PSYCHIATRY IN HISTORICAL RETROSPECT

By FORREST M. HARRISON, M.D.

BROOKLINE, MASS.

Part ii . Conclus ion * Age of Feud alis m knowledge was a crime that the (iooo to 1300 A.D.) medieval Church, and her powerful The next three hundred years wit- governmental allies, stood ever ready to punish. nessed the introduction and rise of the feudal system in Europe, and we We hear a few individuals, however, have a period in the historical develop- crying out in the wilderness, so to speak. One of the most interesting ment of psychiatry which may be termed the Age of Feudalism. It ex- characters of this period, who lived in the eleventh century, was Con- tended from 1000 to 1300 a .d . The condition of affairs in Europe stantinus Africanus. He was born at during this era was little better than Carthage, visited Arabian schools, it was in the Dark Ages. The Church, and traveled for thirty-nine years in with its spiritual appeal, its attrac- the Orient. On returning to his own tive symbolism, and its splendid or- country, he was taken for a sorcerer, ganization, found it expedient and and was in danger for a time of losing advisable to combine its forces with his life. He fled to Salerno and en- the state through feudalistic ties. As tered court as a private secretary. He a result, all attempts at experimental soon tired of this, however, and went science were suppressed. Men no into a monastery, Monte Cassino, longer cared to think for themselves where he passed his best years trans- or to discover things. They very much lating Arabian authors. Among his preferred to be told what to believe. contributions to psychiatry may be This attitude was encouraged by the mentioned his description of religious Church authorities, who represented mania, his adherence to psychic ther- power, and who depended for their apy, and his insistence upon rational easy existence upon the servility of diversions for the insane. He died in the people at large. Obedience in 1087 A.D. intellectual as well as political affairs During the eleventh and twelfth was demanded of everyone and was centuries the fame of the Hippocratic rendered by all as a matter of course. City of Salerno spread throughout Those who by any chance made any Europe, and the school which had real discoveries, and found that they been established there by Charle- contradicted the established authori- magne, or the Saracens, or at any rate, ties, cither refused to publish their by the Benedictine Monks, aroused information, or even believe their own the healing art, and infused now life senses, because of the almost certain into things. The Golden Age of Sa- prosecution that would follow. To lerno may be put down as lasting believe blindly, without analysis, was from 1000 to 1200 a .d . Medicine, considered proper, while to seek law and philosophy were taught.

*Part I appeared in the November, 1932, issue of the Anna ls , vol. iv, No. 6, p. 565. None of the Salernitan works rises to be the foremost psychologist of much above the rank of compilation, the Middle Ages. He located phantasy but being founded on Hippocrates in the anterior and memory in the and Galen, they guarded the best posterior part of the brain. He taught traditions of ancient practice. Obser- that these could be diseased sepa- vation of patients in hospitals and rately, but if reason, which resided clinical instruction were made use of in the middle portion of the brain, in teaching, but no thought was given happened to be disordered, the other to psychiatry or mental diseases in two were affected also. His remedy for any form. The city fell in 1194 a .d . the psychoses was to regulate the at the hands of Emperor Henry vi body fluids, to live moderately, and who had a special grudge against it, to cultivate the intellect by means of and delivered it over to the tender music. He also advocated special mercies of a medieval soldiery. diets, drugs of all kinds, purgatives This was also the great age of and narcotics. His thorough studies Scholasticism, a school of philosophy were made at a time when scholas- which had absolute belief in the ticism had begun to cloud the com- omnipotence, bounty and wisdom of prehension and the doctrines of phy- the Creator as revealed in His works. sicians and philosophers. All portions of the Scriptures referring In closing the discussion of the to the origin of man and the universe, Age of Feudalism, it may be said that the Biblical conception of demoniacal the thirteenth century, the last of possession as the explanation of in- this period, was one of the great sanity, in fact, everything that hap- epochs of human history, and may be pened was accepted unreservedly by likened to the Golden Age of Pericles. the Scholastics as the truth, no proof It has been well characterized by the or corroboration being required. Such trumpet call which summoned the an attitude could not but help retard Middle Ages into the modern world. the development of psychiatry. Able and far sighted politicians in- During this era, Arabian physicians augurated important developments in continued to dominate the medical Church and State, while theology, phi- world. Their theory and practice was losophy, and science were furthered. based on the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen. They established The Renais sanc e hospitals, scientific institutions, acad- (1300 to 1500 A.D.) emies of learning and great libraries at Bagdad, Cairo, Cordova, Damascus Near the end of the Age of Feudal- and Gondisapor. Their treatment of ism the lights of reason began to shine the insane, whom they regarded as again, as already indicated. On all divinely inspired, was much more sides there developed a new thirst gentle and humane than that em- and enthusiasm for classical literature, ployed by the Christians. learning and art. In addition, that Actuarius, also called Johannes, secular, inquiring and self-reliant spir- lived in the thirteenth century. He it which characterized the men of supported the doctrines of the great ancient Greece and Rome made its philosophers and physicians of antiq- re-entrance into the world. In other uity, and was considered by many words, the period in history known as the Renaissance, which for our pur- conjunction of planets or the lore of pose we shall date from 1300 to amulets. 1500 a .d . was ushered in. Although very little, if any, progress Many forces were operative in was made, several hospitals for mental bringing about this great intellectual diseases were constructed during the aw’akening. One of the foremost fac- Renaissance. Among these was the tors was the invention of gunpowder home for epileptics at the cloister which gave the coup-de-grace to feu- of St. Valentine at Rufah, upper dalism. The influence of the Italian Alsace, which was built in i486. The cities in which there was nourished fact that it was an isolation hospital the same type of life that existed shows that this disease was still during the era of classical antiquity considered contagious. also helped a great deal. The chief promoters of the movement, however, The Ref ormation were the so-called Humanists. They (1500 to 1600 A.D.) ransacked the libraries of the monas- teries and the cathedrals, and searched In the latter part of the fifteenth through numerous out of the way century Columbus discovered Amer- places of Europe for old manuscripts ica and^Vasco da Gama made his of the early writers. The works of famous voyages in 1497 and 1498. Hippocrates and others were trans- These were but the beginnings of a lated, with the result that the ground new era in history. The sixteenth was cleared of the accumulated rub- century witnessed the circumnaviga- bish of the past. The disasters which tion of the globe by Magellan, the befell the Eastern Empire and which conquest of Mexico and Peru, the resulted in the fall of Constantinople birth of modern physics and chem- and its capture by the Ottoman istry, the struggle between Catholi- Turk sent many fugitives to Europe. cism and Protestantism, and the great This proved to be a great impetus to religious movement known as the the unparalleled reaction that was Reformation, from whence this period taking place. The happy and timely derives its name. As a result of these invention of printing, however, was epoch-making events, we have a cen- the thing that finally and definitely tury of unusual intellectual activity, established the Renaissance. and from 1500 to 1600 a .d ., psy- Despite the revival of learning, chiatry, reacting to all these influ- culture, art and painting, medicine ences, made further progress and lagged behind. Psychiatry was par- reached still greater heights. ticularly backward. During this era The outstanding figure of this pe- the mystics and the astrologers were riod was Andreas Vesalius, who in- in the ascendancy. The administration augurated significant reforms in the of medicine was controlled largely by study of anatomy. He demonstrated the signs of the Zodiac. Witches were the physiology of muscle-nerve prep- hunted down. Alchemy was beginning arations, made observations on the to play a role in the life of the people. skulls of the different races, and The insane were treated by purging insisted that the cerebral activity of and bloodletting, the proper time for the lower animals was similar to that such measures being decided by the of man. He published his “De fabrica humani corporis’’ in 1543, in which he Felix Plater was one of the foremost presented excellent cross sections of men of this age. He made a real the brain and the nervous system. attempt to classify mental diseases, Still others belonging to this period described psychoses in a variety of were Eustachius, who discovered the patients, and urged the humane treat- abducens and optic nerves, as well as ment of the insane. the cochlea; Sylvius, who was the Jean Baptiste von Helmont taught first to mention the Sylvian aqueduct; that the generic fluid which radiated Fallopius, who described the trigem- from men could be guided by their inal, auditory and glossopharyngeal wills to influence the minds of men. nerves; and Varolius, who made capi- William Maxwell in 1679 propounded tal investigations of the nervous sys- the theory that all diseases, including tem, calling attention to the cruri the psychoses, were due to a with- cerebri, the commissures and the drawal of vital fluid from the organs of pons. the body and could be remedied by These contributions to anatomy restoring the necessary magnetic were of significance to psychiatry forces. Athanasius Kircher also de- because they led to a better under- scribed the curative power of mag- standing of the structure and func- netism. These various ideas and tions of those organs which were conceptions marked the beginning of directly concerned in mental diseases. hypnotism and played an important They finally brought about the so- role in the development of psychiatry called physiological conception of in- at a later date. sanity at a later date. Th. Bonnet insisted that insanity was Despite these advances on the struc- a pathological alteration of the func- tural side of the subject, however, tions of the body, and paid no attention nothing was done to alleviate the to demons, magic and miracles, as far actual suffering of the insane. They as the psychoses were concerned. were still chained, starved, beaten and Thomas Willis classified the cere- otherwise maltreated. It is interesting bral nerves, described the circle of to note in this connection that in Willis, taught that the cerebellum 1547 the monastery of St. Mary of was the center of the vital activi- Bethlehem at London was converted ties, mentioned the entity myasthenia into a hospital for the insane. This gravis, and published numerous works institution was popularly known as on nervous diseases, which contained Bedlam, and in a few years, sad to many striking clinical pictures, of relate, it was amply justifying its which general paralysis was the most name and reputation as conveyed in important. the term. Thomas Sydenham, 1624 to 1689, is the father of modern clinical Era of Individual ism medicine. He made keen observations and careful records. He published (1600 to 1700 A.D.) his “Dissertatio epistolaris” in 1682, The seventeenth century was an which is famous for its classic de- era of individual effort and endeavor scription of hysteria. rather than one characterized by the Daniel Sennert was unable to free concerted advancement of science. himself from the then prevalent be- lief in witches, and he believed that mism met with little acceptance dur- maniacs evacuated stones and living ing the life of its author, it represents animals, which were caused by all a reaction against the empty form- sorts of demons. alism of the eighteenth century, and his psychotherapy is a connecting Age of Sys tems fink between past and present. Another physician belonging to this (1700 to 1775 a .d .) period was Robert Whytt. His book The early part of the eighteenth on “Nervous, Hypochondriacal, or century was characterized by the Hysterical Diseases,” which was pub- rise and fall of various systems and lished in 1764, was a real contribution tedious and platitudinous philosophiz- to the current knowledge of neurology ing was the fashion of the day. and psychiatry. Following the work of the great Among the English psychiatrists Swedish botanist, Linnaeus, the nam- who flourished in the Age of Systems, ing of species spread from plants and none is more justly esteemed than animals to diseases. As a result classi- William Cullen. He was a most emi- fication of the psychoses ran riot. nent and popular Professor of Medi- All varieties of species and sub-species cine at Edinburgh. He founded a were made of the particular delusion- comprehensive system, based on the ary and hallucinatory trend of the new physiological doctrine of irri- individual, so that a single patient tability, special importance being at- might suddenly change his disease tached to nervous action. His clas- every few minutes. sification of diseases was needlessly George Ernest Stahl, who lived complex, although several of the main from 1660 to 1734, constructed a divisions are still preserved. He complete theoretical system, which emphasized that in mental diseases was opposed to materialism, and the ultimate cause was endogenous; which became the dominating prin- taught that insanity was not a visita- ciple of psychology and psychiatry tion from without, but that its symp- during the eighteenth century. It toms must be interpreted in terms of has been called the theory of animism. normal psychic functions; contributed It attributed to the soul the functions much to the systematizing of the of ordinary animal life in man, while psychoses; stated that insanity was a the existence of other creatures was morbid condition of the mind; and left to purely mechanical laws. He advocated as little restraint as possible. explained the symptoms of disease Franz Anton Mesmer revived the as the effort of the soul, which he hypnotic idea of Maxwell, Helmont regarded as the motivator of life and and Kircher under the guise of animal the force of the human machine, and magnetism. He held notorious seances which he allocated to the nervous in Vienna and Paris, but was forced to system, to rid itself of morbid influ- leave both places as a fraud, after ences. He and his pupils attempted being investigated. He was very spec- to put their ideas into practice, but tacular, always appearing clad in a they were unable to do so, because lilac suit, and waved a magic wand, there were no asylums for treating the with which he touched his patients, as insane. Although his theory of ani- they joined hands around magnetic tubs, which contained a mixture of to sleep on beds of straw, and were hydrogen sulphide and other ingre- at the mercy of their keepers, who dients, and which were provided with were very brutal. iron conductors from which depended Human ita rian Era a ring for purposes of contact. Mes- (1775 TO l800 A.D.) merism is of importance in connection Towards the end of the eighteenth with the history of psychiatry be- century a far-reaching humanitarian cause it introduced a new note into movement swept over Europe and mental therapy, and it was partly awakened sympathy for all human responsible, at least, for psychic influ- suffering, even for the despised and ence or the imagination becoming degraded prisoners, slaves and luna- such a potent factor in the causation tics. As a consequence, conditions as and treatment of the psychoses. far as the housing of the insane was Only a few hospitals existed up to concerned were materially improved. this time for the care of the insane, Actual priority for this movement among which were St. Luke’s in belongs to Italy. Between the years London, founded in 1751, and the 1774 and 1778, Vincenzo Chiarugi, Narrenthurm, or Lunatics’ Tower, assisted by Desquin of Chamberi, 1784, one of the show places of old introduced new methods at the hos- Vienna. Here, as in ancient Bedlam, pital St. Boniface in Florence by the public was allowed to view the abandoning fetters and chains and patients, like animals in a menagerie, encouraging patients to work, as well upon the payment of a small fee. as putting into practice kindness and They were exposed to the insults of sanitary measures in their daily the crowds and the mockeries of the treatment. curious and indifferent for whom the At a little later date a demand for sight of their misery became an object better methods in the handling of the of amusement and recreation. The insane was heard in England. The Vienna institution has been described madness of George in, who was a as a fanciful, four story edifice, having victim of recurrent insanity from his the external appearance of a large, twenty-seventh year in the form of round tower, but, on the inside, maniacal excitement, brought home to consisting of a hollow circle, in the the English people in a forcible man- center of which a quadrangular build- ner the problem of the treatment of ing arose, joined to the circle by each the insane, and aroused great feel- of its corners. The enclosed structure ing with regard to the management of afforded residence for the keepers and the hospitals. His illness undoubtedly surgeons. stimulated reforms in the British As far as the treatment of insanity Empire, and resulted in the founding was concerned, there was absolute of the Retreat at York, and which belief in drugs. If purgatives and culminated with the work of William emetics failed with violent cases, Tuke at St. Luke’s in London. they came in for many hard knocks, The chief impetus to the humani- designed to inspire fear. The patients tarian movement belongs to Philippe were subjected to the most barbarous Pinel, who entered upon his duties at practices of the day, were treated as the Bicetre in 1792 in an era when harmful and malicious creatures, and France, crushed under the Reign of were imprisoned and confined with all Terror, was left to the mercy of a sorts of criminals in unhealthy cells. few men who were eager to destroy They were given wretched food, forced their own species instead of aiding the infirm, diseased and insane. He under- ous system and our knowledge of took to go to these men at the risk of these subjects increased at an ex- his own life, and acquaint them with traordinarily rapid rate. As a result, the conditions of vice and crime and there became evident a tendency to misfortune that prevailed in the hand- interpret all mental symptoms in ling of the insane. There was much terms of pathologic changes in struc- opposition to him but he did not ture, and the organic or physiological falter. After two years he finally conception dominated the field. succeeded in convincing the authori- Perhaps the actual founder of mod- ties that the true means of ameliorat- ern psychiatry was Reil, who not ing the fate of the insane was to give only is memorable for his treatise on them, on the one hand, medical the psychic treatment of the insane treatment, and on the other, gentle- in 1803, and the establishing of the ness, kindness and justice. With much first journal devoted to mental dis- misgiving he was finally given permis- eases in 1805, but he also demon- sion to remove the chains from his strated that certain parts of the patients, which he did. In addition, brain controlled definite portions of he placed them in hospitals under the body. competent physicians and did away Esquirol, who succeeded Pinel at with the abuses of bloodletting to the Saltpetriere, made further reforms which they were subjected. The re- in the housing of the insane, founded sults were so gratifying that he was ten new asylums, and established the called upon to perform a similar first psychiatric clinic in Paris in service at the Salpetriere a little later. 1817, where it was possible for phy- In 1801 he published his treatise on sicians to acquire a knowledge of the mental alienation. It reflected the psychoses. teachings of Cullen, but its chief Heinroth, who drew his psychology importance and value lay in the fact from the Bible, was the last man to that it embodied eight years of prac- maintain a medieval religious point tical experience in the treatment of of view. He believed that the life of the insane and hospital administra- mental health was one of piety; that tion. Standing as it does at the the etiology of madness was sin; and threshold of the nineteenth century, that a repentance and return to the it opens the portal from which the fold constituted a cure. modern science of psychiatry issues. The story continues with Calmeil, Org an ic or Phy siol og ica l Era who elaborated on the description of (1800 to 1900 A.D.) general paralysis in 1826. Moral in- sanity was described by Prichard in During the nineteenth century we 1835. Hill abolished restraint at the see gradually being built up the idea Lincoln Hospital in England in 1836. of separate and different psychoses. Ray dealt with the jurisprudence of This was preeminently the descrip- insanity in 1839. Humane methods tive period, during which the alienists were advocated by Connolly in the were busily engaged in collecting and same year. describing the facts conceived to come Braid introduced the term hypno- within the domain of psychiatry, tism in 1841 and proved that the without any particular attempt to mesmeric influence was entirely sub- explain the phenomena observed. Re- jective, no fluid passing from the search was directed mainly to the operator to the patient, as claimed by anatomy and physiology of the nerv- Mesmer in the preceding century. In 1843 he published his book on general behavior in terms of neural “Neurypnology or the Rationale of mechanisms. His great work on the Nervous Sleep.” His theories were “Elements of Physiological Psychol- later taken up by Broca, Charcot, ogy” was destined to go through Liebault and Bernheim, and became six editions and to become the classic the true starting point of the French word in psychology. It has been school. superseded by no other until the Griesinger sounded the death knell present time. of the moralistic psychiatry of Hein- It was Jean Martin Charcot who roth. Not only did his textbook, which really laid the foundation for our was first published in 1845, banish present-day conception of mental dis- all metaphysical theories as far as the order. In the year 1862 he became psychoses were concerned, but it physician at the Saltpetriere, where he was an authority for thirty years, created the greatest neurological clinic the final definition of the place of this of modern times. Not only did he specialty among the sciences, and its contribute many brilliant studies to recognition as coordinate with other general medicine, but he made im- branches of medicine. He advocated portant investigations of the localiza- the open door and the psychiatric tion of functions in the cortical motor clinic and followed the classification centers of man, and left behind him of Pinel and Cullen. classic descriptions of various diseases. Parallel with the development of His important work, however, was in clinical psychology, there grew up a connection with hysteria. He dis- school of experimental or physiological covered that a pathogenic idea was psychology. Three names were out- capable of producing hysterical mani- standing in this field. festations; showed that the pathogenic Rudolphe Herman Lotze, of Bautze, idea and the hysterical symptom could a medical student and graduate who be favorably influenced by means went over to metaphysics and philos- of hypnotism, which latter he regarded ophy, was a pioneer in the investiga- as a neurotic condition akin to, if not tion of unconscious states, and wrote identical with, hysteria. He empha- many important works on analytical sized the organic point of view, both psychology, in particular, his “Psy- as to the nature and the causation of chology of the Soul.” hysteria, stressing the hereditary or- Gustav Theodor Fechnor discussed ganic deficiency or degeneration of the functional relations of dependence the brain as an essential requisite to between the body and the mind, made its development. experimental studies of cutaneous and Kahlbaum suggested hebephrenia muscular senses, pointed out the per- as a separate disease process in 1863 sonal or egoistic nature of painful in a study on the grouping of the sensation, and in 1859 published his nervous and mental disorders, and in “Elements of Psycho-Physics.” 1869 he erected another type which he William Wundt, Professor of Phys- called catatonia of which later he gave iology at Zurich, made a series of a detailed monographic description. isotonic curves produced by muscle under constant excitation which has Richard Krafft-Ebing is especially been copied into practically every known for his highly interesting and textbook since. By means of experi- detailed study which classifies and ments, he interpreted normal individ- describes the various forms of sexual ual reactions, reflex responses, and inversion and perversion. Bernheim studied the scientific ap- value of the descriptive method can- plication of hypnotism and in 1891 not be disputed, there is ample room published his book on “Hypnotism, for another f venue of approach to the Suggestion, and Psychotherapy.” problem of mental disease. This has Together with Liebault he substituted been supplied by Sigmund Freud, verbal for sensory stimuli and his who formulated a purely psy- investigations led him to interpret chologic concept of the etiology, de- hypnotism and the phenomena pro- velopment and treatment of the psy- duced by it as the result of suggestion. choses. Under his leadership psychia- This brings us to Emil Kraepelin, try has entered the so-called inter- of Neustrelitz, Professor of Psychiatry pretative or analytical period in its at Dorpat, Heidleberg, and Munich growth and evolution. at different times. He may be said It is impossible to go into a de- to be the last, and in a measure, the tailed discussion at this time of the greatest of all descriptive psychia- Freudian doctrines and we can only trists. He is notable especially for his mention some of the more important studies of dementia precox and his of his contributions to abnormal psy- concept of manic depressive psychosis, chology. He introduced the concept which latter he unified into a com- unconscious and attributed to psy- prehensive entity. He insisted that no chical events a rigorous determinism. adequate knowledge could be gained He made a classic study of hysteria of a psychosis without a full account and other psychoneuroses, evolved a of its entire life history as to its course concept of anxiety neurosis, and of- and outcome. He was responsible for fered an entirely new classification many new and simplified classifica- in this field. He traced the develop- tions by a clever grouping of related ment of our sex life and discovered varieties, and although he died with- the significance and emphasized the out yielding to the advances of the importance of infantile and childhood more modern analytic psychology, sexuality, his profound studies in this the Kraepelinian concepts increased field leading to his monumental mono- our knowledge of psychiatry, changed graph on this subject. His studies of our point of view, and gave us a much dreams has helped a great deal in the broader understanding of mental dis- interpretation of the neuroses. In ease. His many keen observations, his technique of psychoanalysis he his powers of analysis and expression, has given us a means of exploring the and his great scholarship set him apart unconscious and at the same time a from his contemporaries. His writings, form of therapy which in some cases too numerous to mention here, have is extremely valuable. He evolved been translated into English and many other theories and concepts, several other languages. among them being that of the libido, the Oedipus complex, symbolism, con- Anal ytica l or Psy cho log ical Peri od version, compensation, sublimation, (1900 to Pres ent Time ) fixation, regression, the pleasure-pain In the enthusiasm created by all principle and motive for conduct, the these discoveries, it was confidently id, the ego, and a host of others. expected that the causes and nature of In short, he created a whole new insanity would speedily be laid bare. psychology, applicable not alone to These hopes, however, have not been the study of the neuroses, but to fully realized, and the opinion has the whole range of human thought. gained ground that, although the During recent years, after Freud showed the way, a number of im- individual as a biological unit, teaches portant advances have been made. that the understanding of a mental Pierre Janet formulated the concept case involves an exhaustive study and of dissociation of personalities, de- analysis of the entire personality scribed psychasthenia, and published make-up of the patient from his his excellent and detailed study of earliest childhood to adult life, to say hysteria. Jung gave us some new nothing of a careful consideration and thoughts on schizophrenia, and his balance of questions of heredity and association tests, elaborated the con- environmental factors, as well as cepts introversion and extroversion, physical illness, and possible organic introduced the idea of a collective or brain changes, and attempts to reduce racial unconscious as well as an the conduct exhibited by the psy- individual unconscious, and evolved a chotic to elements and terms that therapy that is a distinct advance show the mechanisms involved and over that of Freud. Adler, discarding their meaning. practically all psychoanalytic teach- Era of Menta l Hygien e ings, believed that organ inferiority (pr es ent tim e to fut ure ) was the principal causative factor in the neuroses. Bleuler developed the Recently there has developed in idea of schizoid and syntonic per- psychiatry the so-called mental hy- sonalities, gave us the concept am- giene movement. With it the aim of bivalence, introduced the general no- the workers in this field has come to be tion of autistic thinking, and made the prevention of the neuroses and the some excellent studies of dementia psychoses. Child guidance clinics are precox. Pavlov, who was awarded the in evidence all over the country and Nobel prize in 1904 for his experi- intensive studies are being undertaken ments, established the principle of of problem children, because it has conditioned reflexes. Watson founded been found that in the formative and a school of behavioristic psychology. flexible period of childhood sound Kempf endeavored to explain mental habits of mental health can best be mechanisms in terms of the autonomic instilled and faulty ones corrected. nervous , system and introduced a Early mental disorders, personality mechanistic classification of the neu- defects and changes, and bad traits of roses and the psychoses to conform disposition are being detected and with his psychology. Kretschmer cor- treated, with a result that juvenile related the organic with the psy- delinquency is at last being scientif- chologic, endeavored to show that ically attacked. The social aspects of physique determined character and mental diseases are constantly being the type of psychosis an individual emphasized and those maladjustments might develop, gave us an excellent which lead to crime and pauperism study of hysteria, and made use of are being investigated. An attempt is biological instinctive reactions, emo- being made to educate the public by tional shocks, and a variety of other surveys, lectures and periodical con- concepts in his highly original inter- ferences, and it is to be hoped that in pretations. White attempted to build the near future courses in mental up the biological aspect of psychiatry hygiene will be instituted in all med- as well as a philosophical system of the ical schools. subject. Conc lus ion The present-day analytical and in- This brings our study to a close. terpretative psychiatry considers each If the teachings of the present-day analytical psychiatry are followed and 15. Jaco by , G. W. The Unsound Mind and studiously applied, and if there is a the Law. N. Y., Funk & Wagnalls, 1918, pp. 19-52. widespread interest on the part of the 16. Fenton , C. L. A History of Evolution. community in the mental hygiene Girard, Kans., Haldeman-Julius, 1922. movement, civilization will rise to 17. Grie si nger , W. Mental Pathology and still higher achievements, and the Therapeutics. Trans, by C. L. Robert- psychoses and the neuroses will ulti- son, J. Rutherford. N. Y., Wood, 1882. mately disappear in the rubbish heap 18. Moore , D. T. V. Dynamic Psychology. Phila., Lippincott, 1924. of the world, and be sloughed off by 19. Kraff t -Ebing , R. v. Psychopathia Sex- mankind in its advance towards racial ualis. Chicago, Login, 1929. and individual perfection. 20. 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