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Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Technology

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Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Technology Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Technology Rubin Sidhu, David E. Carlson BP Solar April 13, 2010 Agenda • Global PV Market • Nomenclature • PV Technologies • Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Value Chain • Solar Cell Physics (no equations!) • Why is solar cell efficiency only ~15%? • Reaching Grid Parity using BP Solar’s Crystalline Silicon PV Technology • The Solar America Initiative • Silicon Solar Technology Roadmap • Conclusion: Future of PV PV Experience Curve Cost of Materials Limit (20% Modules) PV module prices have followed an experience curve with a slope of ~ 80% 20% decrease in price with every doubling of cumulative production Cost of Solar Electricity Shipments of Photovoltaic Modules Projection (Lux Research) PV shipments actually increased about 20% 2009. PV Shipments & Countries of Origin (Navigant Consulting) Europe has been the largest consumer of PV in recent years (> 50% of all installations). China and Taiwan have become the largest producers. PV Shipments in 2009 European countries accounted for 5.60 GW, or 77% of world demand Germany, Italy and Czech Republic accounted for 4.07 GW United States grew 36% to 485 MW • World solar PV market installations reached a record high of 7.3 GW in 2009 growth of 20% over 2008 • $43 billion in global revenues in 2009, up 8% on the prior year • World solar cell production 9.34 GW in 2009, up from 6.85 GW in 2008 • Crystalline Si module price average for 2009 crashed 38% from previous year Grid Parity GTM Research LCOE and kWh/kWp Levelized Cost Of Electricity (¢/kWh): LCOE is the minimum price at which energy must be sold for an energy project to break even Typical Sunny Day Including: 1200 7.5 Sun-Hour Day initial investment 24-Hour Equivalent 1000 operations and maint. cost of fuel 800 cost of capital 600 (W/m²) 400 200 7.5 kWh Spread over 24 Hours 0 06 6AM Noon 12 6 18PM 24 Insolation kWh/kWp PV Facts Using today’s PV Technology, an array field that is 300 miles on each side could produce the entire electrical energy used by the United States in a year. PV Facts Over its lifetime, a typical PV module, in a sunny climate, will produce over twenty times the electricity initially used to manufacture it. Technology Overview: Nomenclature A solar PV cell is the smallest semiconductor device that can convert sunlight into electrical energy A module is an assembly of cells Multi (Poly) Cell Mono Cell in series or parallel to augment voltage and/or current A panel is an assembly of modules on a structure An Array is an assembly of panels at a site. Large Roof-Top PV Array Conversion Efficiencies vs. Time (NREL) There has been steady progress in the improvement of conversion efficiencies for a number of PV technologies over the last few decades. The Major Players Crystalline Si a-Si/µc-Si CIGS CdTe Sharp United Solar Nanosolar First Solar SolarPower Kaneka Avancis Antec Solar Kyocera Fuji Electric Solar Frontier Abound Solar BP Solar Sharp Wurth Solar PrimeStar Solar Q-Cells Mitsubisihi Global Solar Calyxo Mitsubishi Schott Solar Honda Soltec SolarWorld SunTech Panasonic (Sanyo) EPV There are currently more than 300 Schott Solar PowerFilm companies developing or producing Isofoton AMAT licensees solar cells. Motech Orelikon licenses With prices continuing to decrease, Suntech and more companies entering the Evergreen Solar market, many small companies and JA Solar start-ups are likely to fail. Source: pvsociety Manufacturing Process for mc-Si PV Modules CASTING SIZING WAFERING CLEANING DIFFUSION % of % of % of % of Total Total Total Total 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.27% 2.03% 0.34% 0.85% 2.18% 13.23% 2.23% 2.53% FINISH INTER- ANTI- TEST LAMINATION CONNECT METALLIZATION REFLECTIVE COATING Most companies are manufacturing PV modules based on screen- printing contacts on multicrystalline silicon wafers CZ - Silicon for Solar Silicon Feedstock Mono-crystalline wafer Drawbacks of CZ Solar – Cylindrical ingot (module packing) – Smaller throughput rate • CZ: 5.3 kg/h at 2mm/min • Cast: 12.9 kg/h at 0.3mm/min Mono – High oxygen content -> LID module – Higher energy use Mono – Feedstock limitations solar cell – Importance of skilled operators Multicrystalline Silicon Casting Silicon Ingot Crucible Liquid Si Solid Si Silicon Feedstock Drawbacks: • Crystal defects Heater Insulation • Iron from crucible • Inclusions from Silicon Bricks coating, furnace Casting Station cross-section • Not compatible with Multicrystalline pyramid texturing Solar Cell Multi- crystalline Wafer Multicrystalline Module The Typical Silicon Solar Cell This device structure is used by most manufacturers today. • The front contact is usually formed by POCl3 diffusion • The rear contact is formed by firing screen-printed Al to form a back-surface field The cell efficiencies for screen-printed multicrystalline silicon cells are typically in the range of 14 – 17%. Operation of a Solar Cell The theoretical limit for a crystalline silicon solar cell is ~ 29%. Typical module construction J-box Cable Backsheet EVA encapsulant Solar cells EVA encapsulant Glass Frame w/adhesives BP Solar now uses a polyester backsheet to protect the rear of the module Also a new encapsulant 5% lower temperature 2 – 3% gain in energy production PV Module Costs Si Wafer PV Module Electricity Major Energy Production Cost 10% Consuming $2.10/W Silicon 23% Steps Equipment Feedstock 3% 15% Ingot 3% Wafering 2% Other Materials Labor 25% 27% Cell 2% About half of the total module cost is associated with the cost of materials Silicon prices have been dropping rapidly over the last 18 months Cost Reduction Source: George Nemet, U Wisc. Cost of Materials Limit (20% Modules) Solar America Initiative This program is a BP Solar cost shared Technology Pathways Partnership under the DOE Solar Energy Program. The program addresses all aspects of crystalline silicon PV manufacturing and systems deployment. Overall Program Objective Accelerated development of crystalline silicon technology using thin Mono2 TM wafers as the platform. Module designed for use in residential and commercial markets with products designed specifically for these applications. System components designed to add value to electricity produced. PV Product Value Chain Semi- Metallurgical Crystal Cell Module conductor Wafering Silicon Growth Fabrication Assembly Silicon Mono2 TM Silicon Casting Silicon Ingot Crucible Liquid Si Solid Si Silicon Feedstock Heater Insulation Silicon Bricks Casting Station cross-section Mono2 2 Mono Mono2 Module Solar Cell Wafer Mono2 TM Lifetime Uniformity Multi Mono2 TM Material Lifetime Jsc Voc Median % mA/cm2 mV Std. Dev. Simulation Multi 75 s 15.46 33.15 610 results 80% Mono2 TM 75 s 15.87 33.55 618 40% Mono2 TM, 75 s 16.41 34.71 619 pyramid etched 40% PV Product Value Chain Semi- Metallurgical Crystal Cell Module conductor Wafering Silicon Growth Fabrication Assembly Silicon c-Si Solar Cells: Loss Mechanisms Thermodynamic limit for 0.7% crystalline Si solar cells ~29% Sources of loss relative to 2.4% maximum achievable efficiency – Front surface reflection 6.3% – Emitter contact shadowing – Poor rear reflectance for light trapping 2.2% – Surface recombination (i.e., Reflection Shadowing surface cleanliness) Other (Optical) – Bulk recombination (i.e., 2.5% Ohmic material quality) Recombination – Resistive losses at the cell and module level Cell Process Texture Etch – ICT o Preferred option for Mono2 and multi o Cell efficiency improvements demonstrated o Improvements lost when cells are encapsulated – Alkaline texture etch o Good for Mono2 but not multi o Increased cell and module efficiencies by ~ 0.5% absolute. Cell Process Back Print Optimization – Maximize area covered with Al paste for improved performance – Minimize area of Ag pads to reduce cost – Implemented new pattern in production with 0.6% gain in cell efficiency and 1% increase in module efficiency. Advanced Metallization – Looking at new approaches to increase metallization thickness, to reduce series resistance while also reducing finger width and therefore shadowing. – Looking at aerosol jet printing, ink jet printing and offset printing. – Successfully printed 80 to 90 µm wide and ~ 35 µm thick c-Si Solar Cells: Advances Source: pvsociety The Selective Emitter A number of organizations are developing solar cells with selective emitters in order to use thinner emitters and improve the short- wavelength spectral response. Passivated Rear Point Contacts Fraunhofer ISE has used laser firing of aluminum to fabricate high efficiency (21.7%) solar cells with passivated rear point contacts. The PERL Solar Cell + p n + n oxide p-silicon + + p p rear contact p + oxide PERL Cell Structure The PERL solar cell has a passivated emitter with a rear locally diffused base contact, and efficiencies as high as 25% have been obtained with this structure. SunPower Back Contact Solar Cell The SunPower cell has all its electrical contacts on the rear surface of the cell. Production cells ~ 22.4% efficiency; new prototypes at 23.4%. Diffusion lengths > 3 x cell thickness (using 145 m thick CZ-Si at end of 2008). Sanyo HIT Solar Cell The HIT cell utilizes amorphous Si intrinsic layers (~ 5 nm) as passivation layers. The cell is symmetric except for the a-Si p+ emitter layer (~ 10 nm) on the front and the a-Si n+ contact layer (~ 15 nm) on the rear. Best lab efficiency = 22.3% (open-circuit voltages as high as 739 mV). PV Product Value Chain Semi- Metallurgical Crystal Cell Module conductor Wafering Silicon Growth Fabrication Assembly
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