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Thin Film Cdte Photovoltaics and the U.S. Energy Transition in 2020

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Thin Film Cdte Photovoltaics and the U.S. Energy Transition in 2020 Thin Film CdTe Photovoltaics and the U.S. Energy Transition in 2020 QESST Engineering Research Center Arizona State University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Clark A. Miller, Ian Marius Peters, Shivam Zaveri TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary .............................................................................................. 9 I - The Place of Solar Energy in a Low-Carbon Energy Transition ...................... 12 A - The Contribution of Photovoltaic Solar Energy to the Energy Transition .. 14 B - Transition Scenarios .................................................................................. 16 I.B.1 - Decarbonizing California ................................................................... 16 I.B.2 - 100% Renewables in Australia ......................................................... 17 II - PV Performance ............................................................................................. 20 A - Technology Roadmap ................................................................................. 21 II.A.1 - Efficiency ........................................................................................... 22 II.A.2 - Module Cost ...................................................................................... 27 II.A.3 - Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) ....................................................... 29 II.A.4 - Energy Payback Time ........................................................................ 32 B - Hot and Humid Climates ............................................................................ 34 II.B.1 - Impact of Temperature ..................................................................... 34 II.B.2 - Impact of Water Vapor ...................................................................... 36 II.B.3 - Impact of Aerosols ............................................................................ 39 II.B.4 - Performance Ratio ............................................................................ 39 II.B.5 - Energy Yield ...................................................................................... 41 C - Performance of CdTe PV in the Field ......................................................... 43 II.C.1 - Outdoor Testing Sites and Results ................................................... 43 II.C.2 - Degradation ...................................................................................... 45 II.C.3 - Temperature Performance ............................................................... 48 II.C.4 - Spectral Effect .................................................................................. 50 II.C.5 - ARC and Soiling ................................................................................. 54 D - Reliability Testing ....................................................................................... 56 2 II.D.1 - Indoor Testing Procedures and Results ........................................... 56 II.D.2 - Technological Innovation .................................................................. 58 E - Future Efficiency Development .................................................................. 61 II.E.1 – Band Gap Grading ........................................................................... 61 II.E.2 - Overcoming Low Voltages ................................................................. 63 II.E.3 - Next Generation Devices .................................................................. 65 F - Improving First Solar Competitiveness ...................................................... 68 III - Environmental, Health, and Safety Considerations for Cdte Photovoltaics 70 A - Materials and Supply Chain ....................................................................... 71 B - Manufacturing ............................................................................................ 75 III.B.1 - Manufacturing Facility ..................................................................... 76 III.B.2 - Manufacturing Process .................................................................... 77 III.B.3 - Personnel and Worker Safety .......................................................... 78 III.B.4 - Production Quality and Safety ......................................................... 80 III.B.5 - Independent Quality Tests Certification .......................................... 81 III.B.6 - Value of Production Under One Roof .............................................. 82 C - Operational Life Cycle and Non-Routine Events ........................................ 83 III.C.1 - Field Breakage ................................................................................. 84 III.C.2 - Extreme Weather Events ................................................................. 86 III.C.3 - Fire Tests .......................................................................................... 87 III.C.4 - Operations and Maintenance (O&M) .............................................. 88 D - PV End of Life ............................................................................................. 92 III.D.1 - Recycling and Decommissioning .................................................... 93 III.D.2 - Recycling Process ............................................................................ 94 III.D.3 - First Solar Recycling Capacity ......................................................... 94 III.D.4 - Future of PV Recycling ..................................................................... 95 3 IV - Comparison of PV Environmental Impacts ................................................... 96 A - Overall Life Cycle Environmental Comparisons ......................................... 96 B - Carbon footprint ....................................................................................... 102 C - Water Use ................................................................................................. 107 D - Land Use .................................................................................................. 109 E - Dust and Particulates ............................................................................... 113 F - Biodiversity ............................................................................................... 115 G - Materials Hotspots ................................................................................... 118 V - The Value of Solar Energy in Clean Energy Transitions .............................. 119 A - The Driver of Solar Energy Adoption: Eco-Efficiency ................................ 119 B - Grid Integration of Solar Energy ............................................................... 122 V.B.1 - Cost of PVS ..................................................................................... 128 V.B.2 - Battery Development ...................................................................... 130 C – U.S. Manufacturing Competitiveness and Employment ........................ 131 D - Energy Access .......................................................................................... 133 V.D.1 - PV-Battery System .......................................................................... 135 V.D.2 - PV-Battery and Diesel System ........................................................ 135 V.D.3 - PV-Diesel System ............................................................................ 135 E - Energy Resilience ..................................................................................... 136 VI - Conclusion .................................................................................................. 138 References ........................................................................................................ 140 4 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. PV Growth Over 20 Year Period ............................................................................... 14 Figure 2. Decarbonize California Projections.......................................................................... 16 Figure 3. Australia Renewable Energy Maps .......................................................................... 18 Figure 4. Projected PV Installation 2016-2030 ...................................................................... 20 Figure 5. Thin-film PV Market Share and Production ............................................................. 22 Figure 6. Sensitivity Map for 2012 Cost Structure ................................................................. 23 Figure 7. CdTe PV Efficiency Record for Solar Cells and Modules ......................................... 24 Figure 8. PV Efficiency Comparison ........................................................................................ 25 Figure 9. Band Gap Comparison ............................................................................................. 27 Figure 10. Decrease in PV Module Pricing ............................................................................. 28 Figure 11. PV Module Pricing .................................................................................................. 29 Figure 12. Levelized Cost of Energy Comparison ................................................................... 30 Figure 13. Levelized Cost and Capital Cost Comparison ........................................................ 31 Figure 14. Africa and Europe Energy Payback Map ............................................................... 32 Figure 15. Average PV Energy Payback Time ......................................................................... 33 Figure
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