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Home , Outline of architecture

For the professional, see . For other uses, see civilizations are often identified with their surviving ar- Architecture (disambiguation). chitectural achievements. Architecture (Latin architectura, after the Greek “Architecture” can mean:

• A general term to describe and other phys- ical structures.[3]

• The art and science of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures.[3]

• The style of design and method of of buildings and other physical structures.[3]

• The knowledge of art, science & technology and humanity.[3]

Brunelleschi, in the of the of Florence Cathedral • The practice of the architect, where architecture in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and means offering or rendering professional services [1][2] the city, but also the role and status of the architect. in connection with the design and construction of buildings, or built environments.[4]

• The design activity of the architect,[3] from the macro-level (, landscape architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furni- ture).

Architecture has to do with planning, designing and con- structing form, space and ambience to reflect functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considera- tions. It requires the creative manipulation and coordina- tion of materials and technology, and of light and shadow. Often, conflicting requirements must be resolved. The practise of Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimation and construction administra- tion. Documentation produced by , typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed. The word “architecture” has also been adopted to de- Section of Brunelleschi's dome drawn by the architect Cigoli (c. scribe other designed systems, especially in information 1600) technology.[3]

ἀρχιτέκτων – arkhitekton – from ἀρχι- “chief” and τέκτων “builder, carpenter, mason”) is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing 1 Theory of architecture buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often per- Main article: ceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical

1 2 1 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, “the supreme example among architectural sites.” (Fletcher).[5] The Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin 1.1 Historic treatises

The earliest surviving written work on the subject of ar- narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Ar- chitecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect chitecture was the “art which so disposes and adorns the in the early 1st century AD.[6] According to edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them” con- Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three princi- tributes “to his mental health, power, and pleasure”.[10] ples of firmitas, utilitas, venustas,[7][8] commonly known For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. by the original translation – firmness, commodity and de- His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work light. An equivalent in modern English would be: of architecture unless it is in some way “adorned”. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional • Durability – a building should stand up robustly and building needed string courses or rustication, at the very remain in good condition. least.[10] • Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for On the difference between the ideals of architecture which it is used. and mere construction, the renowned 20th-century ar- chitect wrote: “You employ stone, wood, • Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing. and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to ful- But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. fill each of these three attributes as well as possible. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Architecture”.[11] Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty Le Corbusier’s contemporary primarily as a matter of proportion, although said “Architecture starts when you carefully put two also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion bricks together. There it begins.”[12] were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than some- thing applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari:[9] by the 18th century, his Lives of the Most Ex- cellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects had been trans- lated into Italian, French, Spanish and English. In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he dis- paraged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. , Pugin believed, was the only “true Christian form of architecture.” The National Congress of Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849, was much 3

1.2 Modern concepts of architecture 2 History

Main article: The notable 19th-century architect of , Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "". While the notion that structural and aesthetic consid- 2.1 Origins and erations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the ef- Main article: Vernacular architecture fect of introducing the concept of “function” in place of Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs Vitruvius' “utility”. “Function” came to be seen as en- compassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoy- ment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.

Vernacular architecture in Norway

(shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cul- tures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a Sydney Opera House, Australia designed by Jørn Utzon craft, and “architecture” is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was the Nunzia Rondanini stated, “Through its aesthetic dimen- product of a process of trial and error, with progressively sion architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that less trial and more replication as the results of the pro- it has in common with other human sciences. Through cess proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed its own particular way of expressing values, architecture vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many can stimulate and influence social life without presuming parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.' most of the built world that people experience every day. To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a sur- art for art’s sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a plus in production the economy began to expand resulting purposeless quest for perfection or originality which de- in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and grades form into a mere instrumentality”.[13] evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Among the philosophies that have influenced modern Civilization in modern-day Pakistan. architects and their approach to are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology. 2.2 Ancient architecture In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable ar- and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected chitecture. To satisfy the contemporary ethos a build- the constant engagement with the divine and the ing should be constructed in a manner which is environ- supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to mon- mentally friendly in terms of the production of its materi- umentality in architecture to represent symbolically the als, its impact upon the natural and built environment of political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon itself. non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civiliza- and waste management and lighting. tions such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic 4 2 HISTORY

The Pyramids at Giza in Egypt ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural “style” developed The Taj Mahal (1632–1653), in India in the form of the Classical orders. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient 2.4 time. These texts provided both general advice and spe- cific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of Main article: Islamic architecture canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most important Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incor- early examples of canonic architecture are religious. porating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the re- ligious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread applica- tion of the pointed was to influence European archi- tecture of the Medieval period.

2.5 Middle ages

Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan

2.3 Asian architecture

Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka. The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different char- Notre Dame de Paris, France acteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. Hindu temple architecture, In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were which developed around the 3rd century BCE, is gov- formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and writ- erned by concepts laid down in the Shastras, and is con- ten contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ec- cerned with expressing the macrocosm and the micro- clesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually cosm. In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum to architectural forms that were designed specifically to as they are sometimes described in contemporary docu- enhance the natural landscape. ments. 2.8 Modernism and reaction 5

The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onwards, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

Paris Opera by Charles Garnier (1875), France

ful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughts- men or clerks. La Rotonda (1567), Italy by Palladio Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics be- 2.6 Renaissance and the architect came a criterion for the middle class as ornamented prod- ucts, once within the province of expensive craftsman- ship, became cheaper under machine production. In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. development of Renaissance Humanism which placed House builders could use current architectural design in greater emphasis on the role of the individual in so- their work by combining features found in pattern books ciety than had been the case during the Medieval pe- and architectural journals. riod. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no di- 2.8 Modernism and reaction viding line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one Main article: of regional preference. Around the beginning of the 20th century, a general A revival of the Classical style in architecture was ac- companied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.

2.7 Early modern and the industrial age

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, of- ten at the expense of technical aspects of building design. The Bauhaus Dessau architecture department from 1925 by There was also the rise of the “gentleman architect” who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated pre- dominantly on visual qualities derived usually from his- dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architec- torical prototypes, typified by the many country houses ture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or of thought that served as precursors to Modern Archi- Scottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in tecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werk- the 19th century, for example at Ecole des Beaux Arts in bund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine France, gave much emphasis to the production of beauti- made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial 6 2 HISTORY

design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology. When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a com- pletely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the ar- chitectural practice of the academic refinement of his- torical styles which served the rapidly declining aristo- The Crystal Cathedral, California, by Philip Johnson (1980) cratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing histori- cal references and ornament in favor of functionalist de- 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against its tails. Buildings displayed their functional and structural austerity. Postmodernism viewed Modernism as being elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces in- too extreme and even harsh in regards to design. Instead, stead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Postmodernists combined Modernism with older styles from before the 1900s to form a middle ground. 's contention that a “decorated shed” (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embel- lished on the outside) was better than a “duck” (an un- gainly building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of these approaches.

2.9 Architecture today

Fallingwater, Organic architecture by

Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture, in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to pro- mote harmony between human habitation and the natu- ral world with prime examples being Robie House and Fallingwater. Postmodern design at Gare do Oriente, Lisbon, Portugal, by Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Santiago Calatrava Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the in- herent qualities of building materials and modern con- Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began struction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, en- simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means ergy and technologies), the field of architecture became and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to type, technological expertise or project delivery meth- high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism ods. In addition, there has been an increased separa- had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic tion of the 'design' architect [Notes 1] from the 'project' ar- epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New chitect who ensures that the project meets the required York’s World Trade Center. standards and deals with matters of liability.[Notes 2] The Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid preparatory processes for the design of any large build- of the decorative richness of ornamented styles and as ing have become increasingly complicated, and require the founders of that movement lost influence in the late preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustain- 7

ability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. 3 See also A large structure can no longer be the design of one per- son but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism, have been criticised by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider every- day needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences. Angkor Wat, Cambodia, symmetry and elevation have often been utilised in the architectural expression of religious devotion or political power.

Machu Picchu, Peru, shows the adaptations of architec- ture and town planning to a rugged natural site Green roof planted with native species at L'Historial de la Vendée, a new museum in western France

Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with profound affect on the architectural profes- sion. Many developers, those who support the financ- ing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally , rather Lower Manhattan, March 2001. The 20th century saw than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major cities across the world transformed by highrise buildings examples of this can be found in Passive solar building de- in the International Style sign, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a structure’s energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools • Architectural design competition to focus more on the environment. Sustainability in ar- chitecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the • Architectural drawing 1960s by Buckminster Fuller and in the 1970s by archi- • tects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. • There has been an acceleration in the number of build- • Architectural theory ings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of • Architecture prizes vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration • Building materials for environmentally and socially sustainable contempo- rary techniques.[14] The U.S. Green Building Council’s • Contemporary architecture LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) • rating system has been instrumental in this.[15] Glossary of architecture Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism • List of human habitation forms and New promote a sustainable • Organic architecture approach towards construction, that appreciates and de- velops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical • Outline of architecture design.[16][17] This in contrast to modernist and globally • Sociology of architecture uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.[18] • 8 6 EXTERNAL LINKS

4 Notes 6 External links

[1] A design architect is one who is responsible for the design. • Global Architecture and Urbanity Community SSC

[2] A is one who is responsible for ensuring • World Architecture Community the design is built correctly and who administers build- ing contracts – in non-specialist architectural practices the • Architecture.com, published by Royal Institute of project architect is also the design architect and the term British Architects refers to the differing roles the architect plays at differing stages of the process. • Architectural centers and museums in the world, list of links from the UIA 5 References • Architecture Week • American Institute of Architects [1] Museo Galileo, Museum and Institute of History and Sci- ence, The Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, (accessed 30 • Glossary of Architecture Terms (with dictionary January 2013) definitions)

[2] Giovanni Fanelli, Brunelleschi, Becocci, Florence (1980), • Cities and Buildings Database - Collection of dig- Chapter: The Dome pp. 10-41. itized images of buildings and cities drawn from [3] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1993), Oxford, ISBN across time and throughout the world from the Uni- 0 19 860575 7 versity of Washington Library [4] “Gov.ns.ca”. Gov.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011. [5] Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Com- parative Method [6] D. Rowland – T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3 [7] Translated by Henry Wotton in 1624 [8] “Vitruvius”. Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2 July 2011. [9] Françoise Choay, Alberti and Vitruvius, editor, Joseph Rykwert, Profile 21, Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5-6 [10] John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, G. Allen (1880), reprinted Dover, (1989) ISBN 0-486-26145-X [11] Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, Dover Publi- cations(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7 [12] Mies van der Rohe quotation at Brainyquote [13] Rondanini, Nunzia Architecture and Social Change Here- sies II, Vol. 3, No. 3, New York, Neresies Collective Inc., 1981. [14] OneWorld.net (31 March 2004). “Vernacular Architec- ture in India”. El.doccentre.info. Retrieved 2 July 2011. [15] Other energy efficiency and green building rating sys- tems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS (Collaborative for High Performance Schools). [16] Charter of the New Urbanism [17] “Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Fu- ture”. Traditional Architecture Group. Retrieved 23 March 2014. [18] Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communi- ties. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 23 March 2014. 9

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1 Text

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