Exploring the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM): Impact on Innovation Ecosystem in India

African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development

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Exploring the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM): Impact on innovation ecosystem in India

Amitkumar Singh Akoijam & V. V. Krishna

To cite this article: Amitkumar Singh Akoijam & V. V. Krishna (2017) Exploring the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM): Impact on innovation ecosystem in India, African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 9:5, 573-585, DOI: 10.1080/20421338.2017.1359466 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2017.1359466

Published online: 30 Aug 2017.

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Exploring the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM): Impact on innovation ecosystem in India

Amitkumar Singh Akoijam 1* and V. V. Krishna2

1PhD Scholar, Centre for Studies in Science Policy (CSSP), School of Social Science, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi-110067, India 2Professorial Fellow, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia *Corresponding author email: [email protected]

To make India one of the leaders in solar energy generation and to promote ecologically sustainable growth that addresses the nation’s energy security challenge is one of the promising goals of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) or National Solar Mission. This paper presents the country’s current solar energy scenario and explores ways in which various actors, agencies and policies shape the mission from the different perspectives on innovation literature. Innovation ecosystem is one of the perspectives where the sense of environment or ecology of various institutions, actors and other factors surrounds the activity of research and innovation. In this ecosystem, there is no single actor that can perform independently. The research outcomes, especially the patents, research publications and R&D investment, have become an increasingly essential area after the announcement of the JNNSM. The study also highlights that the number of research papers published in relation to solar energy has increased and there is a signiﬁcant presence of productive R&D institutions, universities and supportive policy initiatives in the country.

Keywords: solar energy, innovation ecosystem, sectoral system of innovation, Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, India

Introduction constitutes a major contribution by India to the global Energy is an important sector for the economic growth of a effort to meet the challenges of climate change. According nation like India. The country’s economy is one of the fastest to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), growing economies in the world. Due to the rapidly growing solar energy has been an important component of the coun- population and growing economy, consumption in the try’s energy planning process and it is no longer an ‘alter- energy sector has increased rapidly. There is a wide gap nate energy’ butwillincreasinglybecomeakeypartof between the country’s energy production and its energy the solution to the nation’s energy needs.1 In June 2008, demand (Krishna, Sagar, and Spratt 2015). About 300 India released its National Action Plan on Climate Change million people in the country lack access to basic energy ser- (NAPCC) to promote development goals while addressing vices, according to the World Bank Report (2014). On the climate change mitigation and adaptation and to enhance other hand, the country has huge potential for the generation ecological sustainability of the country’s development path.2 of solar energy. The government of India launched a The mission is the leading one among eight national mission, the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission missions3 under the NAPCC because it fights the issue (hereafter JNNSM or the National Solar Mission)in of climate change and it tries to answer the question of November 2009 (it officially took off in January 2010). It meeting India’s energy demand while expanding develop- is a major initiative to promote ecologically sustainable ment opportunities of different solar technologies through- growth while addressing India’s energy security challenge. out the country. There are different actors who constitute The goal is to make the nation one of the leaders in solar and shape the solar energy sector, like business enterprises energy production in the world by 2022. The mission has or private firms, R&D institutions, universities, financial three phases, phase-I (2010–2013), phase-II (2013–17) institutions, government ministries, non-governmental and phase-III (2017–2022), each with different target organization, etc. In our study, innovation ecosystem achievements. The mission also has other additional goals refers to the perspective where a sense of the environment such as promoting R&D, providing public domain infor- or ecology of various institutions, actors and various other mation, developing trained human resources for the solar factors surrounds the activity of research and innovation. industry and expanding the scope and coverage of earlier incentives for industries to set up solar photo voltaic (PV) Objectives and research methodology manufacturing in India. This mission, for various reasons, The main objective of the study is to map the energy scen- has garnered a lot of attention and inspired fully-fledged ario in the country in order to understand the significance of research into itself, while, simultaneously, impacting the renewable energy with a focus on solar energy. Others are: innovation ecosystem in the country. - to study the various policies enunciated by the govern- Solar energy technologies and innovation promote eco- ment with special reference to the first phase of the logically sustainable growth while addressing the country’s National Solar Mission and its impact on institution energy security challenge (MNRE 2013). JNNSM building; and

This paper has changed since it was ﬁrst published. See corrections statement DOI: 10.1080/20421338.2017.1376397

African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development is co-published by Taylor & Francis and NISC (Pty) Ltd 574 Akoijam and Krishna

- to explore the dynamics of innovation by identifying modern economies. The Schumpeterian concept of inno- various actors and institutions which determine the vation also draws attention to the introduction of new pro- process of innovation in the solar energy sector. ducts, process innovation that is new to an industry, the Our study is based on both quantitative and qualitative opening of new markets, the development of new sources data. The quantitative data primary means the number of of supply for raw materials or other inputs, and changes scientific research publications related to solar energy in industrial organizations (Schumpeter 1939). and patents granted in various solar technologies. It was Further, as Edquist (2001) argues, innovation is the new gathered first by reviewing the available literature related creation of economic significance which is normally to renewable energy, solar energy and a few articles carried out by firms or sometimes by individuals. The based on the mission. The concept of innovation that is product or idea can be brand new, but is more often the used in the study was drawn from the innovation system new combination of existing elements. He further describes perspectives of National Innovation Systems (Freeman the category of innovation as extremely complex and het- 1987 and 1995; Nelson 1993; Lundvall 1997; Edquist erogeneous. Similarly, Fagerberg, Mowery, and Nelson 1997) and Sectoral Innovation Systems (Carlsson 1995; (2005) also stress that innovation is crucial for long-term Breschi and Malerba 1997; Mowery and Nelson 1999). economic growth and it tends to cluster in certain industries The information and data related to solar policies and pro- or sectors, which consequently grow more rapidly than grammes, various solar PVand solar thermal technologies, others, implying structural changes in production and research and development activities and other useful infor- demand and, eventually, organizational and institutional mation about various institutions, such as the Ministry of change. Innovation is nowadays therefore perceived as New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), the Solar Energy the fundamental driving force behind both advanced and Centre (SEC), the Solar Energy Cooperation of India advancing economies. (SECI), the Indian Renewable Energy Development In this study, we also drew on the system of innovation Agencies (IREDA), etc., were retrieved from their from Metcalf (1995) who perceives that institutions which annual reports and websites. Some informal interviews jointly and individually contribute to the development and were also undertaken to discuss various policy issues diffusion of new technology also provide the framework with professionals at the energy ministry. that governments use in forming and implementing policies To understand the research publications and patents’ to influence the innovation process. A system of innovation analysis, we used bibliometric analysis and databases avail- has also been defined as ‘all important economic, social, able on USPTO (United States Patent and Trademark political, organizational, and other factors that influence Office) and IPO (Indian Patent Office). Bibliometric is a the development, diffusion, and use of innovations’ set of online database tools for analyzing publication data. (Edquist and Johnson 1997, 14). During the 1990s, it According to Norton, it defines the measure of texts and became increasingly common to regard the emergence of information associated with a publication, and includes innovations as a complex process characterized by compli- author, affiliation, citations from other publications, co-cita- cated feedback mechanisms and interactive relations invol- tions with other publications, reader usage, and associated ving science, technology, learning, institutions, production, keywords (Norton 2001). With the help of analyzing the public policy and market demand (Edquist and Johnson data available in the Scopus4 database, the number of 1997). The development of innovations is seen as being research publications related to the solar energy sector in characterized by a processes of interactive learning, i.e. different universities and R&D institutions in the country there is often an exchange of knowledge between organiz- were calculated and analyzed accordingly. The information ations involved in the innovation processes (Lundvall gathered from the libraries of the Indian Institute of Tech- 1997). Various kinds of knowledge and information are nology IIT, Delhi and the Energy Resources Institutes exchanged between organizations and such exchanges (TERI) and others have also been incorporated. often take the form of collaboration that is not mediated by a market. From the different perspectives of innovation, Theoretical framework and literature review it could thus be studied in a national, regional or sectoral This study was undertaken to explore the ways in which context such as the National Innovation System (NIS), the various actors, agencies and policies influenced the Regional Innovation System (RIS) or the Sectoral System JNNSM or solar energy sector under the theoretical frame- of Innovation (SSI). The SSI perspective has been devel- work of innovation literature. Since the development and oped and increased in importance over time by Carlsson deployment of different solar technologies are driven by (1995), Breschi and Malerba (1997), Cooke et al. (1997), different actors and agencies, a study on the JNNSM Mowery and Nelson (1999) and so on. cannot be complete without bringing them into perspective. The concept of sectoral systems of innovation (SSI) is The concept of a system of innovation was developed in very popular today. Based on this framework, there are parallel at different places in Europe and the USA in many studies that look at the dynamism of sectoral 1980s. As Schumpeter (1939)defines innovation, it is the systems in many sectors. For instance, Turpin and key driver to economic change and regional development Krishna (2007) view the dynamics underlying three prom- of a nation because it is responsible for the setting up of ising sectors in India, namely ICT software, biotechnology new production functions that create new commodities as and pharmaceuticals, through the lens of the SSI perspec- well new forms of organization. Schumpeter (1939) tive. Krishna (2007) regards the three main building further mentions that invention, innovation and successful blocks of the innovation framework, namely sectoral diffusion of new technologies are the major drivers of boundaries, key elements of the SSI perspectives and African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 575 transformation of the sectoral system, through the co-evol- field of science and technology and ‘technology foresight’ ution of its constituent elements. He argues that the pharma- to make the right technology choices in the national ceutical sector is one of the most innovative of all sectors. perspective (Chidambaram 2007). Research, however, The SSI helps to draw our attention to the dynamics of involves generation of new knowledge and innovation innovation by identifying various actors and institutions requires adding economic value (or societal benefit or stra- which interact and determine the process of innovation tegic value or both) to that knowledge. in the solar energy sector. The SSI is composed of various agents, institutions, types and structures of inter- Key actors in the innovation ecosystem and fi fi actions among rms and non- rm organizations in a installation capacity fi sector. Malerba (2000; 2002b)de nes the SSI as System of innovation literature leads us to the concept of … composed by the set of heterogeneous agents carrying innovation ecosystem (Chidambaram 2007) which, in the out market and non-market interactions for the generation, context of this study, signifies different actors, agencies adoption and use of (new and established) technologies and polices among other features of the environment sur- and for the creation, production and use of (new and established) products that pertain to a sector (sectoral products). rounding the solar energy sector in India. The JNSSM has initiated numerous steps to catalyze innovation ecosystem Malerba (2004) mentions the basic elements of a sectoral for the development and implementation of different tech- system as products, agents, knowledge and learning pro- nologies of solar energy in the country (MNRE, 2010a). cesses, basic technologies, inputs and demand with Key actors in the ecosystem are depicted in Table 1. links, interactions and institutions. In his approach, it has India is a key emerging country in terms of solar a knowledge base, technologies, input and (potential or power. During 2013–2014, the overall production was existing) demand where the agents composing the sectoral over 240 MW for solar cells and 661 MW for PV system are organisations and individuals (Malerba 2002a). modules (MNRE 2015). The country’s PV sector endea- The idea of innovation ecosystem that we employ here vours to focus on three key approaches which include refers to the way in which various actors, agencies and licencing of patents, acquisitions and joint ventures, and policies are shaping the JNSSM or India’s solar energy in-house research and development, in a bid to match sector. In this ecosystem, there is a combination of the sector’s ongoing development levels of technology, public and private research institutions, universities and production and knowledge capacity (Mallett et al. 2009). other technical and financial institutions in India. The Gujarat is the leading state in solar energy installation country is trying to create its own innovation ecosystem in India with 857.90 MW, followed by Rajasthan by consolidation of various private or public institutions, (552.90 MW), Maharashtra (100 MW), Madhya Pradesh universities, technical and funding bodies. The country (37.32 MW), Andhra Pradesh (23.35 MW) and so on. can become a global innovation leader, if there is an effec- Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and 5 tive innovation ecosystem with ‘coherent synergy’ in the Andhra Pradesh respectively cover 50.87%, 32.74%,

Table 1: Actors in the innovation ecosystem in the Indian solar energy sector.

Key actors Particulars 1. Business enterprises (solar Domestic manufactures (cells, modules, balance of systems): Tata BP Solar, Moser Baer, Solar firms) Semiconductor, Photon Energy Systems, Central Electronics Laboratory (CEL), Reliance Industries Limited, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), Lanco Solar, IndoSolar Ltd., Websol Energy System Ltd., Titan Energy Ltd. etc. Foreign-owned manufactures: SunEdison (US base), Trina Solar (China), etc. Project developers: Azure Power, Green Infra, Mahinder, Welspun, etc. Engineering, procurement & construction (EPC): Mahinder, Tatasolar, etc. 2. Policy support Apex body and regulatory institutions: MNRE, Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), State Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC), Ministry of Power, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, SECI, IREDA, National Thermal Power Corporation Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) Policy instruments: Domestic Content Requirement (DCR), Generation Base Incentives (GBI), Accelerated Depreciation, Solar REC, state policies, Solar Viability Gap Funding (VGF), Direct Subsidies, tax incentives, etc. 3. Government Research IITs, central universities, state university, 61 educational institutions (PG level) offering courses on Institutes (GRIs) renewable energy, National Physical Laboratory (NPL), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), etc. 4. Financial institutions Domestic sources: Scheduled commercial banks like SBI, Bank of Baroda, IDBI Bank, Axis Bank. Nonbanking financial services like L&T Infra Financial, IDFC, PFC Green Ventures, DFC, IREDA, etc. External sources: International Finance Corporation (IFC), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Overseas Promotion & Investment Corporation (OPIC), U.S EXIM Bank, EXIM Bank of China, etc. 5. Industry associations Solar Energy Society of India (SESI), National Solar Energy Federation of India (NSEFI), Solar Thermal Federation of India (STFI), Indian Solar Manufactures Association, Solar Power Developers Association, Solar Energy Trade Association in India, etc. 6. NGOs and other organizations Barefoot Engineers, Greenpeace, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). Source: Author’s compilation; MNRE (2016) and TERI (2013) 576 Akoijam and Krishna

5.9%, 2.1% and 1.3% of the total grid’s connected solar Solar technology can broadly divided into two cat- energy capacity (MNRE 2015). Among the various renew- egories, such as solar PV technology and solar thermal able resources, wind has the maximum cumulative technology (Bhargava 2001 and Kharul 2011). Several installed capacity which is around 59%, followed by types of solar PV cells8 are globally available, such as solar (19.5%), bio-power (12%), small hydro (9%) and amorphous silicon, crystalline silicon, dye-sensitized waste-to-power (0.5%). Table 2 shows the cumulative cells as well as other newer technologies, such as deployment of renewable energy sources (both grid and silicon-nano particle ink, carbon nanotube and quantum off-grid connected) at the end of November 2016. The dots (Willey and Hester, 2009). Kharul (2011) broadly cumulative installed solar energy capacity was about categorized solar technology into four generations of tech- 9256.88 MW at the end of November 2016. Out of this, nology. The first and second generation solar cells are 8874.87 MW and 382.01 MW are from grid-connected commercially available globally, while the third and and off-grid solar respectively (CEA 2016; MNRE fourth generation solar cell technologies are in their 2016). The country stands in fourth position globally in initial stage. terms of renewable energy market potential, just behind Solar thermal technology is quite diverse in terms of its China, the US and Germany. operational characteristics and applications in that it Renewable energy as a whole has the potential to meet includes fairly simple technologies such as solar space 15% of the total contribution under the National Action heating and solar cooking as well as complex and sophis- Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) by 20206 which will ticated ones like solar air conditioning and solar thermal eventually reduce the emission of greenhouse gases power generation (Purohit and Purohit 2010). As Asif (MNRE 2013). India has huge potential for solar power and Muneer (2008) argue, solar thermal technologies are generation since about 58% of the total land area (1.89 the most diverse and effective renewable energy technol- million km2) receives and annual average global insolation ogies in the world.9 The most successful application of above 5 kWh/m2/day (Ramachandra, Jain, and Krishnadas solar thermal technologies is in the form of solar water 2011). The country’s solar radiation is higher than countries heating (SWH). like Germany where annual solar radiation ranges from 800 2 2 to 900 kWh/m . Moreover, there is around 1,000,000 km Status of the Indian solar manufacturing sector of open and non-agricultural land which receives adequate The Indian solar manufacturing sector consists of both radiation in the country and this land is available in crystalline silicon and thin films in PV technologies and Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and some parts of thermal technologies. This sector is little over three the Deccan plateau (Sukhatme 2011). About 1% of this decades old. Solar thermal technologies are still in the 2 land area (around 10,000 km )issufficient to meet electri- early stage of development compared with the PV technol- city needs of the country till 2031 as estimated by some ogies. Since the 1970s, BHEL and CEL have been sources. The challenge of providing energy access to the engaged in making solar panels and other equipment, remote villages can be met only by solar PV, small hydro, but were later joined by other companies that began wind or hybrid systems (Pillai and Banerjee 2009). small-scale manufacturing of modules which are limited While assessing the potential of solar energy, the real to off-grid applications. With a 40 MW manufacturing issue is not the availability of solar radiation as much as capacity, Moser Baer Solar set up the first commercial- 7 the availability of open land. Mitavachan and Srinivasan scale manufacturing plant in 2006 (Bhushan and (2012) argue that the solar power plants require less land Hamberg 2012). Since then, the domestic manufacturing in comparison to hydro power plants, nuclear and coal industries have experienced nurturing growth owing to including when life-cycle land transformations are con- global demands and the ambitious national solar mission sidered. Currently, solar PV installations consist almost implications. entirely of off-grid connectivity and small capacity appli- According to the World Bank (2013), most of the raw ances which are mostly used in public lighting such as materials and consumables for solar cell and module man- street lighting, traffic lighting, and domestic power back- ufacturing in India are imported. There is no poly-silicon up in municipal areas and small electrification systems or wafer manufacturing capability in the country. But and solar lanterns in the rural areas. In recent years, it more than 19 solar cell makers and 50 module makers has also been used for powering water pumps for have registered with the MNRE in the country10 farming and small industrial areas (MNRE 2015). (Bhushan, and Hamberg, 2012). The Chinese are the

Table 2: Indian cumulative deployment in solar and other renewable resources (in MW), as on 30.11.2016.

Renewable resources Grid-connected Off-grid connected Cumulative achievements Wind 28,419.40 – 28,419.40 Solar 8,874.87 382.01 9,256.88 Bio-power* 4,932.33 838.79 5,771.12 Small hydro 4,324.85 18.81 4,343.66 Waste-to-power 114.08 161.12 275.20 Total renewable energy 46,665.53 1,400.73 48,066.26 Source: http://mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision-2/achievements/ (accessed on 11.01.2017) *Bio-power includes biomass-gasification and bagasse cogeneration which achieve maximum energy from the off-grid system as 651.91 MW and 186.88 MW, respectively. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 577 leaders in both cell and module production globally (TERI Energy (MNRE). Renewable energy promotion received a 2013; Spratt et al. 2014). By the beginning of the national boost with the National Electricity Policy 2005, which solar mission’s second phase, about 1500 MWof cell man- provides measures for licensed utilities and producers of ufacturing capability and around 2000 MW of domestic captive electricity to purchase certain amounts of renew- module manufacturing capability existed in India as com- able energy. In recent years, a number of specific federal pared with only 15 MW of ingots and wafers manufactur- and state-level incentive schemes have been created for ing (MNRE 2015). So far, the biggest solar manufactures specific purposes, ranging from rooftop PV installations in the country are Moser Baer Solar, Tata Power and HHV to large-scale power plants. There are some states that Solar. The main driver of solar energy investment is a per- have specific solar state policies11 and some are in the ceived business opportunity and such an opportunity often pipeline in order to boost solar generation capacities and arises because government provides incentives. drive down costs through local manufacturing and R&D activities to accelerate the transition to clean and secure Policies on renewable energy with respect to solar energy in the state itself. Figure 1 depicts the evolution energy in India of India’s renewable energy policies with respect to solar The flow of information and network linkages of solar energy. energy technology among people, enterprises and insti- There are a number of government institutions whose tutions are the key that leads to an innovative process. It competence extends into the renewable energy sector. The contains the interaction between the actors who are Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act instituted inde- needed to turn an idea into a process, product or service pendent regulatory bodies both at the central and state- on the market. There is no single actor that can perform level which are known as the Central Electricity Regulat- independently. The diverse actors function as the linkages ory Commission (CERC) and the State Electricity Regu- and networks in the innovation ecosystem for the develop- latory Commissions (SERCs) respectively. The CERC is ment and growth of the solar energy sector in the country. responsible for regulating tariffs of generating companies The Government of India has established the Ministry of owned or controlled by the central government and for New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), the Indian Renew- promoting competition in the electricity industry, while able Energy Development Agency (IREDA), State Nodal the SERCs deal with matters concerning generation, trans- Agencies, the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission mission, distribution and trading of electricity in their (CERC) and the State Electricity Regulatory Commission respective state. (SERC) for the respectable functioning of the ecosystem. The MNRE is the nodal ministry responsible for all These bodies are engaged with each one another coher- matters relating to new and renewable energy such as ently in order to maintain the development of the renew- solar, wind, biomass, small hydro, hydrogen, biofuels, able energy sector in general and the solar energy sector geothermal, etc. The broad aim of the ministry is to in particular. develop and deploy new and renewable energy to sup- In the early 1980s, the government began to introduce plement the energy requirements of the country. The policies to support the expansion of renewable energy in MNRE’s role is to facilitate research, design and develop- the country. In 1982, the Department of Non-Conventional ment of new and renewable energy that can be deployed in Energy Sources (DNES) was established. The Commis- the rural, urban, industrial and commercial sectors (MNRE sion for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) was 2011). The MNRE undertakes policymaking, planning, created in the then Ministry of Energy. In 1992, the and promotion of renewable energy including financial Indian Government established the Ministry of Non-Con- incentives, creation of industrial capacity, technology ventional Energy Sources (MNES). Then, in 2006, the research and development, intellectual property rights, MNES was renamed the Ministry of New and Renewable human resource development and international relations.

Figure 1: Timeline of various Indian energy policies and institutions set up to focus on the solar sector. Source: Compiled by author; MNRE 2015 578 Akoijam and Krishna

The vision of the MNRE is to develop new and renewable the generating companies or private producers through energy technologies, processes, materials, components, contracts (PPAs) with transmission or distribution utilities sub-systems, products and services on a par with inter- or with trading licensees (Schmid 2012). Solar Renewable national specifications, standards and performance par- Purchase Obligation (RPO) is the minimum amount of ameters in order to make the country a net foreign solar energy that obligated entities, distribution licensees, exchange earner in the sector and deploy such indigen- open access and captive consumers have to deliver or ously developed and/or manufactured products and ser- consume as a percentage of their total available electricity. vices in furtherance of the national goal of energy They can meet this obligation by purchasing the required security.12 Moreover, the MNRE supervises national insti- quantity of solar power directly from producers. Alterna- tutions such as the Solar Energy Centre (SEC, recently tively, they can buy solar a Renewable Energy Certificate renamed as National Institute of Solar Energy), the (REC) to fulfil their RPO. Many states are now establish- Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET), and the ing RPOs, which have stimulated development of a trad- Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of Renewable able REC programme (Altenburg and Engelmeier 2012). Energy (SSS-NIRE). Apart from administering the insti- Generation base incentives are provided to support tutions, the MNRE also affords financial assistance like small grid solar power projects connected to the distri- supporting the Solar Energy Corporation of India bution network under the solar Generation Based Incen- (SECI). As a part of the Jawaharlal Nehru National tives (GBI) scheme. The solar Rooftop PV and Small Solar Mission (JNNSM), the Indian Institute of Technol- Solar Power Generation Programme (RPSSGP) is also ogy (IIT) Delhi, IIT Mumbai, IIT Rajasthan, the Indian an interesting scheme which was designed essentially to Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore and the Indian Insti- encourage states to implement grid connected projects tute of Management (IIM) Ahmedabad are conducting focusing on the distribution network and to strengthen several research and development activities in the area the tail end of the grid system. These Feed in Tariff and solar energy under the rubric of centre of excellence. solar RPO, REC, GBI and RPSSPGP schemes have In the solar energy innovation ecosystem, the govern- become notable policies or schemes during the implemen- ment is the main actor and it is responsible for the formu- tation of the JNNSM. lation of several renewable incentive policies that have increased the viability of increased deployment of solar Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission and the energy technologies in the country, ranging from electri- status of Phase-I city sector reform to rural electrification incentives. Dom- The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) is estic Content Requirement (DCR) is a new set of a major initiative of the government of India to promote guidelines under the JNNSM. To achieve solar capacity ecologically sustainable growth while addressing the and cost targets, the JNNSM auctions Power Purchase country’s energy security challenge. The JNNSM seeks Agreements (PPAs) to solar developers, and to ensure to kickstart solar generation capacities, drive down costs domestic solar manufacturing in the country the pro- through local manufacturing, research and development gramme includes a DCR, developers must use solar cells to accelerate the transition to clean and secure energy 13 and modules manufactured in India. However, the (Deshmukh et al. 2011). Table 3 highlights the chronology guideline makes an exception for solar PV developers of events in the JNNSM. using thin film technologies, which may be imported. It aims to dramatically increase installed PV through The majority of solar developers in the country currently attractive feed-in tariffs and a clear application and admin- use imported thin film modules. istration process. Under this mission, there are three Another policy, Feed in Tariff, is a mechanism phases: Phase-I (2010–2013), Phase-II (2013–17) and designed to accelerate investment in renewable energy Phase-III (2017–2022). The mission aims installations of technologies in the country. They are minimum prices at 20,000 MW of grid-connected solar power generation, which renewable energy projects can be purchased from 2000 MW of off-grid solar applications, 20 million

Table 3: Chronology of events in the National Solar Mission.

Date Event 2007 The MNRE initiates the framing of an action plan or mission for solar energy internally. 2008– National Action Plan on Climate Change declared and the mission brought under the aegis of the Prime Minister’sOfﬁce. The 09 mission launched with an initial budget allocation of Rs.3850-million. 2009 NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Ltd. (NVVN) become nodal stakeholders in power purchase agreements through the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC). 2010 Phase-I initiates with two different batches. Asian Development Bank declares US$400m commitment. Around 418 project bids submitted for a cumulative target of 1–2 GW for the ﬁrst batch of phase-I. Project sizes are small (5 MW cap) with DCR guidelines. Project developers prefer sourcing alternative equipment from foreign suppliers. Authorization of Rs.172.3 million to 37 solar cities. 2011 Solar Energy Industry Advisory Council is constituted to help attract investment, encourage R&D and make the Indian solar industry competitive. Allocated 350 MW in utility scale solar projects under the second batch of phase-I. 90% of the projects are in Rajasthan. 2012 NVVN replaced by the SECI under the supervision of the MNRE. Power purchase agreements directly signed with the SECI. 2013 Phase-I ends and Phase-II begins with a target on special focus on grid connected solar. Source: Compiled by author; Krishna, Sagar, and Spratt (2015) African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 579

Table 4: Phase-wise and total targets in the JNNSM.

Segment Phase-I 2010–13 Phase-II 2013–17 Phase-III 2017–22 Total Grid-connected solar (MW) 1,100 3,000 16,000 20,000 Off-grid solar (MW) 200 800 1,000 2,000 Solar thermal collectors (million sq. meters) 7 8 5 20 Source: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) 2013 metres2 of solar thermal collector area for industrial appli- with respect to batch-II. Among the schemes, the cations and 20 million solar lighting systems for rural purpose behind launching the migration scheme in 2010 areas by the year 2022.14 The first phase, second phase was to provide transition to affordable solar projects and third phase have respective targets of 1100 MW, from the existing arrangement to the one envisioned 3000 MW and 16,000 MW of grid-connected solar. In under the mission. The scheme is further subjected to case of the off grid solar applications, 200 MW, the consent of state governments, the disposition of the 800 MW and 1000 MW are the targets in the first, project developer and the distribution licensee17 (MNRE second and third phases, respectively. And lastly, the 2012). The bundling of solar power was introduced in three phases target to achieve 7, 8 and 5 million metres2 this phase. As per this bundling, the cost of solar power of solar collectors (see Table 4). is about Rs.5/kWh for which 500 MW capacities of both The mission has also other additional goals, such as solar PV and thermal projects have been selected promoting R&D, disseminating public domain infor- (MNRE 2012). mation, developing trained human resource for the solar In the case of the off-grid connected/decentralized industry, and expanding the scope and coverage of solar power in the JNNSM phase-I, around 27,841 solar earlier incentives for industries to set up solar PV manu- lanterns, 53,588 home lights, 21,957 solar street lights, facturing in India. Under this mission, NTPC Vidyut 1055 water pumping system and stand-alone solar PV Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) Ltd.15 has been designated as power plants of 9365.39 KW capacity were installed nodal agency for procuring the solar power by entering during 2012–13 (MNRE 2013). into a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with solar power generation project developers who have been R&D activities and knowledge production in solar setting up solar projects during Phase-I. About 615 MW energy technologies of different solar power projects, including both solar Promotion of R&D and increasing the knowledge pro- PV (145 MW) and thermal (470 MW) projects, were duction in solar energy technologies is one of the main listed during according to NVVN. Out of them, the CSP objectives of national policies on solar energy and its inno- projects are in Rajasthan (400 MW), Andhra Pradesh vation ecosystem. The various research and development (50 MW) and Gujarat (20 MW), while solar PV projects programmes are designed to improve the efficiency, are in Rajasthan (100 MW), Andhra Pradesh (15 MW), reliability and cost competitive performance of different Karnataka (10 MW), Maharashtra (5 MW), Uttar Pradesh solar energy technologies in the country. The National (5 MW), Orissa (5 MW) and Tamil Nadu (5 MW).16 Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) and the Solar Energy The mission’s phase-I is divided into batch-I and Corporation of India (SECI) are the two most important batch-II. In both batches, several schemes like NVVN R&D institutions that are established under the Solar scheme, migration scheme and RPSSGP scheme are Energy Research Advisory Council to address the existing introduced. Table 5 gives the status for both batch-I and research infrastructure in the domain of the solar energy batch-II under the JNNSM phase-I, including projects sector and help to set up a framework which would incu- allotted under different schemes (see Table 5). About bate an environment for accelerating research and devel- 1152.5 MW of grid connected solar projects have been opment activities in the country related to the goals of allotted in batch-I and batch-II together. Out of the total the National Solar Mission. 802.5 MW, 500 MW is allotted for solar thermal projects The NISE, which is the technical focal point of the and 302.5 MW for solar PV projects in batch-I. On the MNRE, assists other research organizations and industry other hand, 350 MW of solar PV projects are allotted in implementing innovative ideas and development of

Table 5: Status of Batch-I and Batch-II of the JNNSM Phase-I.

Projects allotted Project commissioned I. For Batch-I (Schemes) No. MW No. MW NVVN Scheme (Solar PV) 30 150 25 125 NVVN Scheme (CSP) 7 470 –– Migration Scheme (Solar PV) 13 54 11 48 Migration Scheme (CSP) 3 30 1 2.5 RPSSGP (Solar PV) 78 98.5 62 76.55 I. For Batch-II (Schemes) NVVN Scheme (Solar PV) 28 350 –– Total 159 1152.5 99 252.05 Source: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) 2012 580 Akoijam and Krishna new products by offering its facility and expertise for cells, poly crystalline and thin film cells in the country developmental testing on various solar technologies. for 10 years (2006–2015) are shown in Table 6. The Under this R&D programme, the evaluation of various country has published the highest number of research pub- emerging technologies and standardizing the technologies lications globally in thin film, poly crystalline, amorphous for applications suitable for various field conditions are and dye sensitized solar cells. Seven research organiz- important tasks. The institution is also responsible for con- ations, namely the Indian Association of Cultivation of ducting various training programmes, seminars, work- Science (Kolkata), the Indian Institute of Technology shops and other solar energy technology courses with (Delhi), the University of Poona (Pune), the National the objective of disseminating relevant knowledge. The Physical Laboratory (Delhi), the Indian Institute of Tech- MNRE has also introduced a fellowship, the national nology (Madras), the Indian Institute of Science (Banga- solar science fellowship programme. As part of the lore) and the Indian Institute of Technology (Kharagpur) JNNSM, the SECI has taken up various projects or activi- were involved in research on various aspects of amor- ties related to the solar sector across the country. One of phous material and process development (MNRE 2015). the on-going schemes under the SECI is a pilot scheme Central Electronics Ltd. and Rajasthan Electronics & for large scale grid-connected rooftop solar power gener- Instruments Ltd. were the industrial organizations ation which is 30% subsidy on the project cost made avail- involved in the design and development of PV systems able from the ministry through the corporation. based on this technology (MNRE 2015). Besides these, the government of India also allocates In poly crystalline cells, in 2015 India ranked fourth funds or provides other subsidies for various R&D activi- globally with 981 publications. China had 2261 research ties in the country. The solar mission was launched in 2009 publications in this particular technology leads the field with a preliminary budget allocation of Rs.3.85 billion globally the number of research papers published. In the (IREDA 2012). India invests less money in its renewable case of dye sensitized, thin film cells and amorphous energy sector than other countries globally. India has cells the country is ranked sixth and seventh, respectively. invested Rs 442.4 billion in the sector, which is only 2% The rank-wise country in the publications of research in of the global investment in the sector in recent year various solar technologies to 2016 is shown in Table 7. (MNRE 2015; BNF 2015). China has become the global In the case of number of patents granted in India leader in investment in the sector with around Rs.4532.4 related to solar energy, around 75 patents were granted billion invested, followed by the USA with about by the Indian Patent Office (according to their website)18 Rs.2450. These equal about 27% and 15% of global as at 2 July 2015. The online database on the patents investment. was obtained by using the search engine ‘Indian Patent Office’ supported by the Office of the Controller General Knowledge production and comparisons with other of Patents, Designs & Trade (CGPDT), the Ministry of countries Commerce and Industry and the government of India. Solar energy has been harnessed mainly in two technol- But in the case of USPTO (United States Patent and Trade- ogies. One is solar photovoltaic (PV) technology and the mark Office) 53 patents19 were granted in India in the other solar thermal technology. The former technology is different field of solar technologies. The highest number more advanced and developed than the latter (MNRE of patents were granted in the area of organic solar PV 2015). Among solar technologies, solar PV has emerged cells (18), followed by grid-connected applications (7), as the fastest growing renewable power technology world- dye sensitized solar cells (7), concentrated PV (5), PV wide (REN21 2015). It is one of the most promising ways energy (3), solar thermal (3) and so on. to generate electricity in a decentralized manner at the In the innovation ecosystem, universities are the one point of use for providing electricity, especially for light- of the main actors because the interaction between indus- ing and meeting small electricity needs, particularly in tries/government institutions and universities is very un-electrified households and unmanned locations. important. The linkage between academia, industries and The number of publications in various solar PV tech- government institutions boost the quality of research nologies such as amorphous cells, concentrating PV, output and development activities that explore solar dye-sensitized cells, mono crystalline, multi-junction energy worldwide. The productivity of various

Table 6: India’s number of publication in various solar technologies for 10 years (2006–2015).

Technology 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Amorphous 63 57 81 117 120 139 92 118 108 152 Concentrating PV 0 0 0 0 0 0 0001 Dye-sensitized cells 1 5 13 18 29 65 71 95 153 170 Mono crystalline 3 4 7 9 6 6 10 8 8 13 Multi-junction cells 0 0 0 0 0 1 1121 Poly crystalline 3 1 8 80 148 154 168 170 185 198 Thin ﬁlm cells 63 45 61 66 82 112 120 156 220 203 Source: Researcher’s data based on the Scopus Database**, 2016 **Based on the database, the number of publications related to a speciﬁc solar technology was analyzed. For instance, the keyword for dye-sensitized cells are (TITLE-ABS-KEY (dye sensitized solar cells) AND PUBYEAR > 2005 AND PUBYEAR < 2016 AND ((LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, ‘Dye- sensitized Solar Cells’) OR (LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, ‘Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell’) OR (LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, ‘Dye-sensitized Solar Cell’) OR (LIMIT-TO (EXACTKEYWORD, ‘Dye Sensitized Solar Cell’)) AND ((LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, ‘ar’)) AND ((LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE ‘j’))). African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 581

universities and R&D institutions in India, compared with other countries globally, in terms of research publications related to the solar energy sector produced, was analyzed with the help of the data available in the Scopus database. To analyze the publications, we used the seven key- 20 Italy (251) (102) words in the database. The total number publications in the solar energy sector as at 2016 was 287,853. Of this total, at 68,938 publications, the USA published the highest number of papers (24% of global publications), followed by China 37,562 (13%), Germany 20,601

Germany (253) (7%), Japan 18,844 (6.5%) and India 13,886 (5%). The country stands in fifth position. Figure 2 shows the number of publications by the top 10 countries in the world. The country has also a significant presence of pro- Taiwan (919) UK (774) Italy (650) Australia (254) UK (477) Russia (359) Spain (275) ductive R&D institutions and universities. Figure 3 shows the year-wise growth of publications related to solar energy in India for a decade from 2006 to 2015. Out of the top 15 institutions and universities that published papers in India, the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, is topmost with 1186 publications (8.5% of the total India (1072) Switzerland (331) (603) Taiwan (921) France (892) UK (827) Italy (557) publications), followed by the Indian Institute of Technol- ogy, Bombay, with 427 publications (3%), the Indian Insti- tute of Science with 328 publications (2.4%) and others (see Figure 3). It is observed that among the top 15 affiliations there are four Indian Institutes of Technology and France (1160) India (620) India (1128) that all are the public research and development institutions and universities, except for the Tata Institute of Rank Fundamental Research, Mumbai, which covers 1.5% of the total publications in the country (see Figure 4). Germany (1584) Germany (892) France (696) South Korea Conclusion The innovation ecosystem in the solar energy sector is constituted of policies which regulate and provide stimu- lus to the industry as whole, which is endowed with R&D and technical support institutions, financial institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and (1660) India (981) Germany (1851) Japan (1660) business enterprises that are involved in manufacturing solar equipment. In an innovation system, there is no single actor that can perform independently, as all these above-mentioned actors are linked and connected in an ideal situation. In this ecosystem, the policy support is the main actor which is responsible for the formulation USA (891) Taiwan (752) Japan (709) (1950) of several renewable incentive policies that have increased the viability of increased deployment and development of solar energy technologies in the country. In alignment with the goals of the National Solar Mission, the National Insti- tute of Solar Energy (NISE) and the Solar Energy Corpor- ation of India (SECI) are the most important R&D institutions. They are part of the Solar Energy Research USA (3207) Japan (2169) South Korea South Korea (1354) USA (2150) Japan (1152) Advisory Council which addresses the existing research infrastructure in the solar sector and helps to set up a framework that nurtures an environment for accelerating 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th research and development activities in the country. (4371) China (3016) USA (103) Spain (40)(2261) China (37) Japan (36)Before Germany (33) the UK (15) beginning South Korea (13) Taiwan (13) of Canada (11) the Australia (10) National Solar Mission,the s data based on the Scopus Database, 2016 ’ activities of the NISE were confined to solar thermal energy areas. After 2010, the main focus was on the devel- gures within brackets indicate the number of publications by the respective country.

ﬁ opment and promotion of solar PV technologies (mainly Rank-wise country on the number of publications in various solar technologies. Researcher

lm cells USA (3828) China (3402) South Korea thin ﬁlms and crystalline modules). Both the institutions ﬁ provided an effective interface among the government, Amorphous China Technology Table 7: Note: The Source: Concentrating PVDye-sensitized USA (20)cells China (18) UK (12) Germany (5) Spain (5) Israel (4) Italy (4) Australia (3) Austria (2) Netherlands (2) Mono crystalline ChinaMulti-junction (737)cells USA (590)Poly crystalline China Germany (402) France (286) Japan (226) Russia (213) Poland (131) UK (126) Italy (123) South Korea Thin R&D institutions, industries and users of the technology 582 Akoijam and Krishna

Figure 2: Publications by top 10 countries in the world. Source: Researcher’s data based on the Scopus Database, 2016

Figure 3. Number of publications in India for a decade (2006–2015). Source: Researcher’s data based on the Scopus Database, 2016

Figure 4: Publications by top 15 affiliations in India, 2016. Source: Researcher’s data based on the Scopus Database, 2016 for the development, promotion and widespread utilization assistance so as to meet its higher goals. Large-scale of solar energy. expansion of grid connected solar power is its main By far, the outcomes of phase-I have, to some extent, target. It is imperative for the central government to been ambiguous. The report given in the MNRE does not create a favourable environment for developing both clearly show the mission’s achievements in its first phase, solar PV and thermal technology to enhance its power as it is more of an overall cumulative report. Therefore, it sector. For phase-II, it would be mandatory to use cells is difficult to assess the individual outputs. In JNNSM and modules manufactured in India. So, some changes phase-II, the mission identifies the need for international could be essential in domestic content requirements. Fol- support in the form of technology transfer and financial lowing this, new developments pertaining to trade African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 583 relations of the country with the rest of the world are 3. The other seven national missions are National Mission for inevitable. Enhanced Energy Efficiency, National Mission on Sustain- India ranks at fifth position in terms of knowledge pro- able Habitat, National Water Mission, National Mission for fi Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, National Mission for duction pertaining to the eld of solar energy. The country a Green India, National Mission for Sustainable Agricul- has published extensively, particularly in the area of poly- ture, and National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for crystalline, thin-film, dye-sensitized and amorphous solar Climate Change (MNRE, 2010b). technologies. However, the country still lags behind 4. Scopus is one of the largest online abstract and citation countries such as the USA, China, Germany and Japan. database of peer reviewed literature with smart tools that ’ extract, analyze and visualize research which that covers Regarding the status of India s solar manufacturing more than 205,000 titles from nearly 5000 publishers. sector, the country’s expertise is in crystalline silicon See http://www.info.sciverse.com/scopus/. and thin films under PV technologies. The country is 5. According to Chidambaram, coherent synergy means more advanced in PV technologies than thermal technol- coherence among the varieties of synergetic efforts; it ogies. Notwithstanding this, in recent years India has may be Human Resource Development, R&D with priori- tization, academia-industry interaction, international col- only contributed 2% of the global investment in renewable laboration, made by the concerned parties in the field of energy, whereas China has invested 27% of the global science and technology for economic development in the total, making China the global leader in terms of invest- country. ment in renewable energy. Although India has created 6. Annual report 2012–13, Ministry of New and Renewable institutional R&D set ups and other actors in the inno- Energy (MNRE), Government of India 2013. 7. Sukhatme (2011). vation ecosystem, the country is still far behind China in 8. Solar PV cells are semiconductor devices that convert part terms of investments in solar R&D. of the incident solar radiation directly into electrical Apart from low level of investments, there are some energy. The most common PV cells are made from single infrastructure related problems. For instance, installation crystal silicon but there are many variations in cell of thin films has already created some controversy. The material, design and methods of manufacture (Sharma 2011). acquisition of land and its investment is yet to be resolved. 9. Asif and Muneer (2008). Solar thermal technologies. Ency- Subsequently, land acquisition has been an issue in terms clopaedia of energy engineering and technology. Taylor of both its prices and investment for relevant authorities. and Francis, New York, pp.1321−1330. Solar energy production in general must take into 10. Bhushan and Hamberg (2012). 11. For instance, Gujarat State Policy, 2009 is the first solar account the value of land. Resolving these minor issues fi fi speci c state policy introduced in the country predating are linked to the production of more ef cient technology, the JNNSM. Some others, like Rajasthan Solar Policy whether thin films or crystalline modules or any other 2012, Andhra Pradesh Solar Policy 2012, Madhya items. Pradesh Solar Policy 2012, Tamil Nadu Solar Policy Hence, the process of indigenizing solar films, includ- 2012, Uttar Pradesh Solar Policy 2013, Orissa Solar Policy 2013, etc., have come out with their own solar- ing resolving infrastructural issues, seems imperative for fi fi speci c policies. the country. The import of lms versus local manufacture 12. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, (MNRE); see deserves the utmost attention by decisionmakers. India has the link: http://www.mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision2/ created all the necessary elements and actors relevant to a mission-and-vision/vision/ accessed 20 May 2013. solar energy ecosystem, with a very high policy focus. 13. Solar cells and modules are the building blocks of solar PV However, further investment in research and strengthening (crystalline silicon) which are used to generate electricity. ’ 14. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Stra- innovation ecosystem will drastically improve India s tegic Report; see http://www.mnre.gov.in/ accessed 22 comparative advantage. February 2013. 15. NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) Ltd. was formed by Acknowledgements the National Thermal Power Cooperation (NTPC), as its This paper is derived from my M.Phil. dissertation work titled wholly owned subsidiary to realize the potential of power Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM): Impact trading, capacity utilization of power generation and trans- on Innovation Ecosystem in India which was submitted to the mission assets, and boost the development of the power Centre for Studies in Science Policy (CSSP), Jawaharlal Nehru market in the country. University. I would like to thank the editors of this journal and 16. Selected projects for phase-I JNNSM, NTPC Vidyut the anonymous reviewers of my paper for the valuable comments Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) Limited; see http://nvvn.co.in/ and suggestions. I would also like to acknowledge Michiko Selected%20Projects%20List.pdf accessed 1 May 2013. Iizuka and Rasmus Lema for constructive comments during the 17. Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission Phase II-Policy th Document, 2012, Ministry of New & Renewable Energy. 13 GLOBELICS Conference held in Cuba, 2015, where the fi original form of this paper was first presented. See the link: http://mnre.gov.in/ le-manager/UserFiles/ draft-jnnsmpd-2.pdf 18. See http://www.ipindia.nic.in/. The patent search was made Disclosure statement in a double field search. The first field used was as search No potential conflict of interest was reported by the for titles with keyword “solar”, and “solar energy” in the authors. second field. 19. For example, the number of patents granted in solar thermal, tower concentrators, dish collectors, Fresnel lenses, trough concentrators, stirling solar thermal Notes engines, thermal updraft, mounting or tracking, photovol- 1. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), GoI. taic energy, PV systems concentrators, material technol- See http://www.mnre.gov.in/ ogies, CulSe2 material PV cells, dye sensitized solar 2. Press Information Bureau, Government of India. See http:// cells, solar cells from group II-VI materials, solar cells pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_page1.asp?relid=44098 from group III-V materials, micro-crystalline silicon PV 584 Akoijam and Krishna

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