=-==~~'=>•~"=~~"'~--~·-~-~-=--=·~~=~·"--·==~-~· =l Chapter six describes the celestial landscape l

dotted with hills, rocks, waters, woods, and mountains

(VI:639-649). Heaven and earth share natural phenomena. I We have seen both the celestial qualities of the I Edenic garden (the earthly paradise) and the terrestrial

)qualities of God's heaven (the heavenly paradise). Both

paradises are a type of the apocalyptic paradise to come.

However, Milton was puzzled by the way this new paradise

would be established. He did not know whether the kingdom

of God would ascend from the earth or descend from the

heavens:

He ended, and the heav'nly Audience loud Sung Hallelujah, as the sound of Seas, Through multitude that sung: Just are thy ways, Rightious are thy Decrees on all thy Works; Who can extenuate thee? Next, to the Son, Destin'd restorer of Mankind, by whom New Heav'n and Earth shall to the Ages rise Or down from Heav'n descend. [X:641-48]. I Upon leaving the garden Adam is promised by the l angel Michael:

To leave the Paradise: but shalt possess a paradise within thee, happier far [XII:586-87].

~Michael has revealed to Adam the future of God's dealings 'With man and has given him a vision of how paradise is to

be regained. This vision of the future, the wisdom and l knowledge given to Adam is to be his paradise within. IThus "the city of God'' is not only alluded to as a physical I restoration of the Edenic paradise but also a revelation ofl l God's promises and plans, to be carried and treasured J L-~-~-,... ·~~-~---··~·~~-·~~-~~---~~"-~-~~·~··~·=··-·~···=·~··---~--~--~~-~-~=~-~---~--~~ 66

--~·-=·~·~·=~~~"·~--~="~~-----·~-"=~~.~~·~·=~==~· -~-~-~~~-~-~=~-- ~~1 within the heart.

Prior to Adam and Eve's sin, they had direct inti-

mate contact and glorious communion with God. Heaven and

earth were merged together in the Garden of Eden. The

inner paradise of righteousness and communion with the Fa-

ther is the paradise that is lost. The inner paradise of

righteousness is the spiritual counterpart of the beauty

of the garden before the fall. These were inseparable, I !corresponding parts of one whole, a union of perfect bliss

land happiness. God and Raphael both warned Adam that dis-

obedience would bring a loss of happiness (VIII, 331-33i

v, 521-23).

Although Milton's epic poem paints a detailed

scene of the physical paradise that is lost and the physi-

1 cal paradise to be regained, the artist provides insight

j into the "paradise \vi thin," lost by Adam. Mil ton reveals lhow the first parents' free choice determined whether thei I descendants would inherit the life of the corrupted city l of man, or the perfect city of God. ! Although John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress

does not portray the establishment of heaven's kingdom

upon the earth, it does give us a glimpse of heaven's

glory. It provides the genre of Christian apocalyptic

literature with a vivid description of the inner forces one must struggle against to free oneself from the city of l man. Although Bunyan does not describe the destruction of I L,_, __ ,___ ~~-~-~--»~~•·~--~-~·-· ---~----·-~=~-=~~-·~~~-~-~~~---~--~•-----·•n•~--__1 67

this world, his main character "Christian" flees from his

city because of that foreboding:

. I am for certain informed that this our City will be burned with fire from Heaven, in which fearful overthrow, both myself, with thee, my Wife, and you sweet babes, shall miserably come to ruin; except (the which, yet I see not) some way of escape can be found, whereby we may be delivered.l8

When asked by Good-will his destination, "Christian"

replies, "I come from the City of Destruction, but am

going to Mount Zion, that I may be delivered from the 19 wrath to come." Bunyan's vision is narrower, more limi-

ted than the two previous European writers discussed. He

envisions the annihilation of man's city (the city of

destruction) but does not foresee its replacement by the

invasion of God's holy city. Bunyan's vision confines

God's kingdom to heaven. "Christian" must struggle

against obstacles and temptations, finally passing through

death before reaping the benefits of heaven. The message

of Bunyan is therefore much more other-worldly and limited

than that of Augustine Christ. Christ said, "The kingdom

of God is within you [Luke 17:211." Augustine also con-

tended that a consecrated allegiance to the city of God

reaps benefits here on earth.

The value of The Pilgrim's Progress is its clear

description of the victories a Christian must win to break

I away from the "city of man" and enter into the "city of jl' God." The same struggles "Christian" faced against the l~.-.-~,==·~~-~=v-~~~--~~-~~-~~-~~~~--=~~~--=~·~~~-•·-•~=~~-~~----___,1 68

"Slough of despond," Atheist, Obstinate, Y'Jorldly-wiseman,

Mistrust, Timorous, Talkative, Love-lust, Live-loose,

Money-love, Giant despair, etc. are the same struggles

Augustine faces in trying to break away from the city of

man. On the other hand, Good-will, Grace, Hope, Trust,

Charity, Discretion, Piety, Prudence, the Valley of humili-

ation, Faithful, Hopeful, Honesty, etc. are positive

attributes which will aid one in finding his abiding place

in the city of God. The crucial war of one's life is seen

as the struggle against the negative attitudes and moods

both within oneself and within others who influence one.

"Christian" is free from the cycle of the struggle against

these forces by passing through death. Augustine is

freed from these forces by a conversion experience to

Christ, and by Christ invading his awareness. The Apostle

Paul speaks of a similar struggle in Romans Chapter seven.

He identifies the negative and positive forces mentioned

earlier in a slightly different context. The flesh

represents the city of man, the Spirit (the indwelling

spirit of God) represents the city of God. He also points

to a deliverance by God through Christ as the liberating

experience that severed him from the chains of the flesh.

In addition to the allegory of a Christian's

inner struggle, Bunyan describes his vision of the celes-

1 tial city:

L-=-~~--~·~=·=· .. ~"-~-~---~-·-~~«-·~--- ~---~~---"-~~"=-~~~.. ~~-~~~--~-'~-~,-~~·~~~_j 69

It was builded of Pearls and precious Stones al so the street thereof was paved with Gold, so that by reason of the natural glory of the City, and the reflection of the Sun-beams upon it . 20

He goes on for four pages to describe further the Celestial

City with its tree of life, perfect people, living saints,

beds, throne of God, trumpets, harps, the Heavenly Host,

gladness, joyful thoughts, and worship of the King. Bun-

yan's description is far less powerful and dramatic than

Milton's portrait of the Celestial City.

The Pilgrim's Progress is regarded as a true

allegory--personality traits are personified to reveal the

battle within "Christian's" soul in giving himself to God.

However, one should not be limited by an allegorical in-

terpretation of The Pilgrim's Progress. The myth of Bun lyan's story involves the pulling down of negative spiritua~ forces blocking the journey of "Christian" towards the I Kingdom of God. "The Slough of despond", then, is not I merely seen as a mood, but as a negative living spiritual force that transfers discouragement. Jesus Christ and the

Apostle Paul often speak of spiritual warfare in the

Scriptures. According to the Gospels, Jesus often cast

out demons and dealt with forces in the satanic realm of

spirit. Apostle Paul, in Ephesians chapter six, exhorts I the believer to arm himself in God for immunity from the I "wiles of the devil," for "We wrestle not against flesh I Iand blood, but against principalities, against powers, j L.,_,__~"~"~~~-•~~U><~••~~·~~-·- c~<•••• ~-··--~~·~~·"·-~~~·~= ~···-< "~"""~~·-•~•··~·~•·"~-~~-~-~ ··-~~-~~-·~--~~~~·•~ 70

against rulers of the darkness of this world, against

spiritual wickedness in high places [Ephesians 6:12]."

On the level of allegory, Bunyan portrays those human

traits which help and hinder "Christian's" passage to the

Celestial City of his visions. These are characters such

as, Faithful, Hopeful, Sincere, Obstinate, Pride, and

Shame. On a level of myth, "the Heavenly Host" and "the

Shining Ones" are angelic characters of the higher world

of the Kingdom of God. As in Paradise Lost and the book

of Revelation, the celestial "city of God" is physically

described. But unlike these previous works, its invasion

upon this planet is not stated or implied. The Pilgrim's

Progress is a story of struggles. Its place in the genre

of Christian Apocalyptic literature is well defined by

Evangelist's message to the pilgrims:

My Sons, you have heard in the words of the truth of the Gospel, that you must through many tribulations enter into the Kingdom of Heaven. And again, that in every City, bonds and afflictions abide in you; and therefore you cannot expect that you should go long on your Pilgrimmage without them, in some sort or other. 21

Augustine, Milton, and Bunyan have produced apocalyptic works which are based on the apocalyptic vision of the Scriptures. All three men believed ln the divine authority of the Scriptures; their visions there~

fore, are extensions of the great divine Christian apoca-

lyptic vision. All three portray favorable descriptions 71

of the "city of God' and unfavorable ones of the "city

of man" (the "city of man" in "Paradise Lost" can be seen

as the domain of Satan's fall). Augustine and Milton

expectantly point to the coming day of the judgment and

destruction of the "city of man'', and the establishment

of Christ's absolute headship and rule in the "city of

God."

Augustine and Bunyan both view the "city of man"

as the temporal, passing pleasures of this world--that

which pulls one away from a pure devotion to God. The

three writers studied envisioned doom for the future of

man's vain strivings, but hope is expressed for the

future of God's divine plan for mankind. I The utopian vision of the "city of man" is an ex- 'pression of man's hopes, dreams, and plans for the ideal state. The Christian apocalyptic vision differs from the

utopian in several basic ways; as it portrays the "city

of God," planned out and ruled by God. This heavenly city

already has its reality in the unseen realm. Therefore,

a revelation or unveiling of God's unseen kingdom is es-

sential to man's limited faculties. Knowledge of God's

hidden kingdom cannot proceed from human imagination or

reasoning. The apocalyptic descriptions coming from Danie~

St. John, and Bunyan proceed from men who have received

I visions and dreams from God. Their human reasoning has L~e:_by::e~~-_:he~ h~ve -~:~~~-i~~~.::~:~. -~~-a~~- :_··~ 72

reality. The basic premise behind the thinking of the

Christian apocalyptic writers is that God is alive and

working behind the scenes. God's plan cannot be executed

on the earth by human planning and action but only by

God's moving and direction. Thus we are faced with the

difference between the utopian tradition and the Christian

apocalyptic tradition: the Christian apocalyptic writers

envision God's Kingdom by reaching into that paradise

through vision, while the utopian writers strive to build

that paradise through futile human efforts.

I 1_~-----·------~-·~·--·-·--~---~--=~~~~~-~~~~-- 73

THE APOCALYPTIC TRADITION:

THE CITY OF GOD ENDNOTES

1 Leland Ryken, The Apocalyptic Vision in "Paradise Lost'' (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1970), p.2.

2carl Jung, The Collected Works of C.G. Jung, ed. by jSir Herbert Read, trans. by R. F. D. Hall, ( vols. N.y. : Bollingen Foundation, 1958), IX, pt. 1, pp. 3-5, 81. 3 For an excellent example of the allegorization in Old Testament Scriptures see Galatians 4:21-31. 4 Emil Brunner, Revelatioh and Reason (Philadelphia: Westminister Press, 1956), p. 321. 5 Joyce Dramel Hertzler, The History of Utopean !Thought (N.Y.: Cooper Szuare Publishers Inc., 1965), p. 24.

6 Hertzler, p. 13. 7 saiht Augustine, "Epistolae", An Augustine Syn thesis, arranged by Erich Przywara (N.Y.: Harper & I Brothers Pub., 1958), p. 107. l 8 Augustine, An Augustine Synthesis, p. 28. 9 Also see Psalms 134:3; 135:21; 137:1-6; 147:2, 12-14; 149:1-2; Hebrews 11:9-16. 10 saint Augustine, The City of God, trans. by Marcus Dods, George Wilson, and J. J. Smith (N.Y.: Random House, Inc., 1950), XV, ch. 1, pp. 478-79. 11 . Augustlne, The City of God, XIX, ch. 16, p. 695. 12 . Augustlne, The City of God, XIX, ch. 17, pp. 695-96. 13 . Augustlne, The City of God, XIV, ch. 28, p. 477.

14R. H. Barrow, Introduction to St. Augustine, "The City of God" Selections (London: Faber and Faber Unlimit ed , 1 9 50 ) , p . 5 5 . 15 1 Augustine, The City of God, XX, ch. 16, p. 735. I L_.- ..·.,-·~=,==~-~~. ~..·~--·-·--~~-~~~------~----~-~---,~__~ 74 t:~~~r~:~~s~~~;~~~;~~~~~~~ nnesota press, 1972), p. 253. 17 iI Ryken, p. 121.

L~~--~~---~~=--='"--~--~·-·~~-~·-~---~~----- ~-~------~-~-~---·---J CHAPTER IV

THE CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC VISION IN

"THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA"

More than a quarter of a century ago a famous

Oxford scholar and literary critic began writing a series of delightful, adventurous children's stories.

When Professor Clives Staples Lewis had finished the seven books, a Christian apology had been written, and an old Christian apocalyptic myth had been reshaped.

C.S. Lewis is perhaps the most influential

Christian apologist of the twentieth century. He is firmly rooted in the genre of the Christian apocalyptic vision (the literary tradition which by revelation points to the city of God to come). Lewis' sermons and letters attest that he believed in the physical second coming of

Jesus Christ. Both his autobiographies, Surprised by

Joy and The Pilgrim's Regress portray his exodus from the city of man towards the city of God. Throughout

The Pilgrim's Regress Lewis portrays himself as a pil grim searching for the truth, going down multitudinous dead-end roads of traditional religion, atheism, ration alism, etc., before his conversion to "The Way, the

Truth and the Light." Lewis' life-changing conversion from atheism to Christ is the foundation of all his

75 76

r~~~-"~~-~~~~--~"=~~~-,-----~~~~--~~-~=~-~~ ,. = , ••• ~--..... subsequent writings. Thris, in his projections and re-

flections of the Scriptures which is found in the Nar-

nian chronicles, there is an inevitable and natural out-

growth of his new state of heart and mind.

Although "The Chronicles of Narnia" are enchant-

ing tales for children, they are written for adults as well. In one of his essays c.s. Lewis states, "Most of the great fantasies and fairy tales were not addressed

to children at all, but to everyone." 1 This statement

holds true for the stories of Narnia. Lewis claims that

he wrote these books in such a way that he himself

could take pleasure in reading them. His style of

writing painted pictures that could entice any child or

any adult with a child-like heart. In the guise of fan-

tasy, these chronicles put the reader off his guard

and convey more readily the underlying vision and reve-

lations contained therein.

Lewis explains the advantage of the fairy tale

form: . I fell in love with the form itself: its levity, its severe restraints on descrip tion, its flexible traditionalism, its unflexible hostility to all analysis, digression, reflec tions and 'gas'. I was now enamored of it. It's very limitations of vocabulary became an attraction; as the hardness of the stone pleases the sculptor or the difficulty of the sonnet delights the soneteer.2 I Of the apocalyptic authors discussed, c.s. l Lewis was the most imaginative. He used adventurous Jl L---~~-~-~~---~~-~-~-.. -~~-=~---~~~~-~----~~-~-----~---~------. ~------~-~ 77

stories to convey his vision of the

Bunyan communicated his apocalyptic message in a strict

traditional, allegorical form; John Milton employed the

epic poetical form to express his eschatological story;

the more rigid, documentary narration of the Biblical

writers was used by Saint Augustine to communicate his

view of the apocalypse.

Lewis' main characters in the Narnian fairy

tales are children and talking animals. Children are

wisely chosen to be main characters for they tend to be

open in their hearts, eager for adventure, quick to

fight--but quick to make up, perceptive of simple

truths, teachable, humble, transparent, and persistent.

Such qualities make them the perfect characters to

enter into Narnia and finally Aslan's Kingdom. I feel

that Lewis' stress upon the importance of child-like

qualities comes from his belief in and influence by the

words of Jesus: " . truly I say to you, unless you

are converted and become like children, you shall not

enter the kingdom of heaven. Whoever then humbles

himself as this child, he is the greatest in the kingdom

of heaven [Matthew 18:3] ." The children do become the

greatest in the kingdom of Narnia. The naivete and in-

nocence of these children enables them to experience J change within their natures and conform to the divine J L~~a~ure _:~.~--=-=~~in~:_:=-=·-- 78

r->=<~-~---~~~~~~-~~ Dawn Treader, Eustace's eyes are unveiled to see the evil

of his selfish, corrupted nature when he is turned into

a dragon by a magic bracelet. He is transformed when

Aslan peels off the many layers of Eustace's dragon

skin and throws him into a well of water (a symbol for

cleansing). Aslan peels off the old selfish attitudes

of Eustace, and from that time on, Eustace is seen as a

changed character, with transformed attitudes.

The choice of talking animals for main characters

by Lewis, was influenced by his love as a child for Norse

mythology and Beatrix Potter's stories of talking,

clothed animals. Lewis' preparation started at an early

age. He recalled that:

I grew up in a place where there were no good pictures to see, so that my earliest acquaint ance with the droughtman's or the painter's art was wholly through illustrations to books. Those to Beatrix Potter's Tales were the de light of my childhood; Arthur Rackham's to The Ring, that of my schooldays. . I liked Beatrix Potter's illustrations at a time when the idea of humanized animals fascinated me perhaps even more than it fascinates most children; and I like Rackham's at a time when Norse mythology was the chief interest of my life. Clearly, the pictures of both artists appealed to me because of what was represented. 3

In Lewis' autobiography, Suprised by Joy, he tells us of

writing his own history of "Animal Land" between the ages

of six and eight. He was always fascinated with animals.

As a ~edieval scholar, his thorough knowledge of medieval

beast fables and Norse mythology was a certain influence 79

on his creation of Narnia. The clever ape, Shift, in

The Last Battle can be likened to the medieval talking beast, Reynard the Fox. Both are shrewd, charismatic characters who are successful masters of deception. The mode of fable is appropriate for the message Lewis is conveying. The fact that talking animals are the major citizens of Narnia creates a comfortable distance between that world and ours. The further removed Narnia is from our commonplace world, the more objective the reader can become with the underlying truths of the myth portrayed.

There are unfathomable treasures and mysteries which lie beneath the surface. The adventure stories of "The Chronicles of Narnia" convey the Christian apocalyptic vision, A revelation of the Kingdom of God to come. The shadows and glimmers found throughout the seven children's stories are consistent symbols of an underlying myth which reshapes the apocalyptic truths of the Bible and of the other Christian works previously discussed. Throughout the seven books of "The Chronicles of Narnia" one can observe the unveiling of Lewis•

Christian apocalyptic vision.

His imagination and his deep vision is conveyed by these magical stories. This chapter of my thesis will present some key particular events and characters which reveal his apocalyptic vision. 80

Lewis' Narnian chronicles are predominantly mythical rather than allegorical; they are a product of the imagination revealing a spiritual reality rather than a product of man's reason revealing a psychological reality. These adventure stories reshape an apocalyptic myth presented in the Old Testament. These chronicles originate from an author who firmly believes in divine inspiration. He implies he has written with a divinely inspired imagination. In The Pilgrim's Regress, the pilgrim (Lewis himself) questions the validity of his experiences, dismissing them to be figurative or mythological. Shortly the pilgrim hears an Aslan-like voice assert the divine element moving within his myth:

Child, if you will, it is mythology. It is but truth, not fact: an image, not the very real. But then it is my mythology. The words of wisdom are also myth and metaphor: but since they do not know themselves for what they are, in them the hidden myth is master, where it should be servant: and it is but of man's inventing. But this is my inventing, this is the veil under which I have chosen to appear even from the first until now. For this end I made your senses and for this end your imag!na tion. That you might see my face and live.

The words above establish that Lewis believed the myth- maker to be an unconscious spokesman for God, and in this passage, he asserts the divine quality of myth. He sees himself as a divinely inspired myth-maker. The

Narnian books were not consci~usly pre-planned but were according to Lewis, largely a vision conveyed. 81

in-

spiration of mere images that flashed into his imagina-

tion. "A mighty lion, a mouse with a sword, a wood

nymph, a centaur, and a land more real in color, beauty,

and life than one could find in our world--these were 5 the beginnings of "The Chronicles of Narnia."

In the tradition of the other Christian apocalyp-

tic writers, Lewis is a seer. He was one who believed

in vision and attempted to convey his vision. Vision

was a major channel for the flow of divine revelation

found in the Old Testament. Visions and dreams were

common experiences of the Old and New Testament prophets.

Many of these were prophetic foreshadowings of the end

of time; (i.e., those of Daniel, Isaiah, Joel, Malachi,

and Saint John). This is the apocalyptic vision.

Saint Augustine's life was drastically changed by a

flash of vision: " ... by a light ... infused into my 6 heart, .... " Paradise Lost is packed with visions of the

heavenly kingdom to be established on earth. Adam 7 ascends "in the visions of God" (XI, 377). Adam has

numerous prophetic visions in the epic (Christ in the

wilderness, the celestial city, the end-time events).

Eve has several false visions that lure her into decep-

tion (XIII 306-11~ V 90-1). Paradise Lost stresses the

need for proper guidance from above. Humanity needs a

Raphael, a Michael, a "Safe Guide" (XI 8 7 2) , a "Celestial

--~,~-~-·=- ''~"-~---~-~-~----~~--~------~~~---·--·-·------·~----·---....1 82

'==-~=·==,~-,~~-= r Guide" (XI 785), and "Enlightener of. .. darkness" (XII, 27). A vision from above and divine guidance are

two crucial themes of Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress.

In both parts one and two, heavenly visions give "Christ-

ian" and "Christiana" a revelation of the city of des-

truction and a desire to make the haza~dous journey to

the celestial city. 8

The emphasis of spiritual visions as opposed

to intellectual philosophies in the Narnian chronicles

reveals the importance of mythical vision to C.S. Lewis.

It is a vision of Aslan that faithfully leads Lucy and

the rest of the Pevensie children to Prince Caspian in 9 Prince Caspian. It is a living vision of old Narnia

that King Miraz attempts to destroy by suppressing

any talk about the old Narnia. 10 As long as there is no

vision of old Narnia, Miraz knows he can easily execute

his own selfish plans. Lewis' view of vision is expressed

in King Solomon's passage on vision in the Book of Pro-

verbs: "Without a vision the people perish" (Proverbs

29:18).

Reepicheep is a courageous character of vision. He is

compelled to sail beyond the seven islands into Aslan's

country. He has the "spell" of a prophecy hanging over

him: 83

"Where sky and water meet, Where the waves grow sweet, Doubt not, Reepicheep, To find all you seek, There is the utter East." 11

It is only Puddlegum's vision of truth and reality that

delivers Eustace, Jill, and Rilian from the deceptive 12 spell of the wicked queen of the underworld. "The

Chronicles of Narnia" as a series of stories is a vision

embodied in myth drawing the reader to God's glorious

kingdom. Lewis himself admitted enticing the reader I with a vision:

Do you think I am trying to weave a spell? Perhaps I am; but remember your fairy tales. Spells are used for breaking enchantments as well as for inducing them. And you and I have need of the strongest spell that can be found to wake us from the evil enchantment of worldli ness which has ~een laid upon us for nearly a hundred years. 1

Lewis endeavored to weave the vision of the city of God

to break the spell cast upon people of the city of man.

In his study of Milton, Northrope Frye defines "vision"

is a way that is applicable to C.S. Lewis and to all

other writers in the Christian apocalypse:

It [a vision] can only come from something inside us which is also totally different from us. That something is ultimately revelation, and the kernel of revelation is Paradise, the feeling that man's home is not in this world, but in another world (thought occupying the same time and space) that makes more human sense.l4

The Narnian stories are vision cloaked in myth.

I Within the myth, however, fable and allegory are liter- L~"'~---~~~-~-·---=~--~-~--·--·-----~-j 84

ary forms applicable to the books just as the literary

devices of metaphor, simile, and irony are used to

convey his vision. Narnia is a fable, in that Lewis

used personified animals to convey his message. Narnia

is allegorical, in a narrow sense, in sections where

characters and events are not symbols of a "higher realm"

but rather representatives of this world, or of common

human characteristics and traits. For instance, Aslan's

march to death (and the subsequent resurrection) in The

Lion, The Witch, and the Wardrobe allegorically represents

a remarkably accurate analogy of the death and resurrec 15 tion of Jesus Christ. The historical analogy isobviou~

but on a more mythical level of understanding the reader

would see the "things eternal" accomplished by the brave

act of Aslan. On the allegorical level the reader would

understand that Aslan is a type of Christ figure, in

that they both become willing victims of their perse-

cutors. They underwent torture, cruel death, and magni-

ficent resurrection. In another allegorical interpre-

tation the reader would see Aslan as a type of Christ

in the personality traits he possesses (i.e.: humulity,

compassion, patience, strength, courage, and faithful-

ness. Allegorical analogy, then, can be said to describe

the events of this world and the traits of humanity. The I symbolism of myth, on the other hand, reveals the events l

[ __~f _:_~~~-~~t~a~_::lm ,~ot~=e~e~~:_-~nt~l~ec~-J 85

The mythology of the crucifixion of Christ is that he,

in a spiritual reality takes upon himself the iniquities

of mankind--past, present, and future. Judgment and

death came upon Him (and therefore these sins). Through

this act, mankind is freed from the curse of sin and

access to God is restored. Aslan's death and resurrec

tion lifted the curse and the White Witches' strangle hold from the land of Narnia--the ice started melting

and it became spring. Specifically for those who study

the Christian apocalyptic vision, myth deals with the major spiritual realities identified in the Bible, The

City of God, Paradise Lost, The Pilgrim's Progress, and

"The Chronicles of Narnia."

C.S. Lewis' "The Chronicles of Narnia" have a

solid place in the literature of the Christian apocalyp

tic vision on the basis of two facts. First of all,

their stories contain many analogies to apocalyptic prophecies from the Bible (the foundational revelation of the literature of the Christian apocalyptic genre).

Secondly, the Narnian tales also reshape apocalyptic myths found in the other apocalyptic works mentioned in

the last chapter. The Narnian books give further insight

into the city of man and the city of God. The land of

Narnia represents both cities at different times in the

stories. The spiritual forces that rule the city of man are symbolized by various characters in these stories. 86

In reading The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe

with the book of Revelation ("The Apocalypse") a clear

analogy can be seen between the White Witches 1n Lewis'

story and Babylon the harlot from Revelation. Both

are "drunk with the blood of the martyrs." Both are powerful women who deceive to maintain power prior to I the coming of Christ (Aslan). Both are dethroned by

Christ (Aslan) and destroyed.

The city of God described in "The Chronicles of

Narnia" has several planes of reality. One plane is the

! reality of God's kingdom within the believer's life. l I On the other plane is the reality of the same kingdom as it becomes a functioning political reality. This I j world becomes the domain of God's theocratic rule. Lewis ! I also describes the process by which this kingdom is established. As some of the principal symbols of the li seven books of the Narnian chronicles are discussed, I' I the various aspects of the Kingdom of God seen in other literature of the Christian apocalyptic genre are

brought to light. Characters confront Aslan and are

changed. As the Pevensie children take on Aslan's

characteristics, the children boldly battle through to

bring an end to the old age and the beginning of the

new one 1n which Aslan reigns and peace comes. This

kingdom is described intermittently in various books

of the series, bringing the Christian apocalyptic 87

vision to the modern reader.

The paradise Lewis portrayed was not man's but

God's. "The Chronicles of Narnia" is part of the liter-

ature of Christian apocalyptic vision rather than that

of utopian thought. All seven books are God-centered,

not man-centered. This is my assertion of the difference

between the apocalyptic utopia of Biblical tradition as

opposed to the utopia created by man without a divine

vision or plan.

er, hero, and king. The Pevensie children bring down

the old regime and usher in the new state only by obe-

dience to, and cooperation from Aslan. They embrace

Aslan's divinity. For the most part 1 the children do

not plan their visitations to, or escapades in Narnia;

they find themselves at the right place at the right

time. Aslan is always there to train them, lead them,

and give them courage and strength. It is not the plan

of the children to confront the enemy forces and over

come them to usher in Aslan's will. In their adventures

the children establish Aslan's city (the city of God)

by being his willing servants; they do not set out to

establish a utopian ideal.

One important reason why the Narnian chronicles

is seen as an integral part of this genre is that the ~--~~:~:~P~~-~;~:: ~:s :::~-~~~:r_::~~::~:~:~:;~:~- 88

c "-~~-~-~~-~~---·=~-~~-~~-~··-=-l kingdom portrayed in the books in the genre. The ·

Old Testament prophets saw th~ Kingdom of God as a

theocratic society. Jesus spoke of it as both a coming

political kingdom on earth and as a presence and invasion

of God's reign working spiritually within a believer.

Saint Augustine described the Kingdom of God primarily

as a position of faith in God and His promises, thereby

occupying an invisible abiding place in the city of God.

He saw it as an alignment and allegiance to God's

coming kingdom which already existed in the realm of

heaven and has been made available by God's Word. One

can either align himself with the world or with the

city of God. Milton, above all, synthesized his celes-

tial visions of heaven and his terrestial visions of

Eden to give man a vision of the apocalyptic paradise

to come. Bunyan, unlike the others, portrayed the

struggles of a Christian on the road to the heavenly

city. Paradise Lost portrayed the initial conflict

with Satan; The Pilgrim's Proqr~ss portrayed the everyday

conflict of a Christian against Satan's forces. A

number of Biblical books portrayed the final conflict

with Satan.

Another apocalyptic vision trait "The Chronicles

of Narnia" share is the focus on the deity. Of the j characters prominent throughout the seven stories of l Narnia, the spotlight repeatedly falls upon the mysteri- L·"-·~·-~·-·~~~~· -·c·----~·--·~·---·-·--~~--~--__,l 89

ous Aslan. The presence of Aslan is linked closely

with Narnia for he is th~ mighty, untamed Lion who

creates Narnia out of the void. He speaks and sings

into existence the vegetation, sun, moon, stars; and

all the creatures, talking and dumb: the dryads, the

centaurs, and dwarfs. Aslan is a dynamic and peculiar

character: he has qualities that are beyond the nature

of man or beast. Aslan does not merely represent God,

for he is referred to on several occasions as the son

of the Emperor over the sea. 16 The crucifixion scene

in Book I and the doubting Thomas scene in The Horse and 17 His Boy show strong parallels between Aslan and Christ.

Like many Christians, Lewis believed God was manifested

through Christ. Aslan, though a lion is also a lamb.

Christ is referred to as both the Lion and the Lamb.

(In Book III) Aslan represents Christ who reveals the

manifold aspects of God. The God of the Israelites in

the Old Testament refers to Himself before Moses as

Jehovah, "I Am that I Am'' (Exodus 3:14) , so Aslan, when

Shasta asked, "vJho are you? 11 replies, "Myself," in an 18 awesome voice. Uncompromising and fearfully demanding,

Aslan rules in all authority with a rod of iron, just

as Christ is to reign on this earth (Revelation 12:5).

Christ is referred to as "the mighty lion from the tribe

of Judah 11 in Revelation 5: 5. Other lion symbolisms in the

Scriptures reinforce the character of Aslan, the Great ·~-~~-,··~~~--~·----·---~~---~·______j 90

Lion. Hosea 11:10 and Amos 3:8 speak of the awesome

revelations of the Lord (symbolized as a lion) to His

people. When the Lord appears as the Lion of Judah,

people will be devastated by His presence, just as Isaiah

was (Isaiah 6:1-5). So it is with Shasta, who falls

out of the horse's saddle at the lion's feet at the

appearance o f th e awesome. 1'1on As 1 an. 19

As Peter Kreeft says in his study of C.S. Lewis'

works, " ... We must not forget his [Lewis'] supreme

success: few writers in fiction or apologetics, and far

fewer writers of both, have portrayed as compellingly

attractive a God as Lewis has dared to portray [through 20 his character Aslan]." Aslan appears in several

forms in the fifth book: a large cat who comforts a

boy named Shasta in his loneliness; a fierce lion ready

to devour Shasta; and an enormous lion as bright and

radiant as the sun in all majesty and splendor. Aslan

reve~ls his various dealings with Shasta in the past in

The Horse and His Boy:

"I was the lion." And as Shasta gaped with open mouth and said nothing, the Voice con tinued. "I was the lion who forced you to join with Aravis. I was the cat who comforted I you among the houses of the dead. I was the lion who gave the horses the new strength of 1 fear for the last mile so that you could reach King Lune in time. And I was the lion you do not remember who pushed the boat in which you I lay, a child near death, so that it came to shore where a man sat, wakeful at midnight, to l receive you."21 L~,--~-~-·-~-----~---~------~------91

r·~~~~,--~~-~-~~~~~~---··-· -~--· 1 Aslan is tender, yet fiercei he is personal, yet

objective, he devours petiple and animals, but saves

those who love and submit to him, leading them to his

kingdom of the ultimate paradise. Similar paradoxical

qualities are attributed to God by Augustine in The

Confessions:

What art Thou then, my God? ... Most highest, most good, most potent, most omnipotent; most merciful, yet most strongi stable, yet incom prehensible; unchangeable, yet all-changing; never new, never old; all-renewing, and bringing age upon the proud, and they know it not; ever working, ever at rest; still gathering, yet nothing lacking supporting, filling and matur ing; seeking, yet having all things. Thou lovest, without passion; are jealous, without anxiety, repentest, yet grievest not; are angry, yet serene; changest Thy works, Thy purpose unchanged; receivest again what Thou findest, yet didst never lose; never in need, yet rejoicing in gains; never covetous, yet exacting usury.22

Glimpses of the apocalyptic vision in each of

the seven books provides a panoramic view of the vision 23 from the series as a whole. Both in the text and in

the appendices, each book will be discussed in the

chronological order in which they occur in the events

of the series, not according to the chronological or-

dering according to the date of publication (which is

the basis for the way they numbered the books) . The

first event that takes place in the series is the

creation of Narnia found in The Magician's Nephew. I Lewis vividly describes the creation of the Edenic l paradise which is a type of Aslan's apocalyptic kingdom

-·>e<--""<»"-'"""'•""'""'"...:-~-·---~------=-...... --~----==~~~...... """""'"'"'·====--==<>-_____ 93

spread out from the Lion like a pool. It ran up the sides of th~ little hills like a wave . The light wind could now be heard ruffling the grass . [p. 104] The higher slopes grew dark with heathe~. Patches of rougher and more bristling green appeared in the valley [p. 104].

The Lion next creates the animals and when he is finished,

"there came a swift flash like fire." With "The deepest,

wildest voice," he said:

Narnia, Narnia, Narnia, awake. Love, think, speak. Be walking trees. Be talking beasts. Be divine waters [p. 116].

While the Old Testament account of the myth

of creation is a record of an ancient tradition which is

imaginatively unembellished, Lewis' account is creative,

imaginative, and filled with life and vigor. For in-

stance, his description of the earth's colors create

excitement: "they were fresh, hot and vivid [p. 101] ."

Lewis gives the reader a sensual experiencing of the

colors by using vibrant adjectives, He becomes familiar I with the reader through speaking in the second person. l Lewis draws the reader into the scene of the action.

The animated style contributes additional vigor to his

account: "One moment there had been nothing but darkness;

next moment a thousand, thousand points of light leaped

out-- [ p o 9 9] o II He animates even the voice of

Aslan saying: "The Voice rose and rose, till all the

I air was shaking with it. And just as it swelled to

the mightiest and most glorious sound it had yet pro-

I-;~"''"'''"•O•-•<"'-<'""=->'<·-'>".~e~.=:>>"J"'-"="'$-'"'.ol>'<'-""'~•="""'"""''"'.,.._._...~,__,..-.--~=~-»=~~~-'="=-"<<-"~-· --=------>~·.,..-~"'~-""""-· ~""""'-="""-·~~=.,.·==~·~~-....-.....,«6=,=<~v..=""""'"~'''.-''"""'~~--=

l Lewis' description of the creation is more lively and

detailed than the Biblical account. Milton's vision

provides the reader with hundreds of lines of vivid,

luscious, awesome descriptions of the Edenic paradise

such as:

On a green shady Bank profuse of Flow'rs. [VIII 286]. He led her nothing loath; Flow'rs were the couch, Pansies, and Violets, and Asphodel, And Hipcinth, Earth's freshest softest lap fiX 1039-41].

Although the beauty of Eden is astounding, the restored

paradise to come will be more beautiful and more im-

portant, a "far happier place" because Satan and his

evil will be dealt with by Ch~ist (according to Arch-

Angel Michael) :

Then to the Beav'n of Heav'ns he shall ascend With victory, triumphing through the air Over his foes and thine; there shall surprise The Serpent Prince of air, and drag in Chains Through all his Realm, and there confounded leave; Then enter into glory, and resume His seat at God's right hand, exalted high Above all names in Heav'n; and thence shall come, When this world's dissolutions shall be ripe, With glory and power to judge both quick and dead, To judge the unfaithful dead, but to reward His faithful, and receive them into bliss, Whether in Heav'n or Earth, for then the Earth' Shall all be Paradise, far happier place Than this Eden, and far happier days ... [XII 451- 46 4] •

In contrast to Milton's description of God's paradise

in his epic poem, Paradise Lost, Lewis' visions of L-·-~~---~~--- 95

God's paradise (as described in this book and in the

others of this series) are dominantly pastoral and

geographic in descript~on. Milton's depiction of paradise has urban qualities such as gates, towers, roads, and walls. Lewis captures the beauty of creation when he relates the myth of Narnia's creation, which is only the paradise lost. Even greater, more magnificent is the paradise regained which is unveiled completely 1n the last chapters of The Last Battle. The new Narnia, the Narnia regained is far more splendid and real than the old Narnia:

All of the old Narnia that mattered, all the dear creatures, have been drawn into the real Narnia through the Door. And of course it is different; as different as a real thing is from a shadow or as waking life is from a dream.25

Within a few hours of the creation of this new world,

depicted in The Magician's Nephew, Digory has mistakenl

brought into it Jadisr the witch of Charn (p. 96,97). A "force of evil" is let loose in Narnia (p. 136) which

is not fully conquered until the last battle in Book

VII which ushers in the apocalyptic kingdom, the

restoration of the original state of undefiled Narnia.

The subsequent books depict battles with this "force

of evil" resulting from the fall of Narnia. The need

for the apocalyptic vision of restoration and re-

creation is established in The Magician's Nephew by the 96

f""'~~,~~-=·~~-~>0~,=-~-~-···-==~·~~--~-~~=-~· .

I description of the ~vil loosed into the perfect

paradise of Narnia. As the other Christian apocalyptic

writers before him, Lewis was intolerant of the des-

tructive force of evil. In his bboks, evil continually

distorts and creates distance between the relationship

of the Creator with the creature. The apocalyptic

vision is the culmination of many conflicts between the

forces of good and evil; it is the final conflict. The

resulting process brings into being the paradise re-

gained which Milton forshowed in his Paradise Lost.

The Magician:' s Nephew paints both a picture of

the Edenic paradise, a living, vibrant world devoid of

sin and the dying world of Charn, a world where the

cancer of evil had spread death into every area. The

first picture shows this world prior the introduction

of evil, the second shows the course of death this world

would take if the apocalyptic vision were not fulfilled

(if there were no fight and victory against the forces

of evil). Like Bunyan, Lewis saw this world as the

City of Destruction, being more diseased with evil as

time progresses:

In Lewis' opinion, the modern conception of progress, as popularly imagined, is simply a delusion, supported by no evidence. Darwinism gives no support to the belief that natural selection, working upon chance variations, gas a general tendency to produce improvement. 2 97

r-~=~·~-=~·~··~=-=-=-~~=~-~---·-·~-~- 1 Lewis viewed the utopian dream as futile delusion. In Lewis' thinking, the folly of man's dreams to erect

a utopia is proven by the bloody history of man's re-

l at1ons. h'1p to man. 27 The world of Charn is to Digory

and Polly a symbol of the future of this planet, if

divine intervention would not occur. The Magician's

Nephew describes Charn as a city overpowered by the evil

force of death:

And the earth, in every direction, as far as the eye could reach, there spread a vast city in which there was no living thing to be seen. And all the temples, towers, palaces, pyramids, and bridges cast long, disastrous-looking shadows in the ligh~ of the withered sun. Once a great river had flowed through the city, but the water had long since vanished, and it was now only a wide ditch of grey dust. "Look well on that which no eyes will ever see again," said the Queen. "Such was Charn, that great city, the city of the King of Kings, the wonder of the world, perhaps of all worlds [p. 59]."

In the last chapters Aslan specifically warns Digory

and Polly that the fate of Charn could be the earth's.

When Polly asks if this world is as bad as that of Charn

Aslan answers:

"Not yet, Daughter of Eve," he said. "Not yet. But you are growing more like it. It is not certain that some wicked one of your race will not find out a secret as evil as the De plorable Word and use it to destroy all living things. And soon, very soon, very soon, before you are an old man and an old woman, great nations in your world will be ruled by tyrants who care no more for joy and justice and mercy than the Empress Jadis. Let your world beware. This is the warning ... [p. 178] ." 98

lution towards decay, dystopia, and finally destruction.

He felt the intervention of God as the only way man's

future is diverted from this pessimistic course. The

rest of the books of Narnia depict episodes in which

doom is averted through the intervention of Aslan.

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe tells the

story of how Aslan and the Pevensie children free

Narnia from the binding enchantments of the White Witch.

With the White Witch in control, Aslan's disciples (who

were free from her spell) lived underground, in hiding

from her tyranny. The life of these creatures is

analogous to that of the citizens of the city of God

to which Augustine refers. This kind of life is also

analogous to the life of many underground Christians 28 today living, in hiding, in many communistic countries.

The City of God emphasizes the necessity for Christians

to keep their thoughts and loyalty given to the city

of God, though they live in the midst of tyranny and

corruption in the environment of the city of man.

Although= Aslan's devotees are persecuted and stories

of Old Narnia are outlawed by the Witch, the Old Narnia

citizens carry on with their exuberant way of life in

hiding. From all outward appearances, the White Witch

rules the land, but these rebels are determined to l-~-~~~'"~~~ i~~:he-~~i :y :_~~an ~__:~o-n=--~~:_:~--~ 99

r=-·=---~,=~~M~~==-~~===~-=-~=~~=~--·~~~~-~·=-~~~l

land death round about, these creatures live a life filled ,

lwith exuberance:

And when Lucy was tired of eating, the Faun began to talk. He had wonderful tales to tell of life in the forest. He told about the midnight dances and how the Nymphs who lived in the trees came out to dance with the Fauns; about long hunting parties after the milk-stag who could give you wishes if you caught him; about feasting and treasure seek ing with the wild Red Dwarfs in deep mines and caverns far beneath the forest floor; and then about summer when the wood were green and old Silenus on his fat donkey would come to visit them, and sometimes Bacchus himself, and then the streams would run with wine instead of water and the whole forest would give itself up to jollification for weeks on end [p. ]3].29

They refuse to succumb to the outward facts of their en-

vironment; instead, they cling to the truth of old Narnia.

j Aslan's victory over death paved the way for the

!victories of the Narnians over the evil forces they en- l jcountered in the remaining episodes of the Narnian ! adventures. The Lion of Judah willingly becomes meek in

order to provide the ransom for Edmund (pp. ]46-]60).

When asked about the meaning of his sacrifice, Aslan

replies:

"It means," said Aslan, "that though the Witch knew the Deep Magic, there is a magic deeper still which she did not know. Her knowledge goes back only to the dawn of Time. But if she could have looked a little further back, into the stillness and the darkness before Time dawned, she would have known that when a willing victim who had committed no treachery was killed in a traitor's ~tead, the Table would crack and Death itself would start work- 1 ing backwards [pp. ] 59-60] . I That deeper magic symboliz:es the love and grace which t~--..~- ~·----·~· -~~~~--~--~~·=~·~~~-·--·~~~~~~=~·--··-- 100

r:~~e~::::ar:an~th~:on::ue:=::-f~==-·- 1 jlaw. Here, one sees that the underlying spiritual

joccurence is the same as with Christ. As Christ, Aslan

!conquers the enemy's dominion over the law by abolishing

it. God (the Emperor over the sea) created the Law to

.expose evil but the White Witch used the law for her own

l!advantage to hold people captive to be subject to her I !everyI wh' 1m an d purpose. As Chr1st,. As 1 an users h 1n . a I lperiod of grace to his people. This provision of grace j I prepares Aslan's people for His Kingdom by loosing them j from the Witch's leverage with the law. God's love and

gift of grace has always been a prominent Christian

apocalyptic theme. St. Augustine wrote dozens of trea-

"Christian"

The revelation of God's

The White

The

Pevensie children are crowned as the rulers of Narnia I and live in joy and plenty by following Aslan's will. ' Il They are just rulers and it soon becomes evident that, l. 1 "In all of Lewis' stories for children the will of God I 31 I proves to be the source of ultimate delight." j '--·-<·~"'···~~~--~----~-~~·--·---~-~=-·-=~~--~~----~--~---~~--- 101

concerning eschatological events. Of the other books

of the Christian apocalypse we have studied, this story

is most like The Pilgrim's Progress. As "Christian,"

Shasta is a pilgrim running from the "City of Destruction"

"Christian," after passing through many perils, Shasta is

an overcomer who inherits the Kingdom. Like The Pilgrim's

l 1 Progress, The Horse and His Boy does not have many l types of eschatological events. The most important apocalyptic characteristics are the revelation of the

deity Aslan (which is more extensive than any of the

other books) and the sojourner, pilgrim spirit which

pervades the story. As mentioned earlier in this chapter,

Aslan is depicted as wearing many faces. Those many

faces are revealed in the appearings of Aslan in this

book. Each time Aslan reveals himself to Shasta, the

boy is strengthened and changed. The Horse and His Boy

exposes us to the multifaceted character of Aslan and

the pilgrim spirit of a boy who grows quickly into man-

hood.

Prince Caspian is similar to The Lion, the Witch,

and the wardrobe in that it is a story of how the Pevensie j children help the hidden Narnians defeat the usurpers. l This time the usurping rulers are the Talmarines led by J

~.,_,,...,_~=-·-· --~"""--=""""~-"""'~-=="""-· ~--~~"""""'~""''-""'~-<=<--~"="""--'•'''"''""''"'"'"<=<"~"-"><<=r--'>--=--=-"""=-'="-._ __""""'-~·. ----·- 102

-~,~·=-~·-·"=~~~"~~=,~·-~-~.=-~· ~~=,==<-·~~-.--~·~>'~·-~-~=·=·~-tt---~~-l 1 King Miraz. King Miraz suppresses the spirit of Old Narnia:

It is you Telmarines who silenced the beasts and the trees and the fountains, and who killed and drove away the dwarfs and fauns, and are now trying to cover up even the memory of them. The l King does not allow them to be spoken of [p.47] .32

Miraz represents the tyranny of a progressive, technocra l1 ltic urban-industrial state. It is a presence or spirit I jof the modern society which shackles and suppresses the

!imagination and spirit of man. The talking beasts and

~dwarfs are in hiding. Modern day engines of propaganda, j indoctrination, and ideology program children to desire

!and accept a world of continual narrowing concepts. They

are equipped foran electronic universe where nature is

stripped of its mystical content and alienated from

I modern man. The scientism of technological advances I l have created a disharmony with nature. Those who communed l with the creatures of the earth, who called the sun, brother, and the buffalo, brother, are mere primitives doome

to extinction. The modern age which has given rise to

rationalism, reductionism, objectification, and mechanism

(all being psychological processes by which the creation

is denied spirit and life) alienates modern man from his

natural environment. This age, then, is playing into the

hands of a Miraz (or Ford of Brave New World)• who would wipe out the past and condition people to the totalitarian l ~.st~~~~he i~~buil.~=-:_::re. ----·------~-J 103

""'"-'"-""·~~,.-,.~~""'~''''""',...-...,..J-~"'=....,.~""""""""""~"'""'~-=~=-"="'~~"''"""'-"'-_.~=·..... ~""....---.-·'"'''"'"~ ...... ~~~~~~"'=~~1 l j Unlike former Christian apologists, Lewis, having

seen the ravages of th~ industrial revolution and techno-

logy upon the human spirit, writes with great intimacy.

King Miraz is symbolic of the environment in which humanity

lives prior to the second corning of Christ.

In the opening scene of Prince Caspian it has been

a long time since a good king has ruled and much longer

still since the land of Narnia has been visited by Aslan or

!the children. Only by rumor do some even know what it usedl

!to be like in Narnia when the Lion made his will freely

and frequently known to His people (and of course, to his

)talking animals). In Prince Caspian Lewis creates a cli

jrnate where the skepticism of man's disbelief controlling

the Narnians can be compared to the times that exist in our

present world. The New Testament book of Acts records that

the early apostolic church moved in great power and author-

lity. History confirms that a 1ha!ridful of disciples imparted

jan awareness of God to the whole Roman Empire. As with

jthis episode of Narnia, it has been a long time since the

lworld has known the presence and power of Christ (Aslan) .

'l·In the last two centuries, science has risen to become the

god of this modern age. Many today have read the accounts

of Christ's ministry but these are seen, for the most part,,

as distant and historical. I King Miraz's motivation for deceiving Caspian is jgreed for power and glory. The story of Caspian identifies L~~-·--. -.~.. --~·~~.· --~. -~· . ---~·---~------~... 104

r~·"'"-~--~=~=,--~,=-~-~~~-~=~~~·-~--==-~~"" ~~-$~ lthe spiritual force of deception that is pervasive through- lout man's history. It m st be resisted and defeated. Soc± leties everywhere encounter this kind of deluding influence

!which is utilized in order to promote the policies and am lbitions of political despots and ideaologies which keep the people of God from accepting and possessing their inheritance of the kingdom of God.

The eleventh chapter of Prince Caspian most expli- citly gives the reader a clear picture of the dangers of rcepticism and belief. Lucy actually sees Aslan, who is rrying to lead the four children along a path to meet rrince Caspian. They want to join Caspian in conquering

~he forces of the wicked Miraz. Lucy is the only one of ~he four who sees Aslan, and the others do not believe her. fhey turn onto another path and do not follow Aslan, recause of their lack of trust and belief in Lucy (and

~hereby Aslan also). Aslan, however, appears to Lucy and

~ells her that she must make the others follow her leading l(and thereby his). He assures her that though he may not ~e visible to the others at first, they will see him as ~hey follow. In the next chapter they are able to see him,

~s they grow out of their scepticism and disbelief. l 1 The New Testament Scriptures attack disbelief repeatedly. It is seen as a major deterent to the Kingdom l . bf God appearing on thls earth. The Book of James tells us

~["hat a double-minded man will not ~eceive an~~~ing~~r::_~~~

"'"""'·"~-==="'..,_....,>=,,...,._,_-moe="'"""'.....,..'"""'""---~"-"---~------"""""'"'"""'''"''~'Eo'''"'''~"'""""-"'"""-~---~ " 105

~-:~~e~-;;~~::;;- not perf:rm-: m~r~ !his home province because of the peoples' disbelief

(Matthew 13:58). Throughout the Scriptures, those men and women who believed and walked in faith were the ones who

were close to God. Only those who are quick to hear God's

~voice and see God moving will be able to follow Him in what

1He is doing in the endtime. As the other three children l must trust Lucy's vision and leading,, there will be those who will only find God's guidance by following one of His jservants. Lewis seems to be saying that just as it is

!depicted in the Scriptures, when a leader with a vision of

I jGod attempts to lead, people must be sufficiently aware of

!the Divine intention of both God and the inspired leader to

follow. j Throughout "The Chronicles of Narnia," it is ievident that Lewis uses images, types, and relationships !which are familiar to the modern reader and easy to relate

.to. His human characters can easily be found on any city block. His characters are types of those who the Kingdom of God belongs to. Lewis has directed his revelation toward those who will most probably receive it: namely

~those who identify themselves in or with that revelation.

!In The Voyage of the Dawn Treader Lewis' vision is portrayed by the use of common pictoral examples to depict the perils of men's lives. The "Dawn Treader" sets out on a

,voyage upon the orders of the king of Narnia (Caspian) to l t~:Lis.c~o.Y.e.rjh~_£at_e~.aL... s.exz:~n-~loJ::d.s.,_who><_wex,e~exlled~_,.j;)¥-~Ki..:r:tg-~ 106

Fi~:·~~:~sp~.a~~~~;:~c~·~~-·=,~ ~~~~"r~~~

~ndividual plig~s are found t~es of the futile destinies of men which keep them from entering into the Kingdom. The first place that the "Dawn Treader" stops is the Lone

Islands which have become rebellious to Narnian rule.

here they find the first lord. His situation represents

problem which is perhaps the first to be faced by anyone

ho believes in the apocalyptic vision becoming a reality. l ~he Lord Bern lives in the islands, not because he likes it

Ipr agrees with much that goes on there, but because he has ho power or ability to do anything about it. He hates the ~lave trading and the lazy way that matters of government rreI carrle· d out, b ut h.lS VOlCe· ln· SUC h matter lS· not even hesired to be heard, much less considered. The modern day bhristian often finds himself in the same predicament. He ~ay see the promise of his position as one who will rule ~ith God in the apocalyptic kingdom, yet feel powerless at I bimes to oppose the evil forces that surround him and bring

I.ln t o rea l 1za· t 1on· th e apoca l yp t lC· vision he has embraced. ttn the first, second, fifth, and seventh books of the karnian chronicles, battles to repossess a usurped kingdom l ~s an important theme. Aslan aides the righteous warriors ln all of these conflicts against evil forces. In the ~arne ~anner, Jehovah came at the right times to instruct, btrengthen, and miraculously intervene in aiding the ksraelites (as recorded in the books of Joshua and Judges). L.-~-·=·~·•"--a'"~· ~~-. -----~~-~--·~~-···----~~--~~--·-.-~ 107

r~=-1~:--=~-:~~~et~~r~~n:~:~=~~n;:::;n~f:ll=:e:~~·:~

!be the same. The fearful and impotent do not stay in his

camp, but only those who are willing to fight. They see

him as David saw God in the Psalms 144:1: "Blessed be the

Lord, my rock, who trains my hands for war, and my fingers

for battle." As with Jehovah of the Old Testament, Aslan

does not fight the battles for his followers but trains

land strengthens them to defeat their foes. I The third Narnian lord that the travelers found jwas at the bottom of a pool of water, which turns every

jthing into gold upon contact. Looking again to the

!writings of the New Testament to receive a picture of the

"last time" or.the "end of days" immediately prior to the

establishment of the Kingdom upon this earth, it can be I !seen that several men (including Jesus) warn of the perils

of wealth and riches, as concerning one who would desire to 1 !enter the Kingdom:

I Your gold and your silver have rusted; and their rust will be a witness against you and will con sume your flesh like fire. It is in the last days that you have stored up your treasure [James 5:21.

Augustine in The City of Go~ repeatedly identifies I , the stumbling block of wealth and rlches to be one of the 1 l strongest in keeping people in bondage to the "city of man"! land excluded from the "city of God." As we saw earlier in discussions of Augustine and Jesus, "For where your lj treasure ls,. t h ere will your heart be also [Matthew L----~--~-----~~~-~~~~- -- 108

r~~.,,~~~,·-~,-~~~='··=>==-~~-~~=----~=~=~,·~m~~~~-==~-~l If you lay up treasures on earth that is where you focus

will be--the temporal city of man. If you lay up treasuresl

in the higher reality of heaven, that is where your focus I j and awareness will be--the eternal city of God. The simple

story of the fate of this Narnian lord reveals one of

sever~l common perils of man that prevent men from attain-

ing to God's Kingdom. j The fifth, sixth, and seventh lords that Caspian jand his crew find on their adventure are on the island

!called Ramandu's Island which is the last place our travel lers happen upon before going on to the end of the world I(or the "Utter End" as Lewis calls it) . They find three jlords asleep, seated at a table with a rich feast of foods

set before them. In fact the travelers discover that a new

feast is set before them every day, but the three lords

never wake up from their sleep to partake of any of it.

!They also learn that this is in fact, Aslan's table, which lhe daily renews for any traveler who might have made it to

that far corner of the world in passage to the End of the

World (i.e. : the kingdom of As lan) which is the only other jland beyond Ramandu's island.

But Ramandu, for whom the island is named, explains

,to Caspian and his crew that the enchantment under which

the three lords sleep, can only be broken by their sailing jon to the "World's End" and leaving one member of the crew

!and then returning. In this story, according to the l-==~-""'-'-""""""-""'-""""-~-"---'''"''""·'-....,._..-=_,.... "'-~""'"'"=-""'=-· -~~--~----. -- <«."'>'~>-->~~-..~·~---·-· ""T"' 109

Fhi::i:-;:-~h:"ch:is=-::ca:ypse~-:ew::::::;:-;:;al 1lel of the three sleepers at a table of which they never ~artake to reveal the perilous "sleep" or un~areness of ]which the apocalyptic tradition warns. This slumber is

prophesied to hold men captive before the advent of the

Kingdom.33 In effect, Lewis is saying you shall see it and

arrive at the proper place, but never partake of the feast

set before you. The perils of a spiritual heaviness and

stupor are well established throughout the scriptural tradi

tion. John Bunyan also gives warning of the perils of sleep

lin The Pilgrim's Progress. But whereas the peril of sleep I ("the enchantment") in their victims for years and ages ("there is sleep without tint or measure"), the peril of

sleep in The Pilgrim's Progress is a distraction from the

progress of the pilgrimage, a costly waste of time:

Thus therefore he now went on bewailing his sinful sleep, saying, 0 wretched Man that I am, that I should sleep in the day-time! that I should sleep in the midst of difficulty~ ... How far might I have been on my way by this time.34 jThe sleep of the three lords can be seen as spiritual dull jness or unawareness overtaking people in the end-time, rob-

bing them of the life and feast set before them. C.S.

I :::i:e:::z:::::e:fa:h:::e::::.i:h:h~::g:::.t:::: :::::enearl j dull and unaware of their present condition as well as the l ! nearness of a glorious future. This can be seen as a pote~ Itial danger all pilgrims face. Jl L-~~-~-~--.. ·~·=-~·-~~---~---,~-=···"~~---·--·-.. "'·~·~~--~.. -·--~~"~- 110

Journey to the Kingdom of God. Whether one is just start-

ing on the journey or if one has been traveling for a long ltime and is close to the destination, there are powerful perils to be alerted to. These perils are dominating spir± tual forces in the end time. Although the city of God is a relationship with Christ and a state of heart, Lewis claimed that there is a journey one must take in order to make the vision of the Kingdom fultilled in the physically manifested land of the Kingdom. Lewis paints a picture with this parable that the physical manifestation of the spiritual Kingdom of Christ must be pursued and found by the journeying believer. The warring traveler must pass I !through the perils, overcoming them; the more perils he overcomes, the closer he is to the Kingdom of God (each of lthe seven islands is progressively closer to Aslan's land).

One must be like the Abraham described in the book of

Hebrews 11:8, 10:

By faith Abraham, when he was called to go out into a place which he should receive for an inheritance, obeyed; and he went out, not knowing whither he went . . For he looked for a city which hath foun- dations, whose builder and maker is God.

Ramandu's Islands are mainly allegorical after the pattern of characters in The Pilgrim's Progress (who reflect temptations or inner conflicts to overcome). Each island is not a personification of a peril as we find in The I ~~~~~-·-<~"~'~>

r=--,-=·~~~~-~=-=<~-~-~-~-~-~·-~-~--~-·~~ . --~ !Pilgrim's Progress but a short narrative (parable) which identifies that peril by describing how the dangerous force

works. These islands represent more than allegory, more

than inner psychological weaknesses; they can be seen as I spiritual forces especially active and prevalent in con-

quering end-time travelers on route to the Kingdom of God.

The most gallant, determined sojourner on board the

"Dawn Treader" is a confident little mouse. One of Lewis'

most colorful characters, one of the most memorable of the

chronicles is Reepicheep the mouse. Reepicheep first

appears in Prince Caspian but the reader does not get to

know him until his character is developed in The Voyage of l the Dawn Treader. He is introduced early in the story with

the following description:

But then it was a Mouse on its hind legs and stood about two feet high. A thin band of gold passed round its head under one ear and over the other and in this was stuck a long crimson feather. (As the Mouse's fur was very dark, almost black, the effect was bold and striking.) Its left paw rested on the hilt of a sword very nearly as long as its tail. Its balance, as it paced gravely along the swaying deck, was perfect, and its manners courtly. Lucy and Ed mund recognized it at once--Reepicheep, the most valiant of all the T~5king Beasts of Narnia and the Chief Mouse [p. 11]. I !More important than his example of courage and valor, 36

Reepicheep is a character of vision for the literature of

lthe Christian apocalypse. While the others set out on

!board the "Dawn Treader" to find the seven missing lords, I jReepicheep sets out to find Aslan's country: J I "But Reepicheep here has an even higher hope." J \,.'"--~~~---~~~~~~~-~-~---~-----~~~~~=~~--,~------=~-~~--- 112

Everyone's eyes turned to the Mouse. "As high as my spirit," it said. "Though perhaps as small as my stature. Why should we not come to the very eastern end of the world? And what might we find there? I expect to find Aslan's own country. It is always from the east, across the sea, that the great Lion comes to us [p. 16] ."

Reepicheep's purpose is frankly stated early in The Voyage I jof the Dawn Treader. From that time on he is never found I !wavering in the resolution of his spirit to voyage to

Aslan's country ("the Celestial City" of Milton and Bunyan)

Unlike "Christian" of The Pilgrim's Progress, Reepicheep lwalks into the heavenly kingdom of God without seeing death. This identifies the character of Reepicheep with

~that of Enoch and Elijah to whom the scriptural tradition

relates. Enoch walked with God and was not (Gen. 5:24) . 1 .'\ J Elijah was taken up to God without seeing death (I Kings 2 ).

jAslan appears to Caspian and tells him that he wants Reepi

icheep to come to his country. Reepicheep may also be lik

]ened to the apostle Paul in that he is also able to say, I "I was not disobedient to the heavenly vision [Acts 26 :19] .' IHis hope, resolve, determination, persistence, and faith is

to be an example to all pilgrims of the apocalyptic vision.

The principal subject that Lewis covers in The

Silver Chair is how deception can keep a person from enter-

ing into God's Kingdom. As in the case of the three lords

lof Ramandu, an enchantment needs to be broken. Lewis per- l isonifies this power of deception 1n a witch who rules ~n t~:~:un~~in-gdom of knomes and oth:_such creatures who 113

r:re-:;:;:;;;-her-;;~e~ption_. The very existence o;-l

this underground kingdom is unknown to the Narnians.

The deception that the Queen works perverts the

truth and true plan of Aslan for the rule of Narnia, by her

striving to establish a false plan. The Queen of the Undel'

land attempts to twist the real plan of Aslan which is the

natural succession of Prince Rilian to the throne. The

Queen's false plan is to use Rilian to conquer the Overland

and become absolute ruler using Rilian as a puppet. I

The days of the fulfillment of the Christian apoca-l

lyptic vision will see many "Ishmaels"37 come on the scene lto lead many astray, according to the Scriptures: l For there shall arise false Christs, and false pro phets, and shall show great signs and wonders; in so much that, if it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect [Matt. 24:24].

The Silver Chair story, as I see it, is a reflection of

Satan's attempts in the end time to twist God's original

plan--that those who overcome the perils and withstand the

,trying of their faith will rule and reign with Christ in

His kingdom. The false perversion of the plan can be seen

in any "son of Adam" in the arrogant desires of the self

to strive to some place of achievement by his own self-

righteousness.

Lewis used allegory to show in this "parable" how

man is deceived into striving to gain something which reall

belongs to him in the first place. This he did by reveal ing the plan of the Queen for Prince Rilian to actually~

...~=·=--"=~.-=·--=.,._ .. ,,,,,,~~=----~------~-----~~~----~~--~-""""''"---=""- 114

[=~--'"-~~---~~g-·----· ~~-~~~~~ overthrow the very country of which he would be king by

blood succession. This comes because people are fooled 1n-

to ambitious desires to build something for themselves

instead of approaching their destiny according to God's

!plan. Thus, we are faced again with the essence of the

!difference between the utopian tradition and the Christian

apocalyptic tradition--man futilely striving to build a

paradise God had already planned to bring forth in perfec jtion.

Of all the book~The Last Battle most fully conveys

the Christian apocalyptic vision. Here we find deception

at its height, but also paradise in its fulfillment. It is

'the confrontation of the battle of the ages of which the

scriptural (apocalyptic) tradition speaks. It is the time

of the fulfillment of Michael's prophecy in Paradise Lost:

The woman's seed, obscurely the foretold, Now amplier known they Savior and the Lord, Last in the Clouds from Heav'n to be reveal'd In glory of the Father, to dissolve. Satan and his perverted world, then raise From the conflagrant mass, purg'd and refin'd, New Heav'ns, new Earth, Ages of endless date, Founded in righteousness and peace and love, To bring forth fruits Joy and Eternal Bliss [XII:543-5U

Last Battle depicts the battle of Armageddon (Revela-

tions 16-18), the last judgment, and the millennial reign

of peace of Christ and his allies. While in Lewis' vision

these events all take place in one big scene, in Augustines

time-table the millennial reign with Christ takes place

during his time: 115

~--·~~.~~·. ~~~=--~0- ·=------·· But assuredly the victorious souls of the glorious f martyrs, having overcome and finished all griefs and toils, and having laid down their mortal members, 1 have reigned and do reign, with Christ till the thousand years are finished, that they many after ward reign with Him when they have received their im mortal bodies.38

Like that of the Bible, Augustine's chronology of end-time

events depicted in chapter II of The City of God can seem

rather complicated and confusing, whereas Milton's and

!Lewis' chronology and depiction are simple and direct. The

judgments, taking place in The Last Battle at the scene of

the barn, separate those who love Aslan and those who do

not. Augustine seems unclear about his thoughts concerning

1the last judgments:

And now, that is to say, not the fire of the last judgment. Or if by this fire coming down from out of heaven and consuming them, John meant that blow wherewith Christ in His coming is to strike those persecutors of the Church whom He shall then find alive upon the earth, when He shall kill antichrist with the breadth of His mouth, then even this is not the last judgment of the wicked; but the last judg ment is that which they shall suffer when the bodily resurrection has taken place.39

Augustine's visions are not clearly expressed, but because

they are hazy, they are reduced to theological speculations

and human reasoning, whereas Milton's and Lewis' depictions

are that of a vision simply portrayed. All three foresee

!the time of the rule of the Antichrist preceeding the last Ijudgment and eternal reign of the saints with God, but the chronology is not precise.

Of the many types of deception and deluding influ-

ences revealed in the stories of Narnia, the one depicted L~ .. ~·---·--~~·--·~~·- ~~~·--· -~-~-,~=~~·-----~--~~--·-~-~--~ 116

(~~~,.,~,,=--•==~~=-=·-~~=~~-~~--~»~~~,~~·--·=~~----~='~'~w=~~--~ jin The Last Battle is the most dangerous. The deception lfalls upon Narnia in the same manner as it is predicted to l I !come upon the earth, as revealed in the New Testament

Scriptures (Mark 13:6,22). Shift, desiring power uses the

!ignorant Puzzle as his puppet. Shift, a talking ape who

1 may be likened to the Antichrist spoken of in the New Testal

ment, deceived the Narnians into believing that he is sav-

them when he is actually enslaving them:

Said the ape, "Wh6 said anything about slavery? You won't be slaves. You'll be paid--very good wages too. That is to say, your pay will be paid in to Aslan's treasury and he will use it all for everybody's good . . It's all arranged. And all for your own good. We'll be able, with the money you earn, to make Narnia a country worth living in. There'll be oranges and bananas pouring in--and roads and big cities and schools and offices and whips and muzzles and saddles and cages and kennels and prisons--Oh, everytfuing [p. 30] .40

Another form of deception mythically portrayed by

'Lewis in The Last Battle can be seen to symbolize the rise

lof an Eastern concept of God. An impersonal God, a mere jessence or passive force floating around someplace is an

influential concept of God prevalent in modern society.

Eastern religious doctrines and the ecumenical movement all

!have had the tendency to blur distinctions between peoples'

established doctrines. They amalgamate conceptions of God

Juntil anyone's god is seen to be as good as anyone else's, land anyone's path to God is seen as valid as another's. In jcontrast, Lewis' God is a personal, active deity. In this l I last century, the god of science has largely replaced L~-~--~-----~~~-~-~----~--~~---~~------7~-~-·--~------~~ 117

r=~·~--·-·-"--=~~~~~,~~~-~-· . ~~~~---~"~~· -~-=~=m--=" lthe God of Western religions and has risen up to de-deitize

!all religions by refusing to acknowledge the realm of spir- Ji t. This trend of science combined with the fusion of doctrines and beliefs work to blend religions together. This

is exemplified when the ape,who represents the Antichrist,

!tells the animals, "Tash is Aslan: Aslan is Tash [p. 32] . " ~lthough the distinction is minimized between the two dei jties, the difference is great--Tash eats the blood of men,

lhis people are sacrificed to him, while Aslan, by his blood 1 saves all Narnia.

Lewis depicts gloom and fear hanging over Narnia

jmuch in the same way the apocalyptic (prophetic) tradition jsays it will hover over the earth in the last days for,

II joy is withered away from the sons of men [Joel

.1:12] ." Mistrust and skepticism also pervades Narnia at l lthis time. For example, the group of dwarfs led by Griffle

!who are originally on the side of Narnia and Aslan become

!their own distinct group because they do not trust anyone

since they found out that Puzzle was set up as a puppet

"Aslan." Griffle says, "We've been fooled once and we're

jnot going to be fooled again [p. 72] ." The dwarfs are for lthe dwarfs. The deception is much greater when it is the ltruth slightly perverted, as in this tale. Then the Narni-

ans are easily fooled by it. As the final tale develops,

King Tirian has knowledge that there is a great paradise

about to come: 118

-~~-~=-..· ~-·~-=~~~=~•r.~--~-~-d·~··---~-~--~~-~-~ [ "And who are you?" Neither of their spears were at the salute now--both ~ere down and ready for action. "Give the password," said the chief soldier. l "This is my password," said the King as he drew his sword. "The light is dawning, the lie broken. Now I guard thee, miscreant, for I am Tirian of Narnia [p. 70]."

1The unicorn Jewel, too, believes in the paradise which will

shortly come as he makes this statement about the door to

the shed which appeared to be a door to death: "It may be

lfor us the door to Aslan's country and we shall sup at his

!table tonight [p. 128]."

j The judgment that Aslan performs is a type of the

!final judgment by Christ (II Corinthians 5:10). As the

battles won in the previous six b6oks resulted in peaceful

coexistence with surrounding hostile neighbors, the victory

in this last battle has finality to it. In addition to the I I!people of old Narnia, all neighboring- peoples are brought into the judgments. The new heavens and new earth Aslan

ushers in is a total project of renewal and transformation,

as Augustine said:

But by God's final judgment, which shall be adminis tered by His Son Jesus Christ, there shall by God's grace be manifested a glory so pervading and so new, that no ve~tige of what is old shall remain; for even our bodies shall pass from their old corruption and mortality to new corruption and immortality.4l

This seventh and last book depicts the final des-

truction of those who have not loved Aslan. Those who I have been found faithful to Aslan have been brought into Aslan's country, which symbolizes the Kingdom of God. Here l~~-d Nar~nia trans for~~. i~~::!_e:tion,_,~m_o_r~e~-----' 119

-=~"~~~·,-~~-·~~·-~·-.. =~·~·,=~~~=-~~-=~~=-~" . --=~- . ~~-- [brilliant than they could have ever imagined. I Aslan's Kingdom in this book is the Edenic paradisej

of book six (The Magician's Nephew) brought into greater

fullness. It is the same paradise of Milton's vision. It

is the "paradise lost" regained, restored, and expanded.

The following quote describes this new Narnia:

The new one was a deeper country: every rock and flower and blade of grass looked as if it meant more. I can't describe it any better than that: if you ever get there, you know what I mean [p. 171].

beauty of its landscape and geography is astounding:

It is hard to explain how this sunlit land was different from old Narnia, as it would be to tell you how the fruits of that country taste. Perhaps you will get some idea of it, if you think like this. You may have been in a room in which there was a window that looked out on a lovely bay of the sea or a green valley that wound away among mountains. And in the wall of that room opposite to the window there may have been a looking glass. And as you turned away from the window you suddenly caught sight of that sea or valley, all over again, in the looking glass. And the sea in the mirror, the valley in the mirror, were in one sense just the same as the real ones: yet at the same time, they were some how different--deeper, more wonderful, more like places in a story: in a story you have never heard but very much want to know. The difference between the old Narnia and the new Narnia was like that [p. 170-171].

As seen earlier, "The Chronicles of Narnia" reshape I ~Biblical myth and the myth of other Christian apocalyptic !works. It is the most imaginative work among many in a

tradition which foresees and welcomes the second corning of

Christ and the establishment of His rule. It is part of a

tradition, preceded by works from writers such as Augustine

Milton, and Bunyan, that envisions and yearns for the L.·-·~-,--,~-~~--·~--~~.. -~~-----~-~-~-~--~-·-~ 120

~~--~=~~--~-- f"=~~M~~~--=·==~=- of paradise lost. Augustine as- restoration and renewal aradise present among both :fOX" p I l ·re serted that this des~ Christian apocalyptic writers t:tle the utopian writers and ·thin the human heart by God: wJ. Was a longing 1mp. 1 an ted natural instinct, to d es1re . . en osa~ity, He Himself continu~ng And as He had g1~ 0 rt rning mortality, by endur1ng blessedness and ~rnrnasS 0 to despise it, that what we to be blessed, but:nt osw upon us.42 what we fear,.taug est0 0 long for He m1ght dialectic of man's desire for t:tle Lewis is fascinated bY 1 gist, Car olo God. 43 The Swiss psyc:tl being is present everywhere. ·-v.ine that an all-powerful dJ. the fundamental archetypes of /Be identifies God as one

common to man: rience of man, and from the . . . 1 ~~pehas taken inconceiv~ble God lS a pr1mord~a pJ.tY this baffling exper1ence, to remotest times hurnatraY f interpretation, speculation, pains eithe: to prno~ans~~ny it.4~ assimilate 1t by tO w and dogma, or else psychological fact because of I ·s a /Jung advocates that Go d J. f ·pg· God imprinted the need or 1a universal need or 1ongJ. h · · fe: d · I1 lmself upon man's 11 s a psychologist that Go 1s j . 6 a-~..,..~-""'"--""'"-===.,.~,.""-~·~-...... ~ 121

"The Chronicles of Narnia" are a vision of things

to come, a reflection of things already taking place in

their eternal drama. The world of Narnia is not a second-

rry creation as in Tolkien's Middle Earth, but a ~thos

!expressive of truths and mysteries hidden in sacred Scrip

lture. Narnia is a dwelling place like Milton's garden 1

Bunyan's Celestial City and Augustine's city of God, psy-

,chologically a world of Edenic consciousness where the con

jflicts and battles with this present age and within our

lselves are portrayed in delightful fantasy. Spiritually,

lat the present time, it is a dwelling in the city of God,

jan awareness of, and relationship with God and what He is

doing.

Such phenomena as talking animals, dryads, fauns,

!centaurs, sorceresses, dwarfs, and God have been denied

·access to our technocratic, scientifically enlightened,

industrial-urban world. They are said to be delusions of

a more primitive, non-civilized pre-industrial era of man

without reason. The anti-natural, anti-mystical attitudes

of this scientific age have been programmed into most all

the people in the Western world (to one degree or another) .

Such fantastic creatures as are pictured in Narnia are

characters for cartoons, Mother Goose, or something else i

the obscure studies of ethnologists and anthropologists in

curiosity of the all but extinct "savages" and "primitive" jpeoples. L~-~...,.,._,.,.-·~-·----~--~--~--~--~----'""'-= .. ~·--·----~---~--·- 122

Lewis was sensitive to his environment and observed

that the harder man strived for his utopian dreams the

more he was alienated from his God, his fellow people, and

nature surrounding him. Lewis believed God was the only lone who could straighten out man's futile predicament. l Perhaps as the self-righteousness and greed softens, and

sensitivity and harmony with creation is restored, we will

once again hear the voices of nature. At that time it may

,well be we shall hear "all creation groaning and longing" ! !for its freedom (Roman 8:23). Awakened to the captivity I land limitations of our earthly natures, many shall then

search out and enter the mysterious closet that leads all

to the adventures of Narnia. 123

'f"""':-""'=·-"'·~=--="'""'""·""'-~-""-"'~=-~~~==~--~=<-=""'""'""~~.,.,..=~~-~·~--;r~~-~-.,...~ i I THE CHRISTIAN APOCALYPTIC VISION IN I "THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA" ENDNOTES

ij lc .S. Lew1s,. An Exper1ment. 1n . Cr1t1c1sm . . . ( Lon d on: 1Cambridge University Press, 1961), p. 70. j 2 Lewis, "Sometimes Fairy Stories May Say What's to 1be1 Said," The New York Times, Book Review Section, Child lren's Books Section, 18 November 1956, p. 3. 3 ! Lewis, Criticism, pp. 14-15.

4 Lew1s,• T h e P1"1 gr1m• I s Regress: An Allegorical Apology for Christianity, Reason, and Romant~cism. (Gr~nd Rapids, M:ich. : Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. , 1958), pp. 219-20. 5 Lewis, "Sometimes Fairy Stories," p. 3. 6 l saint Augustine, The Confessions of St. Augustine, !trans. by Edward B. Pusey (N.Y:: Pocket Books Inc., 1951) 'VIII, pp. 147-48. j 7 John Mil ton, Paradise Lost, ed. by Merritt Y. Hughe (N.Y.: The Odyssey Press, 1962), XI, p. 377. 8 John Bunyan, The Pilgrim's Progress (London: Ox ford University Press, 1904), pp. 11,12,207-11. 9 Lewis, Prince Caspian, Collier Books, 1970 (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1951), pp. 132-47. 10 Lewis, Caspian, pp. 39,40,47,53-56,60. l 11 . I Lewis, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, Collier Books, 1970 (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1952), p. 16. 12 I Lewis, The Silver Chair, Collier Books, 1970 (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1953), pp. 152-60.

13Lewis, "The Weight of Glory," in The Weight of Glory and Other Adresses (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1949), p. 5

14 Northrope Frye, The Return of Eden: Five Essays on Milton's Epids (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965) 1 P• 97. 15compare Lewis, The Lion, the Witch, and the Ward- l~~e, ~,~ll~er-~~970 ~N·~-~-Ma.~~~~=~~~~~-'-· 124

·c-~-•=~-~~~•==--=~·>-<~--~~--·~·---•~--~-~~-=~--~1 rpp. 146-60, with Matthew 27, 28.

16 Lew1s,. Dawn T rea d er, p. 104; Lew1s,-. The Horse and His Boy, Collier Books, 1970 (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1952), jP· 160. 17compare Lew1s,. Th e Horse and Hls. Boy, pp. 192-94 with John 20:24-28.

18 Lew1s,. Th e Horse and Hls. Boy, p. 104 . 19 Lew1s,. T h e Horse an d Hls . Boy, p. 110 . 20 Peter Kreeft, C.S. Lewis: A Critical Essay (Grand IRapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1969), p. 2 . 1 21 . j Lew1s, The Horse and His Boy, p. 158. 22 l August1ne, . T h e Con f ess1ons, . I, p. 3. 23 For a short summary of each of the seven books refer to the appendix. 24 Lewis, The Magician's Nephew, Collier Books, 1970 (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1955), p. 98. 25 Lewis The Last Battle, Collier Books, 1970 (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1956), pp. 169-70. 26 Kathryn Ann Lindskoog, The Lion of Judah in Never ! Never Land (Grand Rapids, Mich. : ~Jm. B. Eerdmans Pub. , 1973), p. 194. 27 For a further insight into Lewis' thinking on the world's progress, read his essay: "The World's Last Night,' The World's Last Night and Other Essays (N.Y.: Harcourt Brace, 1960). 28 Hebrew 11:32-38 relates how God's remnant has always been persecuted, suffering from: "trials of mock ings and scourgings," "bonds and imprisonment," "being stoned," "being sawn asunder," and "slain by the sword." 29 Lewis, The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, I Collier Books, 1970 (N.Y.: Macmillan Pub., 1950), p. 13.

lj 30 Bunyan, p. 46. 31 lI Lln. d s k oog, p. 89 . 32 l Lewis, Prince Caspian, p. 47.

L~~~~~·-~·~'""--~----~--~- ~~-~=·---~---~----~·~·----~·~-~~·__,J 125

r--~~=·"~--~~=--~~~--~~-~,--~-,=~~-~--=~~-~--·~ 33 see I Thessalonians 4, 5; Revelations 15:16; and Isaiah 52:2. 34 Bunyan, pp. 55-56. 35 . Lew1s, Dawn Treader, p. 11. 36 Th ere lS . a s1gn1 . . f.1cant resembl ance b e t ween Reepl-. cheep and the mouse in chapters II and III of Alice in Wonderland (by Lewis Carroll). They both talk, are coura lgeous, and possess leadership qualities.

37Ishmael of the Bible is the usurper, the false heiL He was born, not of God's promise, but by man's fleshly striving. Read Genesis 13-17.

38Augustine, The City of God, XX, ch. 13, p. 731.

3 9Augus t 1ne . , Th e C1 . t y ·o·f Go d , XX , c h . 12 , p . 730.

40 Lew1s,. T h e Last Batt 1 e, p. 30 .

41August1ne, . Th e C 1ty. o f G o d , XX , c h . 17 , p. 7 3 6 . 42 August1ne,. Th e C.~ty o f Go d , X , c h . 29 , p. 336 . 43 Read Corbin S. Carnell's extensive study of lsehnsucht in "The Dialectic of Desire: C.S. Lewis' Inter pretation of Sehnsucht." 44carl Jung, The Collected Works of e.G. Jung, ed. by Sir Herbert Read, trans. by R.F.D. Hall, XX vols. (N.Y.:

Bollinger Foundation 1 1958), IX, par. 480, p. 320. 45 Jung, XII, par. 15, p. 14. APPENDICES

l-7

126 l..L.I

ABSTRACT OF THE MAGICIAN'S NEPHEW (1955, Book 6)

The first adventure in Narnia begins when Digory

and Polly, two children in London, accidentally discover

Digory's strange uncle experimenting with magical, colored

rings with which he causes guinea pigs to disappear. Fear

ful of becoming his own subject, Uncle Andrew makes Polly

touch one of the yellow rings--and immediately she dis-

appears! Digory becomes angry with his uncle, and takes

two green rings in his pocket and a yellow one on his

finger. He instantly finds himself and Polly in the Wood

between the Worlds. Here they discover many small lakes

that are entrances into other worlds if they jump into a

lake with each having a yellow ring on.

Through one lake they enter into a practically

dead world called Charn, where by striking a bell Digory

brings to life a terrible queen, Jadis. She tells them

how she destroyed all of Charn by speaking the Deplorable

Word. When Jadis learns that the children are from a

newer world, she sets her heart to possess it. The

frightened children touch the green rings to get away from

her and back to London. However, Jadis touches them at I the right moment and is transported with them to London. l In just a short while Jadis is causing a riot in London. t"'~----...,=~""'""""~-"'=--=~.-""--~~ ...--'""""""-----~ .. .,.....,..-~~-~~=~------~~--- 128

-,~=-~~---·~~~~=~~,-~-~~-~=---= Touching the yellow rings, Digory and Polly grab Jadis;

[ instantly they are transported to the Wood between the

Worlds, where they jump into another lake which brings

them into a midnight world of Nothing. To their surprise,

they not only bring Jadis, but Uncle Andrew, a cab driver,

land the cabby's horse.

I In the world of Nothing they see Narnia created by I the great Lion Aslan who sings into existence every living j thing in this new world. He creates grass, trees, fauns, I satyrs, dwarfs, and talking beasts. No sooner has this I world been created with the pure and good magic of Aslan, then evil enters into Narnia. Digory brings Jadis into

' this pure world After watching the astounding sight of l Narnia's creati~n, Digory is sent by Aslan to get an apple from a certain tree, the seed of which when planted by

Il Aslan would produce a tree that would protect Narnia from I Jadis for many years. When Digory finds the garden and the tree filled with the beautiful fruit, he also discover

Jadis there. She is eating one of the apples, telling him

how delicious it is and tempting him to eat the apple he

ha~ taken from the tree. He holds fast to his instructions

he does not eat the apple, but brings it safely to Aslan,

who plants it, from which a new tree springs quickly.

Aslan gives one of the new apples to Digory, meant to heal

his mother who is to die from her sickness. Aslan j enthrones Cabby and his wife as King and Queen of Narnia,

the first rulers of Narnia. l~...... _~.,.=-...~~~-- ~------~--.-...,,, .. ,, •• , •. .., _____~...... ,. .... ~-~------129

r'c~··-~-~~-·~~~~,--~~<~~-~---~~~---~-----~~~=~-~-,~~ After a farewell, the children and Uncle Andrew

are transported back to their own world of England. The

apple heals Digory's mother from her illness. The core

is buried by Digory along with the magic rings in their

!backyard. A wardrobe is eventually built from the wood of

!this tree. When this wardrobe is discovered as an entrance I lto Narnia by Peter, Edmund, Susan, and Lucy, we have the Ibeginning of the adventures of Book l. I 130

~~~~~----

f APPENDIX 2 l ABSTRACT OF THE LION, THE WITCH, AND THE WARDROBE (1950, Book 1)

The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe tells how

four Pevensie children--Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy

enter into Narnia through a wardrobe; it depicts their

first adventures there and their first encounter with Asla

!The most critical part of this book comes when Aslan gives

up his life in place of Edmund. Edmund, the younger

Pevensie boy, becomes a traitor to his brother and sisters,

Aslan, and all those under Aslan, by serving the wicked

White Witch (Jadis) who has overcome the north part of

J Narnia. She has turned most of her enemies into stone, but

there are still many loyal Narnian beasts hidden away.

Edmund is lured into being one of her cohorts by a candy

1 called Turkish Delight, which she offers him when they

crossed paths in the forest. Once he starts eating it, he

cannot stop and desires it enough to serve the witch. As

a traitor to Aslan's Narnia, Edmund, according to the law

of deep magic, is legally prey to her, because, for every

treachery, she has right to blood. So, Aslan dies in

Edmund's place--he is bound up on a stone table which has

written on it, "The Law of Deep Magic," enscribed by lAslan's father, the Emperor over the sea. The witch and j her creatunes mock and jeer at him and finally kill him. L-,·~·~---~~-----~--~--~------~-· 131

However, the next morning he is resurrected with the dawn,

and is shining more brightly than the children have ever

seen him. The stone table is cracked in two which means

that the Law written on it is destroyed by Aslan's blood,

which has set loose a deeper magic than that deep magic of

which the White Witch knows. After Aslan is resurrected,

!he leads his army of Narnians and the Pevensie children

against the White Witch and her cohorts. The White Witch

is killed and her kingdom destroyed. At the end of the

book, Peter becomes King Peter the Magnificant, Susan comes

to be Queen Susan the Gentle, Edmund becomes Edmund the

Just, and Lucy becomes Lucy the Valiant. They rule happily

I for many Narn1an' years and then are transported back to

earth where no time has elapsed since their departure.

l L-----~·-·-~----.~--~·~------$----·- 132

r- - ---··--~=~~--~-,-=~~~~===--,~·---~~=~l l APPENDIX 3 ABSTRACT OF THE HORSE AND HIS BOY (1954, Book 5)

Although Aslan is the biggest hero of The Horse

jand His Boy, the story revolves around the flight of Shasta

jand Aravis from Calormen. Shasta lives in the south of

lcalormen, a helper and supposed son of a poor fi~herman.

!upon overhearing talk of being sold as a slave, Shasta and

ja newly discovered talking Narnian horse slip away together

in the night.

j Traveling northward, Shasta and Bree meet Hwin,

another talking horse, and Aravis who is the rider. They !try to go through the city of Tashbaan unnoticed but meet I trouble. Shasta is mistaken for his twin brother andpicke

and welcomed, but he is able to slip away by the the help

lof Tumnus the Faun. Aravis is discovered in Tashbaan by

1an old friend, who eventually helps her escape to meet

!shasta at the tombs outside of the city. I In traveling through the city of Tashbaan, Aravis joverhears talk of a plan by Rabadash the Tashbaanian to l invade Narnia. Aravis, Hwin, Shasta, and Bree set across j the great desert to warn Archenland, the country south of I Narnia who are right in the path of Rabadash's army. On j the way in the desert the four are attacked by a great Ilion who soon reveals himself to be Aslan. Shasta soon lc~"•-,---<~-~v-=~-~~,,-,~--~~-·-~-~-~-~-=-~~-~~--~·~-~·~·-·~--·~~----~----~~- 133

~~~=d-~ a~~:-===~~:·~M t:-:r~ =::hen land. He I warns King Lune and soon finds a Narnian party on their way

to help in the battle. Rabadash's forces are completely

!overcome with Rabadash himself being turned into a donkey

by Aslan.

Shasta is discovered to be Cor, the brother of

King Lune's son, Carin. He fulfills the prophecy of

returning as the long lost heir of the land and saving his

country from defeat. He ends up marrying Aravis and they jeventually become king and queen over Archenland. I 134

APPENDIX 4

ABSTRACT OF PRINCE CASPIAN (1951, Book 2)

Prince Caspian opens with the four Pevensie cbildre

discovering that upon their return to Narnia many years

have elapsed since the days of their reigning as kings and

queens (Book 1) (but it is only one earth year ago).

1Narnia is now ruled by a wicked man, King Miraz, who has

usurped the throne of the rightful king, Caspian's father.

While Caspian is a child, his uncle makes the impression

that he is training Caspian carefully, and preparing him

for the throne; but his real intent is to be ruler himself.

Prince Caspian is instructed by a nurse and later

by Doctor Cornelius about the old Narnia. One day when Il the young prince is out riding he is knocked unconscious

a limb and wakes up in the presenc~ of Trufflehunter the

badger and t\o-70 dwarfs, Nikabrik and Trumpkin. After a

fight of disagreement, the Old Narnians decide to make

Caspian their king to fight against the wicked Miraz.

When Caspian and his company of courageous warrior1 are in trouble, he summons the Pevensie children for help. 1 Aslan translates them into Narnia, at the ruins of Cair

Paravel (their old castle of rulership) . On the way to

caspian's aid, the children get lost in the mountains.

Lucy soon catches a glimpse of Aslan leading them in the l-·-~-~~=---~-~--~-~--~------· __.... 135

they go another way. They finally turn and accept Lucy's direction. As they follow Lucy (who is following Aslan) ,

Aslan becomes visible to them. They soon arrive to see

Nikabrik and his rebels quarreling with King Caspian, which is resolved shortly with the death of the traitors.

In knightly fashion, Peter challenges King Miraz jto meet him in single combat to decide the right of rule.

After Peter slays Miraz, the wicked king's followers attack but are rounded up as prisoners of war with the aid of the walking trees. With Caspian enthroned to rule Narnia, Asla returns the Pevensie children to the railway station from which their adventure began. 136

rc~=~-~--~->~~-~-~-~-=~~·~=·--~~l

I APPENDIX 5

ABSTRACT OF THE VOYAGE OF THE DA1iVN TREADER (1952, Book 3)

One earth year following the Prince Caspian adven-

,ture, Edmund and Lucy Pevensie are at the home of their

cousin, Eustace Scrubb. All three are transported into

a framed picture showing a strange ship on journey through

crashing blue waves. In The Voyage of the Dawn Treader

the three find themselves on board the ship called the

"Dawn Treader," manned by King Caspian. This vessel is on

a mission in search of seven lords sent away by King Miraz. jReepicheep the mouse is on board for another reason--he is

/searching for the edge of the world and Aslan's country.

Eustace is the only sour apple of the bunch. He

finds fault with everything; he turns out to be an obnox-

ious nuisance to everyone on board. When the ship goes

, arock at Dragon Island, Eustace runs away, is lost, and

turns into a dragon. Eustace retains his conscious

faculties and is transformed when Aslan tears off his

dragon skin and throws him into a well of water. From

that point on, Eustace is a completely different person.

He has learned how wickedly he has acted when he lives as

a dragon and is cleansed of his wickedness by Aslan's act

of mercy. 137

r-,~=~.~--~-~~-~--,~~. ~.~-~ ~ land stops at Deathwater Island where the inhabitants are all invisible. Lucy becomes the heroine by casting a spell l,that releases the people (the Dufflepads) from their invisi• lbility. The ship is almost lost at the Island of Darkness, but afterwards they find three more lords, fast asleep, seated at a sumptuous table. As they sail on they enter quiet and clear seas where they see people and castles below them in the water. The water is fresh, sweet, and alive with white lilies. Old sailors on board become young again as they sail through this glorious Silver Sea.

Reepicheep is now sent off in his own little boat to sail for Aslan's own country. Before being transported back to Cambridge, the children meet Aslan on a shore, where he feeds them and assures them of their destiny in

His country. The "Dawn Treader" returns safely to Narnia with a new passenger--a bride for Caspian. 138

APPENDIX 6

ABSTRACT OF THE SILVER CHAIR ( 19 53 , Book 4)

The Silver Chair adventure involves two cousins of

the Pevensie children, Eustace Scrubb and Jill Pole. They

·are transported to Narnia and the castle of Cair Paravel

by Aslan's magic. After learning from Glimfeather the owl

that young Prince Rilian has been taken captive by a woman

with a green dress, the two are commissioned by Aslan to

find the prince. They are given careful instructions by

Aslan and transported to the residence of Puddlegum the

Marshwiggle by two owls. During their search Puddlegum

and the two children barely escape being eaten by the

giants of the city of Harfang. Squeezing into a small

crevice during their escape from Harfang, the three slip

down into the Underworld. They meet P~ince Rilian who has

' no recollection of his past; and all his interests center

on the beautiful woman he adores, who has promised him a

great kingdom that she will soon establish inside Narnia.

This woman is Queen of Underland who has first killed

Prince Rilian's mother, and who has then taken Prince

Rilian, himself, captive under her deception. Rilian's

father is at the time ruling in Narnia not knowing where his son is or if he is still alive. Rilian,. of course, is in succession to his father on the throne. If he can be 139

r¥"·"~~·~~~·"--"~·~·~~... =-·~--~~---=·-·~··"~~- - -~--~---~~~~-~·=·-~-~·=·,-· .. ·=--==-~==~·-=~~F~=~·=·--- back from the Queen's grasp, the whole of his father's

kingdom will be his. It becomes Puddlegum's, Eustace's,

and Jill's duty now to fulfill the commission they have

been given by Aslan to free Prince Rilian and establish his

kingship. His father is to die shortly without an heir to

his throne unless Prince Rilian returns. The Queen de-

ceives Prince Rilian; since she has cast her spell upon

him, he cannot know anything except what she has told him,

which is that he should be eternally grateful to her for

saving him from some evil of which she has given him only

a vague understanding. She tells him that she will let

him rule Overland (the name she calls Narnia) with her and,

at the same time, she will let him take her hand in

marriage when they conquer Overland. The Underlanders are

nearing the completion of a tunnel that leads up to the

important center of Narnia through which they plan to

attack Narnia by surprise, in order to take total posses-

sian of the land.

The prince is chained up for an hour every night

in which he is free from the witch's enchantment. During

this time, the three cut him loose and the enchantment is I broken. When the green lady (the witch) comes she nearly

succeeds in enchanting Eustace, Jill, and Puddlegum, but

Puddlegum tenasciously holds to the reality of truth he

knows. She then turns into a green serpent and does

everything she can to kill them. She loses her head 140

sword of Prince Rilian and the Underworld is freed from the slavery which the Queen has imposed upon it. After experi encing a dangerous journey back, Rilian and his three new friends discover an opening to the heart of the upper world of Narnia. They go to Cair Paravel where the young prince is heartily welcomed. Eustace and Jill are then taken back home by Aslan after seeing him resurrect King Caspian. 141

APPENDIX 7

ABSTRACT OF THE LAST BATTLE (1956, Book 7)

The Last Battle begins with Shift, an ape, tricking

an ignorant donkey named Puzzle into wearing a lion skin.

Shift slyly convinces Puzzle that he should pretend that he

is Aslan; when Puzzle begins to resist, Shift says, "But

think of the good we could do!" With Puzzle deceived,

Shift's plan for his own power starts coming into fulfill- jment as the talking animals begin to believe that Puzzle is jAslan. That Aslan has returned begins to spread throughout

'Narnia. Shift gains alliance and power with the Calormenes !who share in the knowledge of the deception, and who take j this opportunity to take over Narnia. When King Tirian hears this news, and that the Calormenes, now in the land,

are cutting down the talking trees and enslaving the talk-

ing animals, he becomes infuriated. He and the unicorn

Jewell kill two Calormenes in their rash anger, but turn

themselves in afterwards not knowin~ whether the notion

that Aslan is giving these orders is real or false.

Tirian is then tied to a tree. Realizing and despising th

deception that has been upon Narnia, he prays to Aslan tha

the children from the other world will come. Very soon Eustace and Jill are before Tirian, untying his cords.

The three rescue Jewell, take possession of the ignorant 142

'''"~~'"'~'"-"''"~'"''~--"~"'''~"=••••=•••=•""·==<<<<~~· ''"'=- •=·~"~<·

only a donkey, with a lion skin; but when they try to ex-

plain that there is a real Aslan, the Narnians do not lbelieve it. They do not want to be deceived again. Tirian Eustace, Jill and Jewell, along with a few Narnians go to

the headquarters in the woods where Shift and the Calormenel

chief are calling the animals together. The only structure

there is is a shed in which they have kept Puzzle. Here

Tirian and the children make themselves known and begin to

fight the Calormenes, the ape and the traitor Narnians.

Since the chief Calormene has previously called the evil

god Tash, not really believing in that god, nor any, Tash

comes into the shed. Thus in this last battle the object

is to push one's enemy into the shed where Tash will des-

troy the victim. One by one the Calormenes push into the

shed Eustace, Jill, and the unicorn Jewell. Lastly, Tirian

is thrust in. But to his surprise, when he falls into the

shed, it is not a shed within. He finds himself in a large

place--Tash the evil god is sent away by Aslan with the

chief Calormene in its beak. He sees before him the seven

Kings and Queens of Narnia: Digory, Peter, Polly, Edmund,

Lucy, Eustace, and Jill. They all are surrounded by a

beautiful countryside more beautiful than they have ever

seen. They realize too, that though the stable has dis-

appeared, the stable door still exists and through its 143

cracks one can see the old Narnia still. Thereafter the doorway is opened and they watch the end of the old Narnia and see the judgments take place. r·~-~,o~-~·~-.-~=,-~·=~~-0-~==·=·"~"~"=·~-·-~-·====·~-=-~---=--=~>"=•"~~-~~~~··-y--~=·~-~-~

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I L..~--~~---~=--~---~-~-=·~- ~~~~~~=-~-~-----·~-~------·J

144 145

r-·'"""""~~"·-~~~-=-~=-~-~~=-~~~-~~~-·-~=,,-~~-~"~,~~~=~=~~-=--_...---,·==~~~~~~l. l

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

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1967.

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37. Negley, Glenn. The Quest for Utopia, An Anthology of ImaginarySocietles. N.Y. : Henry Schuman Inc., 1952. l L~-~-----~---~ 148

38. Richter, Peyton E. Utopias: Social Ideas and Communa Experiments.~~B~o~s-t~o-n-:--~H~o~··'1Lb-r~o~o~k~~P~r~e~s~s~~I~n-c-.--,--~ 1971.

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==----,~-·->-.-.~~=-=--- 149

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