SEPTEMBER 1969 VOL. VIII NO. 3 Use of T Yndalloscope and Konimeter for Dust-Measurement (See P

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL REVIEW OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES spectra SEPTEMBER 1969 VOL. VIII NO. 3 Use of t yndalloscope and konimeter for dust-measurement (see p. 77).

CONTENTS

66 WHITHER NUCLEAR FISSION? JEAN LECLERCQ Will historians in the year 3000 devote just a few lines to nuclear energy, or will a whole chapter be needed to describe its contribution to progress?

74 ECSC SPONSORSHIP OF COAL RESEARCH GUSTAV WONNERTH One of the responsibilities of the European Coal and Steel Com• munity is the promotion of research in the coal sector. This article gives a survey of the nature of this task and of the methods used to rullìi it.

79 IRRADIATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE EUROPEAN GEORG PRÖPSTL ECONOMY The industry of the European Community should not only make full use of this advanced technology but take an active part in its develop• ment.

87 AUTORADIOGRAPHY AND THE STUDY OF IRRADIATED ROGER NAUCHE NUCLEAR FUELS Original techniques for lhe radiographic study of irradiated fuels have been developed by the BR-2 (Mol) Reactor Operations Group (GEX).

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Picture credits: Cover and page 77 (top, right): Dr. Wolff & Tritschler, Francfort/ Main; page 73: Siemens AG, Technischer Pressedienst, 8 Munich 1, Oskar-von-Miller- Ring 18: page 74 (2): INIEX-NIEB, Liège; page 77 (bottom, left): Steinkohlenbergbau• CONTENTS verein; page 77 (bottom, right): Hans Grempel, Gelsenkirchen, Königstr. 38; page 78: Photo Mazo, 33 bd. St. Martin, Paris 3ème; pages 67, 68, 69, 70 (2), 71, 75, 66 WHITHER NUCLEAR FISSION? 76, 87, 88 and 89: Gaston Bogaert, Brussels. Will historians in the year 3000 devote just a few lines to nuclear energy, or will a whole chapter be needed to describe its contribution to progress?

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Agence et Messageries de la Presse (AMP) 1, rue de la petite île 74 ECSC SPONSORSHIP OF COAL RESEARCH Brussels 7 One of the responsibilities of the European Coal and Steel Com• Belgium munity is the promotion of research in the coal sector. This article gives a survey of the nature of this task and of the methods used to fulfil it.

Yearly subscription rates: 79 IRRADIATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE EUROPEAN ECONOMY The industry of the European Community should not only make full United Kingdom 21/-; United States $ 3.50 use of this advanced technology but take an active part in its develop• ment.

87 AUTORADIOGRAPHY AND THE STUDY OF IRRADIATED Basic rate: NUCLEAR FUELS Original techniques for the radiographic study of irradiated fuels Europe: 125 Belgian Francs have been developed by the BR-2 (Mol) Reactor Operations Group (GEX). Other countries: 175 Belgian Francs

91 NEWS FROM THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES: Deliberations of the Council of Ministers on European technological cooperation· Extension of Dragon agreement · Why a uranium enrichment plant Single copies: is needed in the Community · Consultative Committees on pro• gramme management · Conclusion of six "fusion" contracts · United Kingdom 7/·; United States $1. Subsidies granted for coal and steel research · Proposals for directives on "Engineers" · Can thorium compete with uranium? · Inter• governmental conference on patents · Revision of Euratom basic standards· Forthcoming conferences· Conference reports· Eurisotop Bureau publications· Printed in the Netherlands by A. W. Sijthoff, Leiden The negotiations on the renewal of the Intelsat agreements face Europe with decisions that are likely to have a significant effect on her economic, industrial, technological and political future: should Europe try to play a fairly major part in this rapidly expanding sphere of world telecommunications, or must she simply retire from the field? Alas, during the first stage of the negotia• tions, which took place in February-March 1969, the European countries revealed serious divergencies of viewpoint; once more, therefore, it looks as though disunion will beget weak• ness. Whilst in no way seeking to deny the ad• vantages afforded by operation of a system of satellite telecommunications organised at world level, the countries sharing in such an enterprise quite naturally want recognition of their right to operate regional or domestic systems. Again, although it is important for Europe to obtain telecommunication services as cheap• ly as possible, this aim cannot be pursued with• out regard to the needs of its technological and industrial development. To abandon to others from the very outset the invention and development efforts still required in this field is no kind of a policy. Let us hope that the setting-up of the Eurosat consortium recently by some fifty European firms may signify a new awareness of this problem. Whither the imperative necessity of going beyond even the long-term estimate and trying to nuclear fission? situate nuclear energy in a prospective view. There are, I think, two kinds of dif• ference between the forward estimate and the prospect. First, a difference of time: at present Will historians in the year 3000 devote just a few lines to nuclear energy, or will a whole the boldest estimate does not go beyond chapter be needed to describe its contribution to progress? the end of the century, whereas the term "prospect" is only used for the years 2000 onwards. Secondly, a difference in the meaning of the assessments proposed. In estimates, JEAN LECLERCQ a figure has a meaning as such, even if it is presented as an order of magnitude or a "range" or if it is bounded by margins of uncertainty which are themselves ex• The nuclear research effort Or, in a less sportive vein, one could pressed in more or less precise figures. say that, in view of the gigantic efforts In the prospect, figures are only used as SINCE THE END OF the Second and sums expended to turn nuclear examples or illustrations of a general World War and even today the peaceful energy into a terrifying means of destruc• trend. utilisation of nuclear energy has been the tion, it would be wrong to spend much In fact, placing nuclear energy "in object of an immense research and devel• less on harnessing it for peaceful purposes. perspective" really means asking what opment effort. At first confined to a few However, the economy is hardly part it will play in the "coming history" very big states, this effort, which has con• swayed by fine gestures, or by moral of mankind—or, again, wondering how tinually expanded, has been steadily arguments either. the historians of the year 3000 will de• taken on by a growing number of coun• Development of the use of a new scribe the emergence of this new form tries. energy source can indeed be of great of energy and its effects on world civili• To begin with, nuclear research and scientific interest and produce major sation. Will they simply accord it a few development was exclusively in the repercussions in technology and industry. lines, or will a whole chapter be needed hands of the national governments. But it is only when, both in quality and to describe the importance of this new Today, although these government of• in quantity, it fulfils the requirements of energy source, displacing fossil fuels, in fices, which have been joined by inter• man that it finds its true calling. the evolution of all mankind towards a national institutions of regional or world very high level of material prosperity and magnitude, still retain a very substantial civilisation? portion of the activities in question, Future estimates and prospects another portion, which is constantly in• creasing and in recent years has probably The last fifteen or twenty years have The reasons for nuclear development become the major part, is carried out by hence seen numerous efforts to forecast private concerns. the place that atomic energy may occupy It is recognised today that recourse to One may wonder if it is worthwhile for in national or world energy contexts. nuclear energy—and here we are refer• the human race to devote to the develop• Because of the long years that had, and ring very exclusively to nuclear fission ment of the peaceful uses of nuclear according to some still have, to elapse energy—is necessary for two main rea• energy a vast amount of capital and before it reached its full industrial sons. labour that could probably be directed to coming-of-age, the numerous predictions First, in spite of the fact that the ends more immediately productive of were always of a long-term nature. energy now produced from the atom is prosperity and civilisation. To a public which, generally speaking, still relatively expensive, there is every To the question as to why this effort is regarded any prediction, even only a few reason to believe that nuclear energy will made, one might give the famous reply months ahead, as "crystal-gazing", as• soon have a constantly growing price concerning the reason for climbing sessments reaching forward twenty, advantage over the traditional sources. Everest: "Because it is there!" thirty or even forty years could only add Other articles in this review have de• to the scepticism that surrounded the scribed and given the grounds for these development of nuclear energy. development prospects1 and I shall mere- JEAN LECLERCQ is Head of the Economic And yet a moment of thought as to 1. See the articles by HANS MICHAELIS, Aspects and Development Forecasts Division whether this development is justified, or Euratom Bulletin, Vol. 1 (1962) No. 4 p. 10; of the Directorate-General for Energy of the Vol. Ill (1964) No. 1 p. 2; Vol. IV (1965) No. 3 Commission of the European Communities. what broad lines it should follow shows p. 91 ; Vol. VI (1967) No. 2 p. 40.

66 First, in the domestic sector, the major desire for a higher standard of living and comfort and for labour-saving devices leads to a constant, inevitable rise in individual consumption. In the industrial sector, the tendency towards an ever-increasing consumption of goods and services can only be recon• ciled with the call for shorter working hours and increased leisure by the grad• ual adoption of automation and of the machinery it entails. All this means greater consumption of energy. Nor do the foregoing remarks apply only to the goods and services known and used at the present time. The introduc• tion of new products, new activities and new services accelerates the trend, be• cause innovations generally consume more energy than traditional activities. This effect is only very partially offset by the reductions in consumption afforded by improved efficiency in the production processes already in operation. Another energy consumption factor ly mention here its importance in regard given energy source is essentially to be which by its very nature will persist into to cheap fuel supplies and therefore to measured by the quantities used, even if the very long term is the fact that, as general economic expansion. they have been determined in part by the basic industrial or energy materials The second reason concerns quantity. production costs and the selling price. are used up, we shall have to resort to Energy estimates are prepared by cal• poorer ores, and to mine deposits lo• culating the likely demand over the The trend of demand cated at greater depths or in less hospit• period envisaged and setting against it able regions or below the seabeds, or the existing availabilities from different In the long-term prospect the impor• even, perhaps in a few decades from now, sources, so as to show what additional tance for the future of nuclear energy on other planets. production or import capacities will be development must be assessed first of all A fourth factor, partly linked to the called for. in the light of the evolving trend of previous ones, lies in the growth of It should be remarked, however, that requirements. I shall therefore try to transport as regards both the number of in practice the factors of price and quan• point out some of the more important people or the volume of goods carried tity are relatively inseparable in these factors that govern this trend, before and also the distances travelled and the forward estimates. illustrating it with some hypothetical speeds attained. Here again there ap• Apart from the fact that a shortage cases. pears to be no inevitable limit2; once normally tends to put prices up, it is To begin with it is essential to recog• confined, for most people and goods, to obvious that as the cheaper accessible nise one basic factor, which is that, the interior of a given region, transport energy sources, which are exploited first, however far forward we look, there is no only recently shifted to the interconti• begin to dry up it will be necessary to apparent reason why the overall demand nental scale and may well be already on resort to ever more costly ones. In the for energy should shrink or even remain the threshold of the interplanetary age. long run, disregarding temporary or ac• constant; on the contrary, there are a Alongside these very general factors cidental fluctuations, it is the quantity number of reasons why it should in crease. which tend towards increased energy con• curve that determines the course of costs A population increase can only be sumption, there are scarcely any working and prices. regarded as certain in the next fifty or a in the opposite direction. It is conceiv• This view is even more pronounced if hundred years. Unquestionably, however, able, of course, that spectacular dis• we move from the standpoint of estimates even if the world's population were to coveries will render certain operations or to that of prospects. level off during that time, it would then processes obsolete and bring about radi• Admittedly prices continue to play a be twice or three times the present figure cal energy savings far greater than the part insofar as, in times of plenty, they and, furthermore, the average require• influence the consumers' choice. But in ments per head would go on increasing 2. Apart, of course, from the theoretical physical limit which is the speed of light in the very long term the contribution of a thereafter, for various reasons. vacuo. But that is still a long way off!

67 economies normally achieved by im• of figures in prospective studies, it is proved efficiency to which I referred possible to propose a simplified outline earlier. of the growth of annual consumption and For instance, it is sometimes suggested of cumulative quantities that will be con• —outside the realm of science fiction— sumed in the world as a whole, starting that we might achieve control over the from the present and covering, say, the force of gravity. Even with partial con• next three centuries. trol, the energy needed for a multitude of On the strength of various estimates, operations would be substantially re• we can expect the following annual con• duced ... subject to one scarcely feasible sumption figures (in 109 tons hce) up to condition, namely, that to master the the end of the century3: gravitational forces it should not be 1965:5.5 1980:11 necessary to use practically as much 1970 : 7 2000 : 20 . . . what place will the historians allot to energy (if not more) as is needed to over• Thereafter, for the three following nuclear energy in the year 3000?. . . come them. centuries, we can sketch four hypothet-

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Whatever happens, we cannot count ical developments based respectively on on a reversal of the tendency towards growth rates of increased energy consumption during the A: 3% per annum next few centuries. Here we must take B: 2% per annum care: the foregoing statement does not C: 3 % per annum from 2000 to 2100 mean that such a reversal must be ruled 2% per annum from 2100 to 2200 out; it simply means that in organising 1 % per annum from 2200 to 2300 today with a view to tomorrow, we can• D: 2% per annum from 2000 to 2100 not rely on any such radical change. 1.5 % per annum from 2100 to 2200 1 % per annum from 2200 to 2300. On the basis of these assumptions we Examples of quantitative estimates can draw up Table I.

To illustrate the foregoing, and bearing 3. tons hce = metric tons in hard-coal equi• in mind what was said about the meaning valent at 7,000 kcal/kg.

68 Even if we reject hypothesis A, which Table I: Annual and cumulative energy consumption in the coming three centuries, according leads to truly astronomical figures, we to four different hypotheses concerning the rate of increase in requirements. arrive at annual consumption values which are, in order of magnitude, at least several hundred times as great as Hypothesis A Β C D the present values. And in three centuries (3%) (2%) (3-2-1 %) (2-1.5-1%) we should use up quantities of energy that at today's rate could have lasted 1) Annual consumption some tens of thousands of years. (10' hce) The question is, therefore, where are year 2000 20 20 20 20 such quantities to come from? 2100 385 145 385 145 2200 7,430 1,050 2,800 640 2300 143,000 7,600 7,600 1,700 The fossil fuel reserves 2) Cumulative consumption from 1965 Before trying to answer this I must (109 hce) make one comment concerning the con year 2000 430 430 430 430 cept of reserves, the complexity of which 2100 12,800 6,700 12,800 6,700 is bound up simultaneously with: 2200 252,000 52,000 134,000 40,000 —the very nature of our knowledge of 2300 4,800,000 380,000 610,000 150,000 deposits, which may be based on exact measurements, extrapolations, mere con jectures or general geological reasoning; —the technical and economic feasibility of recovery; tween the many different estimates ad Self-renewing energy sources —the economic conditions of exploita vanced. To give an idea of their variety, tion, by comparison with other com we shall here consider two which avoid The Hubbert survey also assessed the peting sources. the extremes of optimism and pessimism contribution available from the "renew This complexity gives rise to uncer and which cover all fossil fuels. able" energies, i.e. those drawn from tainty which is only partly removed by One is taken from a report prepared more or less regularly replenished sources the explanation that we are speaking of in 1962 by King Hubbert, entitled rather than from reserves built up over measured, proven or calculated reserves, "Energy Resources"4. The other was the geological ages. probable or estimated reserves, or poten prepared for the 1968 World Power Con These sources are mainly solar, wind, tial reserves, especially as these various ference on energy resources and con geothermal, hydraulic and tidal energies. concepts mean little unless accompanied cerns total reserves, i.e. the measured or Except for special, small-scale purposes, by prices or costs. proven reserves plus the presumed or wind power is little used and is likely to Clearly, then, there is a great difference estimated reserves (see Table II). remain so, because of its irregularity and between the total physical volume of One conclusion emerges: by compari the low unit capacities achievable. Solar reserves and the amount that will ulti son with the cumulative requirements power is in much the same position, in mately be utilised. mentioned above, the fossil fuel reserves spite of the enormous stream of energy as estimated at present would hardly Leaving this question aside for the 4. Energy Resources. A report to the Com moment, let us look at the size of the carry us to the end of the next century. mittee on National Resources of the National Academy of Sciences—National Research estimated reserves of fossil fuel. Unfortu To this initial conclusion we can apply Council — by King Hubbert, Chairman of the nately, it is very difficult to choose be- two contradictory correction factors. Energy Resources Study, Washington DC, 1962.

69 no way correspond to the present dis• According to the World Power Con• tribution of consumption. Coal, which ference, total uranium reserves may at the forms over 70 % of the reserves according present time be estimated at 3,300,000 to Hubbert and over 90% according to tons of oxide (U308), or 2,800,000 tons the World Power Conference, now re• of metal. presents less than half of world consump• If we take as our basis the efficiency tion, whilst oil, which makes up more factors now being achieved in industrially than 40% of world consumption, forms proven reactors (leaving aside the energy —even taking liquid fuels of every origin which can be produced from the pluto• into account—only something less than nium bred), namely 1 g U233 = 1 MW 20 % of the reserves according to Hubbert d(th) = app. 3 hce, we may estimate and less than 5% according to the World these reserves as being approximately delivered to the world in this form. The Power Conference. equivalent to 60,000 million hce, which attempts to convert solar heat into elec• This mismatching of resources and re• will not go very far towards covering tricity have proved very expensive and, quirements shows that there would be future needs. moreover, demand plant of very ex• difficulties long before the world re• If, on the other hand, we consider the tensive area if any considerable capacity sources are exhausted. efficiencies which would appear to be is desired. attainable in fast breeders, we arrive, on Geothermal and tidal power, like The potential nuclear contribution the basis of the same reserves, at a figure hydraulic power, depend on the in• of about 2,500,000 million hce, which is stalling of plant at specific sites. The This being so, we must now determine quite close to the total fossil fuel reserves latest list of potential sites for tide- what contribution nuclear energy can estimated by Mr. Hubbert. powered or geothermal power plants make. In order to assess it properly, one In actual fact, however, as we have indicated that capacities of several must bear in mind that the exploitation already pointed out, uranium exploration thousand MWe could be installed for of fission energy and the exploration of is only in its infancy. It has only recently each of these sources. Since then, how• uranium resources are both really only been resumed as a result of the increase ever, the French experiment with the just starting. in demand, after having been suspended Ranee plant does not seem to have It will therefore be necessary, as regards for many years—a factor which is bound justified the hopes that its sponsors both reserves and efficiency ratings, to to have had its effect on the World Power placed in tidal power. adopt both cautious hypotheses which Conference's estimate of the level of Hydraulic energy, on the other hand, have already been established and the reserves. The pressure of future require• could provide a world-wide electrical more optimistic hypotheses which may ments, coupled with the definite improve• capacity of about three million MWe, of reasonably be entertained given suitable ment in processes for locating and which only about 5 % is already installed. developments. working deposits, will undoubtedly neces- Such a capacity would supply not more than 10 million million kWh a year, which, at the conversion rate of 300 g hce per kWh soon to be achieved, gives 3,000 million tons hce a year. Thus it can be estimated that the renewable sources are altogether capable of providing, probably in a rather remote future, a maximum regular contribution of between 3,000 and 4,000 million tons hce as against the approximate 200 mil• lions of today. But even if the requirements of the dis• tant future were thus virtually cut by some 4,000 million tons hce a year, that would make very little difference to the magnitude of the problem.

The respective structures of reserves and requirements

The proportions of the different energy sources making up the overall reserves in

70 sitate a continuous adjustment of esti It is also a fact that the influence of the quantities of energy made available to mates of exploitable reserves. fuel cost on the price of the energy man by nuclear fission will in fact be A study by Mr. J. Brinck5 published produced is relatively small in the nuclear used? in this review assessed uranium resources field and in the case of fast reactors very Experience shows that the technical in the earth's crust to a depth of 2.5 km small indeed. availability of a source of energy is not at 30 million million tons. If we assume — No account has been taken of the in itself a guarantee that it will be utilised. that 1 % of this mass is exploitable, we uranium in the sea, which there are Today, it is virtually certain that a large arrive at about 300,000 million metric already prospects of recovering. proportion of the enormous coal reserves tons, which, with present efficiencies, — Nor has account been taken of the will never be worked. This is borne out, would give more than 6,000 million contribution — probably substantial — moreover, by the trend of estimates of million hce. Whatever the growth hypo which will be made by thorium. Although reserves, the highest of which are at the thesis adopted, requirements in the forth this metal occurs in larger quantities moment appreciably lower than the most coming centuries would be covered to a than uranium in the earth's crust, even optimistic assessments made in the past6. very large extent. less is known about the relevant reserves To judge from past experience, there is With the efficiency factors obtainable at the present time. an optimum period for the use of each with fast reactors, there would be over — Finally, nuclear energy will probably source of energy. This pattern would 250,000 million million hce, i.e. 50 times never oust all other sources, for users appear to be immutable and means that the cumulative needs for the next three will clearly not wait until some, or a the exploitation of a given source of centuries according to the highest hypo fortiori all, of the reserves of fossil fuels energy will probably never—in relation thesis entertained above (growth in have been exhausted before having to other sources, at all events—exceed the energy requirements a steady 3% per massive recourse to nuclear energy. On scale which it reached when economic year). the other hand, they will thus be able to conditions were most propitious. It will also be noted from these esti continue for a very long time ahead to This does not apply only in the case of mates that: employ fossil fuels for certain specific coal. It is highly probable that hydro — No account has been taken of the purposes. But in this connection it may electric power plant sites on the Congo costs which would be involved in the be that more attention will have to be or the Amazon, which appeared so working of the reserves under considera devoted to the chemical uses than to attractive no more than ten or fifteen tion. In the first place, it is a fact that their employment for the production of years ago, will not be fully exploited. improvements in ore working methods energy. A similar evolution will no doubt occur offset the decrease in ore content and the with regard to oil, even if the peak of need to tap deeper and deeper deposits. How much nuclear energy will be used? the curve of relative importance, already passed for coal, is not yet in sight as 5. Johan Brinck: Calculating the world's A final question arises. Can we be regards hydrocarbons in general. uranium resources, Euratom Bulletin, Vol. VI (1967) No. 4 D. 109. certain that the potentially tremendous In the case of nuclear energy, too, it is quite on the cards that, through the operation of market forces and competi tion from another source offering a greater economic attraction, energy de rived from nuclear fission will never reach the potential capacities outlined above. The situation differs somewhat, however, from that of traditional sources. While we are already well aware which energy is preparing to take over from fossil fuels, we cannot yet obtain a clear idea of the next stage. This may quite conceivably be energy from nuclear fusion, but at the present time it has not been sufficiently tamed to permit a

6. A striking example is provided by Canada, whose coal reserves were estimated at 1,216,770 χ 10' t in 1913 and 61,000 χ 10' t in 1966; the low level of the more recent estimate— which represents no more than 5 % of the first—is due to the better knowledge available concerning the deposits and to the fact that allowances were made for the new market conditions.

71 Table II: World fossil fuel reserves (total reserves in IO9 hce). form of energy, ever since it was first made available to users, has been steadily increasing its share in the enduses of Hubbert WPC energy. There is no need to enlarge on the reasons underlying this expansion, which a Coal 2,320 6,712 reflects the operation of a law which is Lignite 2,100 empirical but of fairly general application Peat 180 = in time and space and which states that electricity comsumption doubles every , _ ■ ten years. It will suffice to point out that electricity is a very versatile source of energy and lends itself not only to Oil 220 150 thermal but also to mechanical or Λ Natural gas condensate 40 chemical applications; that it can be Shale oil and bituminous sand 345 285 obtained on tap right where it is required by simply flicking over a switch; that it has an efficiency of near unity and Total liquid fuels ^^Ê produces no waste; and lastly, that it can be employed economically for mass Natural gas τ. production and for transport within a * radius of several hundred miles. If there is sometimes found to be a Grand total 9,611 saturation in certain uses, new ones invariably arise, and many of the leading a. Recoverable reserve, i.e. including coal still present in seams of 35 cm and over in 1961, down prospective growth sectors are electricity to a depth of 900 m and on the basis of a 50% recovery factor. consumers. Here, too, increasing importance is being attached in many countries to pollution of the atmosphere. In this connection, electricity production only offers the necessary assurances if it does not involve the discharge to the atmo sphere of the combustion residues of huge qualitative and quantitative assessment quantities of fossil fuel. Hydroelectric, of its future prospects. geothermal and nuclear power generation It would therefore appear that for alone satisfy the requirements in this fission energy a field of development is respect. opening up which is vast enough to enable it to fulfil many of the possibilities known to exist, provided, however, that Conclusions it is available in forms and in sectors characterised by substantial and growing It is therefore clear that, to the extent consumption. that it contributes, as a "preferential" source, to the production of a form of Uses of fission energy energy consumption which is increasing and will continue to do so for a long time Heat production for urban heating, to come at a faster rate than overall for industrial (possibly metallurgical) power consumption, nuclear energy will applications or for the desalting of sea meet the conditions outlined above for water, propulsion for ships, spacecraft the coverage of needs over the very long and perhaps, at some later date, aircraft term. or land vehicles—all these applications Barring, therefore, the aforementioned are possible but, however important they possibility of its being timely ousted by may ultimately become, it would appear another source during the next few that they must be secondary to electricity decades, it will not prove a mere flash output. It is a wellknown fact that this in the pan as regards the satisfaction of

72 man's energy requirements. Without A future application of nuclear energy? - Model of an in-pile thermionic reactor for use as claiming infallibility, we can say that a power source in spacecraft (Siemens - see also Euratom Bulletin, Vol. V (1966) No. 1 p. 24). nuclear energy's historical importance is likely to be at least as great as, and possibly even far greater than, thai of the hydrocarbons. Over and above this conclusion, we should like to emphasise that the fore• going does not entirely constitute a piece of mental exercise. If the present is a result of the past, the future, even the distant future, must inevitably help to determine our activities and behaviour today. In this connection, we should like to make one or two points which certainly have not the merit of originality but which are so important that they have to be brought up when the occasion arises to demonstrate their validity from a slightly different angle. Firstly, future requirements will be so vast that the various sources of energy will be complementary rather than competitive, and they will have to be allowed to find their relative positions in accordance with their specific charac• teristics. Secondly, in the development of nuclear energy the greatest possible attention must be paid to the fuel cycles, every effort being made to widen their range and improve their efficiency. The fast reactor development work, the use of thorium and studies on reprocessing techniques must be in the forefront of research. Thirdly and lastly, no effort must be spared in the exploration of nuclear fuels and the improvement of techniques for extracting them. When all is said and done, it is com• forting to note that use of the crystal ball—which we believe to be reasonable —serves not only to justify the extent of the research and development efforts which are being and are due to be made for the promotion of nuclear energy but also to bear out the major trends the importance of which is now generally recognised. It would appear that, like Molière's bourgeois gentilhomme with his prose, we are planning ahead without knowing it.

EUSPA 8-10

73 ECSC sponsorship of sult the Consultative Committee, on which are represented not only producers and workers in the coal and steel indus• coal research tries but also the major consumer groups; before appropriating funds derived from ECSC levies, it must in addition obtain the consent of the Council of Ministers. One of the responsibilities of the European Coal and Steel Community is the promotion It may be worth drawing attention, of research in the coal sector. This article gives a survey of the nature of this task and without going into details on the subject, of the methods used to fulfil it. to the extent to which the responsibility for research promotion laid down in Article 55 of the ECSC Treaty differs in respect of its aim, subject matter and GUSTAV WONNERTH scope from the central nature of the corresponding provisions of the Euratom Treaty. Consequently, research promo• THE AIM OF the Treaty establishing the nities in 1967) is required to foster tech• tion has a wider compass in the one Com• European Coal and Steel Community nical and economic research directed at munity than in the other, the lines along (ECSC), which came into force on improved production methods and the which it is run being totally different 25 July 1952, was the creation of a com• expansion of coal and steel consumption, also. mon market for the coal and steel indus• and also at greater safety in these indus• tries. tries. Promotion of research is not a focal For this purpose, the High Authority Organisation of technical research in aim of the ECSC Treaty; it is only one of has first of all ". . . to organise appro• the coal industry the means of exercising a long-term in• priate cooperation between the existing fluence on technical development and of research organisations". As a key industry in the economies of improving efficiency. The High Authority may itself initiate the various coal-producing countries in Under Article 55, the High Authority research projects or help them off the the Community (Germany, France, Bel• (whose duties were taken over by the ground by such means as getting the gium and the Netherlands), the coal sec• Commission of the European Commu- enterprises concerned to adopt joint fi• tor, whose business it is to exploit one of nancing or appropriating for research the most, important minerals, formerly Dr. GUSTAV WONNERTH is Adviser to the purposes funds derived from the ECSC occupied what in many respects was a Directorate for Coal at the Directorate-Gener• levies. privileged position. al for Energy of the Commission of the Euro• Its leaders were quick to recognise pean Communities and specialises in coal re• Before releasing funds for research of search problems. any kind, the High Authority must con• that technical progress in their branch

Stone-drift in a mine of the Campine area, Belgium, with circular Coalface with a mechanised advancing support. This technique was lining of reinforced concrete. The development of this new technique developed in Belgium with financial backing from the European was financed by the European Community. Community.

74 could be given an appreciable fillip if the different firms would cooperate and pool • · · · their efforts in the field of research and 1 development. Thus in the course of time special mining research organisations producers were set up by the national industrial as sociations in all the Community coal producing countries. 3-g. These central research bodies—in 3 Germany the Steinkohlenbergbauverein, Coal producers' association fa Essen (STB V) ; in France the Centre d'études et de recherches des Charbon nages de France, Paris (CERCHAR) ; in Belgium the Institut national de l'indus trie charbonnière, Liège (INICHAR); and in the Netherlands the Proefstation Research organisation and the Centraal Laboratorium voor de Nederlandse Staatsmijnen, Heerlen—had as one of their main tasks the solution of Mining Committees the member firms' technical, economic research • · · · and scientific problems where this could centre not be done by the firms themselves. Their second main task was to secure a largescale exchange of experience Specialised among the member firms and to dis subcommittees seminate information on general tech nical progress. Furthermore they notify the research laboratories of the pre Specialised institutes occupations, wishes and needs of pro Working groups ducers, thus ensuring the permanent con tact and crossfertilisation which are so vital between research and industry. For various problems and tasks pecu liar to the mining industry, such as those ■+ relating to mine safety or mine hygiene, Figure 1: Typical organisation of coal research at the national level (the coloured arrows carbon chemistry, geology or coal utilisa represent flow of information). tion technology, the joint research organi sations set up specialised research cen tres, both with and without government backing. A notable contribution to particularly with relation to the ECSC the mining research organisations was to mining research and development—partic Executive; the technical interests are acquaint those responsible for research ularly in the early days of scientific and dealt with by its Technical Research and development in the coal industry technical development—was made by the Committee. with the state of technology and research mining school institutes and also by the The structure of technical research and in the various coalproducing countries colleges of advanced technology. Work development in the Community coal in the Community, the problems on hand, in the fields of machinery and process industry as outlined above, together the available resources in equipment and technology has however for the most part with inherited traditions and attitudes, manpower and the research activities in remained the province of the suppliers formed the backdrop against which the progress. concerned. High Authority had to set about its mis To this end, the High Authority set up Shortly after the establishment of the sion of promoting research. two international technical committees, European Coal and Steel Community, one for mining technology and the other the national mining associations formed for coal valorisation. These committees an "umbrella" association for Europe, Promotion of cooperation among the consist of leading experts from the mining the Western European Coal Producers' various research organisations companies and of the responsible heads Association (CEPCEO), to safeguard of the central research organisations. the common interests of the various The first step to be taken towards the They meet once a year to study particular mining industries at supranational level, improvement of cooperation between sets of problems, each time in a different

75 presented the experts in the sector con• Commission of the European Communities cerned from the various Community coalfields and research centres. These committees are responsible for super• vising the execution of Community spon• Consultative Committee sored research in their special field. Contact Group Coal Research (employers, workers, Over the years the projects undertaken on Coal Committee consumers) have tended more and more to involve the participation of research institutes in two or more countries. Some program• mes developed into truly Community research projects, bringing together the 4 M 5 M 6 M 7 I I Β mining research centres of all the mem• 12 Expert committees on coal ber countries and also all leading sci• entists and researchers in the field con• cerned from various institutes in the ΊΠπππππππππηππ^ππηπππππΓΤπππΐιππΠπππτιπππη Community. Contractors (at the moment about 40 research projects) UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUuüUUU The apportionment of the work be• tween countries, coalfields and institutes is done in accordance with common ob• jective principles, the determining factors Figure: 2 Organisation of promotion of coalfield. The results of these meetings being the technical competence, speciali• research on coal by the European Community are conveyed to the national mining as• sation and research potential of the in• sociations and organisations in the form stitutes or researchers. Expert committees: of publications and abstracts for further 1. Heading techniques distribution to the mining companies and 2. Winning techniques collieries. In this way, the research Guidance and coordination of coal research 3. Remote control and automation results and development work achieved 4. Explosives and explosions at a given establishment are made avail• 5. Rock pressure and supports In its "General targets for coal", 6. Firedamp and ventilation able as promptly as possible to the published in 1955, the High Authority 7. Thermal treatment of coal entire Community mining industry, thus had already indicated its main guidelines 8. Coal preparation making a substantial contribution to and priorities for technical research. In 9. Clean air technological advancement on a broad a document brought out in 1963, "The 10. Fundamental research in chemistry front and to the avoidance of duplication High Authority's research policy in the 11. Technical documentation of effort. technical field", the most important 12. Coal utilisation. The second step towards the improve• research projects to be sponsored by the ment of cooperation between research Community in the coal sector are set out organisations and the coordination of in concrete terms. their activity was the creation of a cen• These were supplemented, at the sug• tral committee on coal research for the gestion of the High Authority, by a Community, on which the heads of the programme for research and develop• mining research institutes as well as ex• ment in the field of mining techniques, perts from the collieries in the three major drawn up in 1965 by the CEP CEO sectors of coal research (mining techni• Technical Research Committee, already ques, coal valorisation and coal utilisa• mentioned above, which at the end of tion) arerepresented. This committee is 1967 issued a new version covering in responsible for advising the Commission addition the fields of coal valorisation and on all important research matters, ap• utilisation. praising the merits of proposed research The malaise in the Community col• projects and lending the Commission lieries in the sixties, the need to improve technical assistance in the implementa• their technical efficiency and pressure to tion of programmes. make the most rational use of dwindling In order to improve cooperation and research funds pointed to the advis• the exchange of experience in some ability of concentrating research efforts. special sectors a fairly large number of With this aim in view, a medium-term technical committees were set up at Com• coal research programme was worked out munity level in each of which are re• for the Community and published in the

76 summer of 1968. It contains the research Up to the end of 1968, a total of about activities and projects to be undertaken 100.3 million u.a. had been made avail by the Community in the immediate able by the ECSC for the promotion of future. research, breaking down as follows: —coal: approx. 29.7 million u.a.; jj^^^B —iron ore and steel: approx. 39.0 mil ^Ë~-^^| Β ' · tf JÊÛmk Financial backing for research lion u.a. —workers' safety and industrial hygiene: WÊu£$fwÊ^L·

Milling head of Krupp drifting machine for 3.6 m dia roadway. View of the main courtyard of the Bergbauforschung GmbH at Essen-Kray, Germany.

77 equipment or materials developed or for the acquisition of licences), the ECSC also encourages publication of such results. This is done through the medium of the Annual General Report, the half- yearly reports of the various establish• ments performing the research, which are sent to the technical committees and experts, articles in the technical press, the final reports on major research pro• jects, which are circulated as "Coal research booklets", and also the holding Firedamp detection laboratory (Verneuil- or financing of technical symposia. en-Halatte, France). After this overall survey of coal

Dissemination of research results research promotion by the ECSC it may be said that the efforts of the High The Executive is expressly required by Authority and the European Commis• the ECSC Treaty to disseminate and sion have given technology a certain guarantee access to research results, impetus in this field. These endeav• when these have been achieved with ours have been backed by goodwill and Community resources. For this purpose understanding on the part of all con• the High Authority relies to a great ex• cerned—researchers, producers, workers tent on the assistance of the national and consumers. mining associations and research organi• A further article, to be published in sations. the near future, will present the main coal Apart from ensuring direct access to research projects sponsored by the Com• research results (through definition of munity and high-light their results. the conditions governing the purchase of EUSPA 8-11

78 Irradiation technology

and the Production of irradiation devices

In the irradiation industry three differ• European economy ent types of irradiation devices are used, (Table I) namely, radioactive sources, nuclear reactors and electrical irradiation devices. The industry of the European Community should not only make full use of this advanced In the first group, beta- and alpha- technology but take an active part in its development. sources have so far been employed only in the form of small irradiation devices for ionisation of the air. Large beta or alpha radiation sources are at present unknown. There is a possibility, however, that in the future large surface-type GEORG PROPSTL radiation sources will be used alongside the electrical electron-beam generators mentioned further on. The technological know-how necessary for building such radioactive sources is lacking today. Spent fuel-elements have hitherto found no industrial use as radiation THE ECONOMIC aspects of irradiation Community, although efforts are being sources, although the reactor industry technology in the European Community made to make up the leeway. It is there• would welcome such possibilities. The form a complex topic which can only be fore understandable that a quantity of varying spectrum, the need for cooling dealt with in part. It would therefore be data is in existence but cannot be included and the handling difficulties are all wrong to expect an economic analysis in a report presented to the public. obstacles to further utilisation. It is containing observations backed by sta• possible, however, that with the increas• tistics, as would be suitable for an Irradiation technology ing number of nuclear power plants established branch of industry. Any special uses for spent nuclear fuels will discussion of the economic aspects of It seems appropriate, before examining be found. It is not likely that they will be irradiation involves entering the front• economic aspects, to define what is meant used for irradiating foodstuffs, because line area of the technological battle, by irradiation technology here. Basically radiation from nuclear fuels is capable of where there are retreats as well as ad• it involves irradiation with high-energy inducing a slight amount of radioactivity vances. Ground is won when new proces• rays, thus causing specific chemical, in the irradiated substances. ses developed as a result of scientific biological or physical changes in the At present, therefore, only cobalt-60 research are recognised as economically material through collision or ionisation. and caesium-137 are available for large attractive, but a step back has to be Changes in the atomic nucleus are not irradiation devices. As regards cobalt-60, taken when a supposedly viable new within its scope, these coming under the the European Community has an ade• method cannot stand up to the harsh heading of nuclear reactions or nuclear quate production capacity in its experi• realities of industrial practice. chemistry. mental, power and materials-testing Since the use of irradiation is still at Radiation therapy, radiation-induced the frontier between research and devel• mutations and the stimulation of bio• Table I: Irradiation devices. opment and industrial production, the logical processes by radiation are not (Industrial application: X = desired, statistical and other data which are discussed. The topics dealt with are, XX = anticipated, XXX = existing.) usually characteristic of a branch of rather, radiation chemistry in the nar• industry are still scarce. Consideration rower sense, i.e. the induction of chemical Radioactive sources should also be given to the fact that there reactions, such as the use of radiation for Beta and alpha sources XXX is a considerable gap between the technol• polymerisation, cross-linking and graft• Spent fuel elements X ogy and use of irradiation in the highly ing, radiolysis and radiobiological effects 60 137 Co , Cs XXX industrialised countries and the European such as the inhibition of fruit ripening, Nuclear reactors the preservation of foodstuffs, disin• In the reactor fection, sterilisation, etc. X Dr. GEORG PRÖPSTL is the Head of the Near the reactor XX Eurisotop ' Office which forms part of the Purely nuclear work such as testing the Directorate-General for Industry of the Com• Electrical irradiation devices mission of the European Communities. strength and behaviour of reactor ma• The article is an extract from a paper read at terials under radiation is not touched on Electrons XXX the Conference on the irradiation of foodstuffs, X-ray bremsstrahlung XX chemicals and plastics held in the "Haus der here either although such research can be Technik", Essen, on 11 June 1968. of considerable economic importance. Ions XXX

79 —»

reactors. The BR-2 reactor, operated templated as radiation sources, e.g. for jointly by Euratom and Belgium, is able radiation chemistry processes, but as yet by itself to cover the Community's there is no industrial project within reach. present-day demand, notwithstanding Further reactor development (honey• which, this isotope is imported on rela• comb and fibre fuels) and radiation Figure lb: Nickel plate perforated by tively favourable terms from Britain, the chemistry research are necessary before electron beam (plate thickness and hole United States and Canada. The supply such a project can see the light of day. diameter 0.1 mm). situation is considerably more difficult in Out-of-reactor irradiations, e.g. by using regard to caesium-137, which is obtained the radioactivity of the coolant, the from spent nuclear fuel by chemical moderator or the extracted fission gases, separation. The European Community is are performed in research centres but not dependent on deliveries from the Uni• in industry. Industrial utilisation is ted States until France brings its big conceivable provided uses are found that separation facility at La Hague into justify the reactor modifications thus operation. The heavy cost of this de• entailed. pendence is shown, for instance, by the Electrical irradiation plants are not fact that in mid-1968 the USAEC raised actually nuclear in character, but cannot the price for caesium-137 by a factor of be excluded from the discussion on that six. As a result of this major increase, account. Electrically generated low- 137 European firms' projects for Cs energy ion and electron beams of up to irradiation plants have had to be aban• 100,000 eV have long been used for the doned for some years. vapour-deposition of metals and for Nuclear reactors are still being con• several other industrial purposes. The

80 Figure la: Large electron beam welding machine.Supp!ier:SteigeTwaìd Strahltechnik. Length of chamber 6000 mm, diameter 2700 mm; in front: support for working piece; at rear: electron ray gun and control platform.

Figure 2: Pilot device for saturating wood wiht monomers for the fabrication of poly• mer wood (property of Conservatome-In- dustrie Paris). only high-energy electrical devices used In Germany (under the impetus of Existing irradiation devices in industry as yet are the electron AEG) efforts are being made to let accelerators (e.g. linear accelerators, van industry adopt X-ray machines for A list published in 1967 of the particle de Graaff generators). These and the radiation chemistry. Conveyor-type and accelerators in existence in the European cobalt-60 and caesium-137 devices at batch-processing equipment has been Community mentions 337 such devices. present supply industry's irradiation designed and in some cases constructed Ten of them, i.e. 3 %, are employed for requirements as to high-energy and high- for testing purposes. industrial production. They include six intensity radiation. for radiography and one for activation analysis, the remaining three being used The Community's own production of To sum up, it must be admitted that for production purposes. The list is not high-energy irradiation equipment is very the European Community is at present exhaustive. It can be assumed that in the modest. Of the industrial radioactive still dependent on other countries for Community eight accelerators, with a devices installed in the Community, only irradiation equipment and that great total capacity of about 60 kW, are in use two are home-grown products, and only efforts will be needed for it to secure its for production and commercial services. one of the accelerators. No equipment is rightful place. If, up to now, almost all In contrast, an American survey dated exported. In contrast the United States the equipment necessary to this new 1967 shows that electrical devices of at have an industry eighteen firms strong for technology has been designed, tested and least 400 kW capacity are in use there for isotope irradiation devices and an eight- manufactured abroad, then this means industrial purposes. Of these, 30% are firm industry for electrical devices. that whatever new ideas as to the utilisa• used for applied research, 10% for British firms have eleven industrial instal• tion of that technology are developed in commercial services, 15% for pilot instal• lations with an irradiation capacity of the Community will principally benefit lations and 30% for pure production. 6.8 million curies, six of which have been the country that has supplied the pro• In the Community there are about nine exported. duction plant. industrial cobalt-60 devices with a total

!l installed activity of 500,000 curies. About new and rapidly advancing technology half this activity is accounted for by will hamper our own development while Germany, while France has a mobile helping that of the supplier countries. caesium-137 unit of 180,000 curies. The Owing to the lamentable situation of the activity used for industrial purposes in Community in this field no irradiation irradiation devices in the United States equipment has been exported to other is several times greater. countries. As an underdeveloped area in Figure 3: Cross-sectional view of the this respect, the Community is restricted Dynacote experimentai installation for to the role of buyer. varnish hardening through irradiation be• Balance sheet Reasons of self-preservation should longing to Dürr, Stuttgart. compel us to further the development of 1 Transport system (fully automatic) 2 Radiation funnel It is thus apparent that the European an industry for the manufacture of 3 Electron accelerator Community is lagging far behind other irradiation plant of independent and 4 Vacuum device industrial nations in the production and advanced design. The necessary basis has 5 Electrical monitoring, regulating and design of irradiation installations. Almost already been created, since highly ex• control system all the devices used in the Community for perienced technicians and firms have for 6 TV set production and research in the radiation years been trying to promote irradiation 7 Exhaust system chemistry field are of foreign origin. technology, albeit with only limited 8 Power supply (transformer and rectifier) There is an evident danger that the success as yet. It would require more 9 Varnish flow machine present dependence upon foreign sources intensive cooperation among the indus• 10 Shielding bunker as regards the key devices required for a tries of the European Community and the Not visible in diagram: photospectrometer for dosimetry and TV camera.

82 Figure 4: Co60 irradiation device for steril• isation of medical and surgical articles belonging to Ethicon, Hamburg (activity 60,000 Ci).

provision of financial means for sponsor• termination of the basic technical and setting up of joint installations should be ing of new and existing ideas. commercial production data required for promoted (e.g. in ports, cities, industrial The irradiation equipment should be the practical introduction of these centres, warehouses). The devices could designed with a view not to the present methods. be operated by municipal or port authori• technical level of the advanced countries, The equipment of industry with devices ties or on a cooperative basis. It would but to that which they will probably have would have to begin with research also be worthwhile to consider the use of attained in five years' time. institutes (textiles, civil engineering, chem• transportable devices, or devices mounted The number of installed irradiation ical engineering, wood finishing, elec• on vehicles, boats and ships. devices in the Community in use for trical engineering, foodstuffs, etc.) and The use of irradiation technology is industrial purposes is very small. More• gradually lead to the use of industrial much less widespread in the Community over, their field of application is narrow. pilot installations in factories. Bearing in than in the United States and the Soviet They are employed almost exclusively for mind the capital investments involved, Union. A total of 8 million dollars have radiosterilisation and contract irradia• coordination at Community level would been spent by the Atomic Energy Com• tion. be desirable. mission and 50-75 million dollars by Since irradiation devices are an im• It would be possible to improve the industry on research and development in portant element in the development and availability of irradiation devices for the United States during the last twenty application of this technology, and their industrial purposes during a transitional years in the following seven fields alone: advantages manifest themselves, only period if some devices at present used — hardening of varnish through irradia• when they are incorporated in the exclusively for pure research, but not tion (Ford Motor Co., Radiation Dyna• appropriate industrial and technical fully exploited, could also be employed mics Inc.) setting, it would be desirable for all for industrial or similar purposes. The — use of radiation in the production of branches of industry which offer potential extension of the scope of such research plastic wood (Lockheed-Georgia Co., fields of application to be equipped with equipment, however, is hindered by the American Novawood Corp., Nuclear Ma• radiation sources. existence of traditions and regulations terials and Equipment Corp. NU MEC) Operation of the devices at the present whose validity would have to be reviewed — radiation polymerisation of polyethy• stage of development should lead to the in this instance. lene (Raychem, Grace-Cryovac, Electro- elaboration of methods for applying Since industrial irradiation devices are nized Chemical) irradiation techniques and to the de• economic only above a certain size, the — radiation grafting on battery separa-

83 Table II: Radiât ionge neråt ion installations in the European Community. In this way American ideas have played an important part in the development of the European Community in this field. The stimulating influence of foreign firms Operator Installation Application is also to be noted in the advertising of Type kW/kCi keV Origin the manufacturers of irradiation devices. However agreeable and efficacious this stimulating influence from abroad may Grace, Hamburg ICT 10 kW 500 US Shrink films be, the situation is extremely dangerous. Leybolds Nachf., Admittedly a probable tenyear lag as Cologne vdG 3 kW 3,000 US Contract irradiation compared with the United States is not Dürr, Stuttgart Dyn 7.5 kW 300 US Varnish hardening . overwhelming in the infancy of a complex 6 Ethicon, Hamburg Co " 60 kCi 1,330 UK Sterilisation and highly scientific technology. The 60 Braun, Melsungen Co 90 kCi 1,330 Switzerland/ Sterilisation production deficit of about 250 million US dollars of radiationtreated material can Rüsch, Stuttgart Co60 90 kCi 1,330 Canada Sterilisation be made good commercially, either by Imhausen, Lahr Co60 12.5 kCi 1,330 US/ Plastic wood abandoning the materials or their im Switzerland provement, or by using other and possibly SRTI, CARIC, Lin 9.8 kW 7,000 France Contract irradiation more expensive methods. But precisely Paris because the technology in question is Grace, Epernon ICT 10 kW 500 US Shrink films scientifically orientated, a large amount CLAA, Lyons Co60 100 kCi 1,330 France Contract irradiation of experience is gained in this initial Cons. Ind., Paris Cs137 ISO kCi 660 France/ US Contract irradiation stage which becomes embodied in patents. There are at present 5,500 patents on High Volt. Europe, Amersfoort ICT 10 kW 500 US Service irradiation technology. This network of patent rights makes it more difficult Stichting Proef ι every year to enter the field of radiation bedrijf Voedselbe f Co6" 80 kCi 1,330 UK Contract irradiation technology on the basis of one's own straling, ( vdG 3 kW 3,000 US Contract irradiation Wageningen 1 achievements. Pirelli, Milan vdG 3 kW 3,000 US Cable insulation In order to improve this situation, it is ICO, Bologna Co60 22 kCi 1,330 UK Sterilisation not enough merely to undertake research Ethicon, Rome Co6" 60 kCi 1,330 Canada Sterilisation work; it is also essential to quicken the receptivity of the potential user of these techniques at the beginning of the techno ICT = Insulated Core Transformer, vdG = van de Graaff accelerator, Dyn = Dynacote logical chain by showing him how to Accelerator, Lin = Linear accelerator, Co60 and Cs137 (irradiation sources above 10,000 Ci apply them and bringing him into contact only taken into consideration), kW = radiation power in kilowatts, kCi = activity of the with experts in radiation technology. radiation source in kilocuries, keV = maximum energy of the radiation in kiloelectron These contacts are necessary for the volts. radiation expert, too, so that he may tors {Radiation Application Inc., High ment of radiation chemistry, a sum far direct his work into pragmatically sound Energy Processing Corp.) transcending European notions. The channels. It is to be hoped that through — radiation finishing of textile fibres result of this intensive promotion work is this basic work hitherto unstudied possi (DeeringMillikan Corp.) that the turnover of radiationtreated ble applications will be found, and in this way a technical lead will be won in — radiation synthesis of ethyl bromide industrial products (not including food previously neglected fields over other (Dow Chemical Corp.) stuffs) for the year 1967 is estimated at countries which are on the whole more — radiation degradation of polyox 250 million dollars. In the Community advanced. It is obvious that work of this (Union Carbide). output is probably not 10 % of this figure; kind on a wide front, particularly if If it is borne in mind that the above besides it is made up principally of carried on at Community level, can also is not the total expenditure on the seven radiosterilised medical articles (Ethicon have a politically formative effect. projects and that other projects, such as Hamburg, Braun Melsungen, Rüsch Stutt sterilisation and preservation of food gart, ICO Bologna) and shrink films stuffs, work on polymerisation of mono (Grace Hamburg, Grace Epernon). And For such reasons an"IRAD" action was mers, etc., are being intensively backed even this turnover would not have been carried out by the Eurisotop Office of by the nuclear authorities, the armed reached had not the European branches the European Community, its main forces, other public bodies and industry of American firms pioneered the use of purpose being not so much research and it can be assumed that at least 25 million irradiation techniques—partly in the face technical development as demonstration dollars are spent annually on the develop of resistance from European quarters. and publicity.

84 IRAD action of the Eurisotop Office Figure 5: Retardation of the opening of mushroom caps through irradiation (stored for 3 days at 20° C and 95% relative humidity; left non-irradiated, right radiation dose This IRAD action, which is a pro• 200 krad). motion campaign for irradiation technol• ogy, was begun in 1967. In the first place Figure 6: Experimental irradiation plant Stichting Proefbedrijf Voedselbestraling, working groups of experts in the field Wageningen, Holland (80,000 curies Co60, van de Graaff generator 3 Me V—1mA). were formed, e.g. for textile finishing, the preservation of foodstuffs, the disinfec• tion of animal fodder, or synthetic wood compounds. In these working groups the current problems were discussed at a high level and an exchange of experience was initiated; in some instances joint pro• grammes were laid down, which are now being carried out. After a certain basis for European cooperation had been agreed in this way with leading circles, we proceeded to try and interest the wide industrial and commercial public in irradiation technol• ogy, mainly by means of a travelling unit with a powerful transportable radiation source having an activity of 180,000 curies of caesium-137. This unit has hitherto operated in ten cities of the European Community (Wageningen, Bremerhaven, Kiel, Düsseldorf, Courtrai, Charleroi, Rome, Milan, Lyons, Munich) for periods of one or two months in each case. The programme consisted of the following points:

85 on irradiation technology (about 120 lectures and 100 filmshows before a total of 7,000 listeners). This action attracted widespread publi city in the press, radio and political circles. The growth of interest in irradia tion technology in various industrial sectors can be inferred from the wide range of products on which test irradia tions were carried out. It is still too early to give a final report on the results of the IRAD campaign. At all events it has contributed largely to making irradiation technology a public talking point. In various industrial sectors working groups on irradiation technol ogy have already been formed. More public and private money is being devoted to the development of irradiation technology. Working programmes have been prepared. Many laboratories are taking up irradiation technology as an additional subject of study. Various industrial firms have begun to include irradiation technology in their production chain or to make the necessary prepara tions for doing so. EUSPA 812

Literature: Situation in the US: (1) E. E. FOWLER: Radioisotopes and radiation devel opments in the US 1967. Eighth Japanese Conference on Radioisotopes, Tokyo 1316 November 1967. (2) J. E. MACHUREK, G. R. DIETS, H. STEIN: Current status and future prospects for commercial radiation processing. International Conference on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, Geneva 1964. (3) J. KIVEL, M. S. CHATTERTON, R. J. F. PALCHAK: Microbial inhibition systems employing radiation. NYO 3736 2. (4) C. N. KLAHR, M. S. COHEN: Fabrication of semiconductor devices by neutron transmuta tion doping. ΝΤΟ 3124 2. (5) H. LAFFERTY JR., J. E. CARDEN: Research and develop ment projects. TID 24349 (1967). Situation in Japan: Technical summary report. Eighth Japanese Conference on Radioisotopes, Tokyo 1316 November 1967. Situation in France: P. LEVEQUE: Applica tions des rayonnements en France. Gifsur Yvette, Vol. IIV (1966, 1967, 1968). Figure 7: Linear electron accelerator of the — costfree trial irradiations for industrial Institute for Radiation Technology of the firms willing to test the irradiated pro Situation in the European Community: Following Eurisotop Office brochures on the IRAD action: Bundesanstalt für Lebensmittelfrischhal ducts as to their applicability and to send tung, Karlsruhe. No. 26 in Bremerhaven; No. 27 in Kiel; No. 28 the Eurisotop Office a test report (about in Dusseldorf; No. 29 in Courtrai; No. 30 in Charleroi; No. 39 in Lyons; No. 40 in Munich; 400 irradiation contracts, irradiations of No. 41 in Rome (in preparation); No. 42 in 15,000 samples); Milan (in preparation). — an exhibition on irradiation technol Eurisotop Office working documents No. 53; ogy, which was visited by about 350,000 minutes, 2324 February 1967, irradiation of persons ; foodstuffs; No. 79:minutes, 19 October 1966, polymerised wood; No. 80: minutes, 10 May — information conferences and courses 1967, polymerised wood.

86 Autoradiography and the study of irradiated nuclear fuels

Original techniques for the radiographic study of irradiated fuels have been developed by the BR-2 (Mol) Reactor Operations Group (GEX).

Fig. 1: Schematic view of the exposure ROGER NAUCHE device for beta.gamma autoradiography developed by GEX, Mol.

AUTORADIOGRAPHY is not a new plest form, to demonstrate the distribu• time; at first, for instance, little attention process; it was towards the end of the tion of radioactivity in a sample. was paid to the problems of contamina• last century, in 1896, that Becquerel From then onwards this technique tion through the handling of radioactive noticed the effect of a uranyl salt on a took a permanent place in the research samples, which tended to distort the photographic plate and thereby dis• scientists' armoury; it played—and still results—not to mention the health side covered, without fully realising it, both plays—an important part in the dis• of the question. natural radioactivity and autoradio• covery and study of all sorts of pheno• Gradually the methods were improved, graphy. mena (see Euratom Bulletin Vol. II (1963) particular attention being paid to the A photosensitive emulsion enabled No. 3, pp. 21-25, for the use of this development of better emulsions. Villard, in 1900, to discover gamma rays. technique in plant physiology). It was not until 1932-33, however, Then four years later, Step and Becke Admittedly the methods of employing that the method was successfully used, made use of autoradiography, in its sim• it remained very rudimentary for a long by Tammann and co-workers, in solving

Fig. 2: The exposure device fixed inside the opaque shielding sleeve.

ROGER NAUCHE is employed by Euratom and belongs to the BR-2 (Mol) Reactor Opera• tions Group. The techniques he describes resulted from joint work with J. Planson of the Joint Research Centre's Ispra Establishment and C. Van Loon of the CEN, Mol. The fuel element examinations referred to in the article were done on behalf of BelgoNucléaire under the Euratom/US Agreement for Cooperation.

87 unthinkable today. The changes under• gone by the fuels during irradiation are mainly structural, some of them of primary importance from the technolog• ical standpoint. But when, in this con• nection, it is necessary to study the dis• tribution of plutonium, for instance, which is an alpha emitter, or of fission products, which are essentially beta and gamma emitters, then autoradiography provides a very useful examining method, alongside the usual metallographic tech• nique. Autoradiography owes this success largely to the improvements in sensitive emulsions, especially where high resolu• tion is required. But although the range of sensitive emulsions may fully meet the experimental requirements, the same can• not be said of the practical methods and apparatus used in each case. The GEX work at Mol was therefore aimed at over• coming this drawback, and efforts were made to improve the quality of the results obtained, to facilitate operations in shielded cells, to provide greater safety during the insertion and removal of the sensitive emulsion, to protect the emul• Fig. 3: Use of the exposure device in an alpha box. The first diagram shows the device in sion from stray radiation, and to eliminate working position. The device, which can be seen in the middle of the box, is fitted with two all risk of contamination of the films used. PVC sleeves; the first is opaque (see Fig. 2) and the second (which may be transparent) is designed to provide alpha shielding in case the leaktight foil (in colour in Fig. 1) on the device is punctured. For this reason the end of the opaque sleeve is welded (see second diagram); thus the device can be taken out in a virtual alpha shield (third diagram) and removed com• Beta ani gamma autoradiography pletely (fourth diagram). One of the fruits of this work was the invention of a device for the beta and gamma autoradiography, in a shielded enclosed space, of samples that have metallurgical problems, by means of the previously undergone metallographic pre• few natural radioisotopes available in paration. The device consists of a me• those days. chanical unit (see Fig. 1) and a light-ex• However, in the field of metallurgy, it cluding leaktight sleeve. The assembly is is perhaps the development of nuclear shown in Fig. 2. fuels that has brought autoradiography The mechanical part consists basically so much to the fore in the last twenty of a fixed support plate (in white in Fig. 1) years. The process of developing a with a series of guide holes bored in it; satisfactory fuel for a given type of the samples to be examined are placed in reactor, not to mention subsequent at• the holes. The plate is supported on two tempts to improve its performance, en• feet. Its underside is covered with a thin tails irradiating test elements and then foil of mylar aluminised on both sides examining them when they are taken out (in colour in Fig. 1) which keeps the light of the reactor. At an early stage it was from the film and acts as an alpha screen. recognised as important to back up the A moving tray on an axle (grey in Fig. 1) destructive examinations with a metallo- with a clamping device brings the film graphic inspection, so important, indeed, into position against the mylar foil. The that a post-irradiation examination with• apparatus is fitted with an opaque sleeve out a metallographic check would be with which a film can be inserted or Fig. 4: Part of a macrograph of an irradiated U02¡Pu02 fuel element (enlarged 25 x).

Fig. 5: Automated version of the exposure device. This version is more compact than the original one, since only one hole is needed to take the samples. The film is in roll form, so that several pictures of the sample, or even of a series of samples, can be obtained simply by rotating the spools.

removed without being exposed to the instead of sensitive emulsions, sheets of light. cellulose nitrate or similar substances are Experience showed that in certain used for the autoradiography. When a cases the mylar foil could be punctured charged particle passes through a sub• accidentally. To guard against this risk, stance of this type, it leaves behind a in addition to the opaque sleeve a second damaged area which can be shown up in sleeve was attached, which in case of relief on the plate by means of an ap• rupture can be easily welded so as to propriate chemical attack. maintain leaktightness. Fig. 3 shows how The method offers a certain number of to remove the instrument when the film advantages. No darkroom work is need• exposure is completed. ed; ordinary products are used for the The samples are placed in position by chemical attack; cellulose nitrate is in• means of ball-jointed tongs. In most sensitive to beta and gamma radiations; cases it is obviously impossible to esti• lastly, the cost of the material is very low, mate exactly the activity and energy of in the region of 3 u.a. per sheet of the radiations emitted by a sample. Hence 21 X 29 x 0.5 cm. the advantage of having six guide holes in Since cellulose nitrate is insensitive to the fixed plate, for they enable an empir• beta and gamma rays, the autoradio• ical method to be applied, which consists graphs obtained by this method only in making six consecutive tests on the show the regions where the alpha emit• same film with different exposure times. ters are concentrated. This means in The end result is autoradiographs of dif• practice that data are collected on the ferent densities from which the best one formation, migration and diffusion of can be selected. plutonium (the alpha emission from The apparatus described above can be uranium 235, for example, is negligible regarded as a prototype, for the ensuing compared with that from plutonium). work aimed at perfecting it has already As practised at GEX, the exposure and led to an automated version (Fig. 5). A development operations take place inside laboratory equipment maker has in fact a lead cell equipped with a stainless steel applied to the Commission of the Euro• alpha box. Certain special precautions pean Communities for a manufacturing are imperative. For instance, the posi• licence. tioning of the sample on the cellulose nitrate sheet must be done quickly and Alpha autoradiography precisely, to avoid a double image effect. This can occur if the sample is moved The GEX has also developed a method during exposure or if the time taken to for detecting alpha radiation. In this case, bring it into position and set it down is

89 too long in relation to the sample's activity. The sample must be cleaned meticulously in order to avoid excessive contamination of the plates and, more particularly, to eliminate the effect of "poisoning" of the picture which may Figs. 6 and 7: On the left, macrographs, in the centre, alpha lead to incorrect interpretation. autoradiographs, and on the right, betagamma autoradiographs of Figs. 6 and 7 give an idea of the results i that can be obtained by the techniques U02IPuOz rods irradiated in the BR2 highflux test reactor (en described above. EUSPA 813 larged 5 x). On the macro Bibliography: (1) C. SAYAG, R. NAUCHE: graphs can be seen the distribution Examens radiographiques sous eau d'éléments of various grain sizes and melting irradiés. Proceedings of the International at the heart of the rod. The alpha Symposium on Working Methods in High autoradiographs show the distribu Activity Hot Laboratories, Grenoble 1518.6. 1965, ENEA/OECD Vol. 1 p. 4155. (2) tion of the plutoniumcontaining R. NAUCHE: Autogammagraphie en cellules substances, whilst the betagamma blindées a, Ρ, y sur échantillons irradiés de autoradiographs reveal the fission faible encombrement. Paper presented at Tenth products mainly. Hot Laboratory Study Committee, Casaccia 2223.9.1966. (3) R. NAUCHE, C. VAN LOON, J. PLANSON: Développement d'un dispositif pour une ■ technique d'autoradio graphie sous protection ". Report EUR 3928f.

90 NEWS FROM THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Deliberations of the Council of Ministers on European technological and the legal and financing procedures cooperation for so-called "special" programmes, i.e. research carried out at the request and Meeting in Luxembourg on 30 June knowledged the usefulness of electricity the expense of interested firms or gov• 1969, the Council of Ministers of the producers coming together periodically to ernments. Meanwhile any decision re• European Communities held a wide- take note of each other's viewpoints, garding a possible cut in the Joint ranging discussion on European coop• intentions and technical experience. The Research Centre's staff has been deferred eration in technology, Euratom's future Commission was accordingly instructed to 1 November 1969. activities and the Community's policy to ease the way for such consultations, Installation of uranium enrichment for the nuclear industry. and more generally to submit to the capacities in Europe (see p. 93)—The Council every worth-while proposal for Council decided to proceed with its It was hardly expected that specific furthering the speedy growth of nuclear study of the problems involved, while decisions would be adopted, if only industries in the Community, as provided awaiting the opinion of the Euratom because the new French government has by the terms of the Treaty. Scientific and Technical Committee, not had time to study the latest docu• Multiannual nuclear research pro• which will be holding a meeting on this ments. However, at least the exchange gramme—The Council agreed to con• subject on 11 September 1969. of views was very frank and a timetable tinue studying the Commission's pro• Cooperation in non-nuclear technology was drawn up, which some will find posals with a view to arriving at a joint —The Council had a discussion on the very tight but which has to enable a programme "having as broad a basis as basis of the report submitted by the multiannual nuclear research programme possible". The concept of "complemen• Working Group on Scientific and Tech• to be adopted before 1 January 1970 and tary" programmes (financed only by nical Research Policy (Aigrain Group). the procedures laid down for non-nuclear those Member States interested), which It decided to act quickly, since before technological cooperation with non- was introduced in 1969, has been dis• 15 July 1969 a committee of senior member countries to be implemented carded, the President of the Commission officials from the Member States was to when the Council of Ministers holds its having given the governments a solemn start examining, in conjunction with next meeting, scheduled for October warning against the danger inherent in the Commission, the technical aspects next. this formula, nothing more nor less than of the cooperative projects adopted, while Framing of a nuclear industrial policy— a cancer which threatens to invade other the Permanent Representatives of the Discussions were based on the analysis of sectors and thus gradually destroy the six Ministers will continue studying the the situation as presented by the Com• entire Community. Aigrain Group's report so as to be able mission both in the "White Paper" to submit to the Council of Ministers (published towards the end of 1968) and In order, however, to ensure optimum before 1 October 1969 priorities for the in its proposalsrelating to Euratom's future use of the Joint Research Centre in any planned cooperative activities and a list activities (see euro-spectra, Vol. VIII circumstances, a study will be set on foot of the non-member countries who will be (1969) No. 2 p. 57). The Council ac• to determine the possible subject matter called upon to cooperate in them.

perimental fuel, and a research and Extension of Dragon Agreement development programme associated with this objective; —services to be rendered by the Dragon On a proposal by the Commission, The technical programme for these team to industry, more especially as the Council of Ministers decided on three years is to include the following adviser in the field of nuclear engineering 30 June 1969 to continue Euratom's items: and materials; participation in the Dragon high-temper• —operation of the reactor, if possible —evaluation studies, in close liaison ature gas reactor beyond 31 March 1970, at a power of 25 MWth from mid-1970 with industry, concerning the problems the date when the present Agreement was onwards ; inherent in the design and safety of due to expire. The extension is for three —fabrication of feederfuelfor thereactor's large direct-cycle power plants (using years, i.e. up to 31 March 1973. own requirements and fabrication of ex• gas turbines).

91 NEWS FROM THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

The Dragon project celebrated its to learn from the experience of Dragon sound then the project, properly or• tenth birthday on 1 April 1969. Speaking about the effectiveness and problems of ganised and managed, will succeed, on that occasion, Mr. Shepherd, the a joint enterprise rather than to base otherwise it must fail irrespective of the Project Chief Executive, said: judgement on ill-informed commentary. ability of the engineers and scientists Of course, the most important factor engaged and the skill of the management. ". . . At a time when there is a tendency contributing to the success of any project, The Dragon Project is succeeding in to decry the value of international tech• whether national or international, is its meeting its objectives because the con• nical projects it is particularly important technical and scientific basis. If this is cept of the helium cooled high tempera• ture reactor is fundamentally sound. Indeed, it may well be shown by sub• sequent developments, to be the most viable system to have emerged so far in the application of nuclear energy. . . . Final judgement on the success or otherwise of the project, of course, can only be made when there are power plants based upon the high temperature gas cooled reactor technology actually built and operating". Turning to questions concerning the project management, he said: ".. . the organisation was divorced from national politics and reference back to the political area only became necessary when extensions of the project were being considered. The Board of Management and General Purposes Committee have been composed of members who were well able to pass judgement on the technical performance of the project and its members have at all times been primarily concerned with the success of the project as a whole rather than in advantages to the partic• ular Signatory that they represented. It is doubtful if any previous nuclear project has been carried out by a more

630 MWe homogeneous high temperature reactor. 1 Concrete pressure vessel 2 Core/reflector structure 3 Boiler 4 Circulator 5 Refuelling machine 6 Coolant inlet plenum 7 Coolant outlet plenum S Thermal shield 9 Core support stand-off 10 Fuel storage/helium purification pod 11 Refuelling stand pipe 12 Control rod guide tube

92 close-knit organisation in which the of costs. Almost all areas of modern behind in any major area of technology project management was given so much technology are expensive in their devel• and it is essential, therefore, that they authority to carry out its task with such opment and the individual countries of should act jointly in maintaining a simple machinery for obtaining swift Western Europe are too small to match reasonable position compared to the authorisation for the planning and separately the advances that may be made larger powers. If the Dragon project has execution of its details. by neo-continental communities such as been successful in showing that this can ... Perhaps the most important the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. But, these be done then it has more than justified justification for the collaboration, how• countries, depending on industry for the money that the Signatories have ever, has been the international sharing their well-being, cannot afford to fall invested in it".

Why a uranium enrichment plant is needed in the Community en and capable of major development, being particularly suitable for large In the proposals it submitted to the Commission pursuant to the procedure enrichment plants operating at an Council of Ministers in May 1969, the laid down in Article 103 of the Euratom attractive cost. Commission pointed out that the exis• Treaty. Within the Community this process tence of Community uranium enrichment The present situation renders it ur• was adopted for the Pierrelatte plant, facilities would be a major factor in gently necessary that the Community built for military purposes. Planned to ensuring dependability of supplies for a set up the requisite framework to ascer• produce high enrichments, this unit is vital energy sector and would at the tain the various options, draw up a short capable of supplying only small quantities same time constitute a powerful means list and take a joint decision concerning at the low enrichment levels needed for by which the Community could directly the construction of an enrichment civil purposes. contribute to keeping prices at a reason• facility adequate to meet a substantial France, drawing on experience with able and stable level. proportion of the Community's require• Pierrelatte, is pursuing a substantial Joint design and construction of such ments. There will be heavy demand for R&D programme aimed towards the facilities would be in line with Com• enriched uranium in the Western world large-capacity stages needed for a plant munity thinking as regards industry, towards the end of the next decade. of several million kg separative work technology and research. It would avoid Furthermore, the Community is entirely units a year; a pilot plant is to be con• fragmentation of research and develop• dependent on outside sources and, in structed for the purpose of ascertaining ment efforts and would be the best way practice, on one single supplier for its its performances. to ensure wide-scale and well-balanced enriched uranium; this is a matter of The ultracentrifuge process is at a participation by the Community's in• serious and legitimate concern. less advanced stage of development, dustries as a whole. Such equilibrium is Another basic aspect is the need to particularly where industrial experience particularly desirable since the various provide the European nuclear reactor is concerned, but its development poten• separation processes involve highly so• industry with complete fuel cycle services. tial is considerable. From the point of phisticated techniques. It can expand fully only if the enriched view of exploitation, essential experi• Alongside the work of the Communi• uranium supply is not likely to be ments still have to be conducted to ty's institutions, two Member States threatened for economic, technical or ascertain the working of several thousand (the Netherlands and Germany) have political reasons. units in cascade, the adjustability and conducted negotiations with a non- Of the various processes which can flexibility characteristics, the lifetime of Member State (the United Kingdom) be employed as the basis for an enrich• the centrifuges or of certain of their with a view to constructing enrichment ment facility, two (gaseous diffusion and parts and, lastly, the economics of this plants for civilian purposes using the ultracentrifugation) have such technical process. ultracentrifuge technique. In the event and economic characteristics as make it Both technically and as regards ad• of an agreement being signed, the Ger• worthwhile to consider building large- justment to requirements, the two man and Dutch governments have capacity integrated plants or complexes. technologies of gaseous diffusion and stated their intention of notifying the Gaseous diffusion technology is prov• ultracentrifugation are in no way in-

93 NEWS FROM THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

compatible and in fact have comple• The Commission's proposals are taking decisions on the choice of site mentary features; it is perfectly reason• therefore cast in four stages : and inviting construction tenders; mean• able to contemplate the use of both —stage 1, which might run up to the while the possibilities of cooperation processes in order to give the Commu• end of 1971, would comprise preparatory between the Community and non- nity an integrated enrichment capacity, studies to compare the fundamental Member States will be explored; provided this is properly coordinated technical and economic characteristics of —stage 4, extending to the end of 1978, and planned. the different enrichment plants based on in which the construction of common As matters stand at present, it is im• the two processes, with possible Com• enrichment facilities should be com• possible to choose between the different munity participation in the construction pleted; the plant capacity should be technologies that seem likely to provide and operation of demonstration plants; capable of covering a significant per• the Community with good enrichment —stage 2, which might run up to 30 June centage of the Community's require• facilities. This being so, it is advisable 1973, would consist in study projects ments, which for 1980 are estimated at not to give preference to any one solu• leading to a firm decision to build; 5-8 million kg separative work units a tion as yet and to look for the best —stage 3, a short one, should open up year. designs and operating procedures. the way, before 31 August 1973, for

Consultative Committees on programme management tonic elements, condensed state physics. In addition, the liaison groups or At its meeting of 30 June 1969, the programmes at Community level and consultative committees already existing Council of Ministers decided that "con• the corresponding research and devel• in the fields of nuclear standards and sultative committees on matters of opment work done in the Member measurements, plasma physics and fu• programme management" should be States. sion, biology and health protection, and set up. The object of this decision is to At the time of writing, such committees information and documentation will be contribute to the efficient execution of are planned for the following pro• made subject to the provisions of the Euratom's research and training pro• grammes: fast reactors, heavy-water Council's Resolution, whilst continuing grammes and to provide better liaison reactors, high-temperature reactors, high- to carry out the duties already assigned between the implementation of the flux reactors, plutonium and transplu- to them.

Conclusion of six "fusion" contracts Kernforschungsanlage Jülich (Germany) and, for the first time, with the Belgian The Commission of the European The contracts are to be concluded Government acting on its own behalf Communities has decided to conclude with the Commission's previous partners, (Ecole Royale Militaire) and on that of six "contracts of association" in the namely, the Commissariat à l'énergie the Free University of Brussels. thermonuclear fusion field. It will be atomique (C.E.A., France), the Comitato These contracts will cover nearly all recalled that in its resolutions con• Nazionale per l'Energia Nucleare the work being carried out within the cerning the 1969 programme and budget (C.N.E.N., Italy), the Stichting voor Community in the field of fusion. the Council of Ministers included this Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie The long-term aim of this work is to sector of research in the joint programme (F.O.M., Netherlands), the Institut für bring controlled thermonuclear fusion to activities. Plasmaphysik (Garching, Germany), the industrial maturity. This calls for the

94 use of plasmas with temperatures in the in connection with confinement at the which is needed in order to understand order of 100 million degrees and fulfilling extremities, or an annular shape (closed the basic phenomena, must not be over• certain conditions as regards density and or toroidal configurations). The latter looked. confinement times. case is the more promising. Confinement The main problem here concerns con• and stability may be improved by electro• Lastly, in order to ensure the best finement using quasi-steady-state mag• magnetic fields of different frequencies. possible use of experimental devices and netic fields. It is also necessary to investigate the to permit optimum interpretation of The plasma may have either a roughly various methods available for generating experiments, efforts must constantly be cylindrical shape (open configurations), and heating the plasma. made to develop appropriate methods of in which case the major difficulty arises In addition, work on plasma physics, diagnosis.

Grants for coal and steel research Lastly, two projects are to be extended, one on the automation of reversible In pursuance of the ECSC Treaty, the submitted by Italsider to develop a rolling mills and the other on better Commission of the European Communi• special coke quenching dolly, and sec• utilisation of technical literature on ties has decided, after obtaining favour• ondly, a joint proposal by Kloeckner- steel. able opinions from the Consultative Werke AG and Hüttenwerke Salzgitter The coal technology projects concern Committee and the Council of Ministers, AG concerning a new process for dry research on soil mechanics, special to subsidise certain research projects removal of dust from residual gases cokes, mechanical tunnelling and the concerning the steel industry (nearly with high carbon monoxide content. cutting of thick seams. They also include 4.3 million u.a.) and coal technology The other projects in this sector com• research on remote inspection and (4.7 million u.a.). prise research on metal physics, methods control of an undercut face and on the Two of the steel projects come under of analysing gases in steels, the pouring propagation of radio waves in under• the five-year research programme on and solidifying of steel, automated ground media, the use of flame-resistant technical methods of preventing and pivoting of the bloom in heavy sheet fluids in underground installations, and combating atmospheric pollution caused mills, and a collective programme of deposits and release of firedamp in the by steelworks. These are, first, a project research on measurements in steelmaking. solid coal.

Proposals for directives on "engineers" skilled technicians. The third proposal requires that those The Commission has adopted three activities for which they are qualified. Member States which do not distinguish proposals for directives concerning the The second concerns the mutual rec• between the two types of engineer application of the right of establishment ognition of diplomas among Member training indicated in the texts shall make and freedom to supply services to various States and introduces transitional mea• the necessary arrangements to introduce occupations, but chiefly to engineers. sures until such time as a final solution this distinction into their legislation. is found for this very complex problem. The proposal further provides that the The first proposal abolishes any As an example, the text provides for two Member States shall ensure that their measures which are liable to hamper types of training for engineers and lays teaching systems offer engineers facilities engineers who are nationals of other down the relevant minimum criteria; it for passing from one type of training to Member States in obtaining access to also specifies the training criteria for the other.

95 NEWS FROM THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Can thorium compete with uranium? For the high temperature reactor, under present economic conditions, the In a recently published report (EUR thorium besides the Molten Salt Reac• best thorium cycle is about 0.2 milis/kWh 4264e) a group of scientists of the Joint tor. cheaper than the best uranium cycle Research Center's Ispra Establishment For the heavy water moderated reac• with a solid rod fuel. have reported the results of their in• tor the best thorium cycle is only about vestigations on the economic competi- 0.02 milis/kWh cheaper than the best The reason why thorium is more tivity of thorium against uranium. uranium cycle. A 25% reduction of the competitive than uranium in this latter The analysis was carried out for heavy cost of enrichment and a 50% increase of case is mainly due to the fact that, in water moderated reactors and for high the uranium ore cost would, however, high temperature reactors, thorium cycles temperature graphite moderated reactors, make the thorium cycle cheaper by require less enrichment than uranium which are the most promising users of about 0.15 milis/kWh. cycles.

Intergovernmental conference on patents sary to the organisation of the Con• ference. The resumed efforts to secure a Turkey, the United Kingdom and the "European patent" (reported in euro- Member States of the European Com• In view of the complexity of the spectra, Vol. VIII (1969) No. 2 p. 61) munity. problems to be solved, it was agreed to scored their first success on 21 May 1969, set up specialised working groups. The the opening date of the Government During the inaugural session, the first of these was formed immediately, Conference on the Introduction of a Conference elected as its Chairman its terms of reference being to study the European Patent System. Among the Mr. Kurt Haertel, Chairman of the rules of law concerning patentability. countries participating were Austria, Deutsches Patentamt and of the com• It is planned to hold the next meeting Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Norway, mittee set up by the Community countries of the Conference at Luxembourg in Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, which had done the groundwork neces• the first few days of next year.

Revision of Euratom basic standards

The Community basic safety stan• dards (created in accordance with Article that the practical organisation of medical dards for the protection of the health 31 of the Euratom Treaty) have agreed checks will be modified. of the general public and of workers on a new version of Title V of the basic It is also planned to insert a new title, against the dangers arising from ionising standards text, which concerns the covering all provisions relating to health radiations are now being revised. fundamental principles governing health surveillance of the general public. The group of experts on basic stan• surveillance of workers, with the result

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* Besides che English edition, euro-spectra is published in German, French, Italian and Dutch. Forthcoming conferences • Second conference on PRESTRESSED CONCRETE REACTOR VESSELS —The Commission of the European • Second symposium on M1CRODO- AND THEIR THERMAL INSULA• Communities is arranging the following SIMETRY, 20-24 October 1969, Ispra. TION, 18-20 November 1969, Brussels. conferences : This second symposium has been orga• • Symposium on IRRADIATION OF nised to meet the need, expressed by the The first conference, held on 7-8 Novem• POTATOES, 1st and 2nd October 1969, participants at the first meeting on ber 1967, was for the most part con• Brussels. As part of its campaign for dosimetry, which took place on 13-15 cerned with work financed by the Euro• promoting irradiation techniques in November 1967, to hold wide-ranging pean Community and dealt mainly industry, the Eurisotop Bureau is paying discussions at near intervals in this with problems of construction and particular attention to the conservation rapidly developing field. For further materials. This second conference is on of foodstuffs by irradiation. A number information write to Dr. H. G. Ebert, a broader scale; not only has it been of symposia have been planned, the 200, rue de la Loi, Brussels 4, Belgium. made open to specialists from non- first of which, devoted entirely to the Community countries, but the pro• potato, is aimed at determining the • Information days on GROUND PRES• gramme has been expanded to permit advantages and drawbacks of irradiation, SURES AND SUPPORT IN MINES, discussion of such matters as the methods from both the scientific and the economic 13-14 November 1969, Luxembourg. of calculation used in designing pressure point of view, compared with other This is one of the key subjects in which vessels and their insulation and the methods used for inhibiting potato the European Coal and Steel Com• lessons to be drawn from the construc• germination. For further information munity is encouraging research. For tion and operation of the most recent write to Eurisotop Bureau, Commission further information apply to Mr. L. plants. For further information write to of the European Communities, 200, Entringer, 29 rue Aldringer, Luxem• Mr. H. Benzler, 200,ruede la Loi,Brus• rue de la Loi, Brussels 4, Belaium. bourg. sels 4, Belgium.

Conference reports

The Commission has recently pub• 4-9 September 1967, EUR 4288e—Price: • 1968 Meeting of EUROPEAN LI• lished the proceedings of three con• BFr. 1,500, S 30. BRARIANS WORKING IN THE NU• ferences: • Ispra NUCLEAR ELECTRONICS CLEAR FIELD, Stresa (Italy), 24-25 • Symposium on TWO PHASE FLOW Symposium, Ispra (Italy), 6-9 May 1969, April 1968, EUR 4256c—Price: BFr. 165, DYNAMICS, Eindhoven (Netherlands), EUR 4289e—Price BFr. 600, S 12. S 3.30.

Eurisotop Bureau publications

• The Eurisotop Bureau of the Com• and control measures. to problems with the aid of this technol• mission of the European Communities At present the monograph is available ogy, and gives a detailed review of the has brought out Nos. 33 and 34 in its in French; German and Italian versions processes. series of information books. No. 33, are in preparation. The monograph is available in French; a monograph on Radiation protection • No. 34 is a monograph on Autoradio• the German version is in preparation. problems in the industrial use of radio• graphy, by A. Kohn, head of the working Both volumes can be obtained free of active substances, deals with the hazards group on the use of radioactive sub• charge from the Eurisotop Bureau, that may arise in the use of sealed and stances at the French institute of research Commission of the European Communi• unsealed radioactive sources and suggests on iron technology. The author has ties, Berlaymont, 200, rue de la Loi, methods for efficient radiation protection compiled a number of practical solutions Brussels 4, Belgium. topi radioisotopen s hip propulsion schlffs antrieb propulsion na vale propulsione nava le scheepsvoortstuwi ng biology biologie biologie biologia bio logie medicine medi zin médecine medicin a geneeskunde healt h protection gesundh α eitsschutz protection sanitaire protezione s anitaria bescherming van de gezondheid automatic data proces sing automatische inf ormatîon information automatique informa zione automatica auto matische verwerking van gegevens insura nce versicherungswes en assurances assicura zione verzekeringen economics Wirtschaft économie economia e conomie education and training ausbildu ng enseignement Inse .giramento onderwijs en omleiding power reactors leistungsreak toren réacteurs de pu issance reattori di po tenza energie reaetor en nuclear fusion ke rnverschmelzung fusi on nucléaire fusione nucleare kernversmei ting radioisotopes r adioisotope radioisot opes radioisotopi ra dioisotopen ship pr opulslon schiffsantrie b propulsion navale propulsione navale scheepsvoortstuwing biology biologie biolo gie biologia biologie medicine medizin me decine medicina gene eskunde health pro tection gesundheitssc hutz protection sanit aire protezione sanita ria bescherming van de gezondheid auto matic data processing automatische informa tion information auto matìque informazione automatica automatis che verwerking van g egevens insurance v ersicherungswesen as surances assicurazioni verzekeringen econ omics Wirtschaft èco nomie economia eco nomle education and training ausbildung enseignement insegn amento onderwijs en opleiding power reac tors leistungsreakto ren réacteurs de pu issance reattori di po tenza energie reactor en nuclear fusion ke rnverschmelzung fusi on nucléaire fusione nucleare kernversmei ting radioisotopes r adioisotope radioisot opes radioisotopi ra dioisotopen ship pr