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The Role of Olfactory Cues and Their Effects on Food Choice and Acceptability

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The Role of Olfactory Cues and Their Effects on Food Choice and Acceptability The Role of Olfactory Cues and their Effects on Food Choice and Acceptability Louise Ruth Blackwell - A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bournemouth University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 1997 Bournemouth University Abstract Food intake in humans is guided by a variety of factors, which include physiological, cultural, economic and environmental influences. The sensory attributes of food itself play a prominent role in dietary behaviour, and the roles of visual, auditory, gustatory and tactile stimuli have been extensively researched. Other than in the context of flavour, however, olfaction has received comparatively little attention in the field of food acceptability. The investigation was designedto test the hypothesisthat olfactory cues, in isolation of other sensorycues, play a functional role in food choice and acceptability. Empirical studies were conducted to investigate: the effects of exposure to food odours on hunger perception; the effects of exposure to food odours with both high and low hedonic ratings on food choice, consumption and acceptability; and the application of odour exposure in a restaurant environment. Results from these studies indicated that exposure to the food odours led to a conscious perception of a shift in hunger, the direction and magnitude of which was dependent on the hedonic response to the odour. Exposure to a food odour with a high hedonic rating prior to a meal significantly increased consumption and acceptability (p<0.05), and exposure to a food odour with a low hedonic rating had no significant effect (p>0.05). When applied to a restaurant environment, exposure to a food odour with a high hedonic rating significantly influenced food choice and acceptability (p<0.05). Subject and stimulus variables, contributing to the role of olfactory cues, were identified from the results, facilitating the development of a conceptual olfactory cueing model. The model demonstrates how a series of independent variables, relating to odour exposure, may lead to either an enhancement of dietary patterns or suppression of food intake. The application and implications of the model are discussed. As such this research establishes direct links between stimulus and response in an ecologically valid environment. 2 List of contents Page NQ- Acknowledgements .......................................................................... 9 1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................... 10 1.1 The the 12 anatomy and physiology of olfactory system ....................... 1.11 The anatomy and structure of olfaction 12 1.12 The transduction ................................................information 14 and conduction process of olfactory .............. 1.13 The evolution the 16 of sense of smell .................................................... 1.14 The evolution the 17 of nose ................................................................. 1.15 The sense in 19 of smell modern man ..................................................... 1.16 The role of olfaction in flavour 21 .......................................................... 1.17 Olfactory 22 adaptation ......................................................................... 1.18 Sensory specific satiety 24 and alliesthesia ............................................... 1.2 Olfa 27 ctory coding ................................................................................... 1.21 Odour identification 27 and classification .................................................. 1.22 Odour preference 28 and rejection ............................................................ 1.23 The relationship between 31 odour and memory ......................................... 1.24 The relationship between 34 odour and emotion ......................................... 1.3 The mechanisms involved in hunger food intake 35 and ......................... 1.31 Physiological hunger 35 and psychological theories of ................................ 1.4 The concept 38 of cueing .......................................................................... 1.41 Sensory cueing 39 1.42 Visual .............................................................................. 39 cues .................................................................................... 1.43 Gustatory 41 cues ................................................................................ 1.44 Auditory cues 41 1.45 Tactile ................................................................................. 42 cues .................................................................................... 1.46 Olfactory cues 42 1.47 Non-sensory ................................................................................. 44 cues ............................................................................ 1.5 Summary of literature 44 reviewed ........................................................... 1.6 Aims and objectives 46 1.61 Aims .............................................................................. ............................................................................................ 46 1.62 Objectives ..................................................................................... 46 2.0 Empirical investigation .................................................................. 47 2.1 Experiments to select suitable food odours for further experimentation ........................................................................ 47 2.11 Experiment to test 48 chemical odours .................................................... 2.12 Experiment to test flavour 50 manufactured compounds .............................. 2.13 Experiment to test food 50 odours .......................................................... 2.14 Experiment to determinethe hedonic the food 52 attributesof selected odours .. 2.2 Experiments to measure the effects of exposure to food odours hunger on perception ........................................................................... 54 2.21 The hunger 54 rating scale ................................................................... 2.22 Pilot 56 study ................................................................................... 2.23 Experiments to investigate the effects of exposure to food odours on hunger perception 57 ............................................................ 2.24 A repeated experiment to investigate the effects of exposure to a single food odour with a high hedonic 70 rating ................................................ 2.25 A repeatedexperiment to investigatethe effects of exposureto a single food odour with a low hedonic 72 rating ................................................. 3 Page N2- 2.26 Analysis baseline hunger levels 73 of ................................................... 2.27 A repeated experiment to investigate the effects of exposure to an low hedonic food 74 alternative odour ................................................... 2.3 Experiments to measure the effects of exposure to food odours food choice, consumption and acceptability 81 2.31 Experiment to investigate the effects of exposureto a high hedonic food food odour on choice, consumption and acceptability .................... 81 2.32 Experiment to investigate the effects of exposure to a low hedonic food 89 odour on consumption and acceptability .................................... 2.4 Experiment to measure the effects of odour exposure in a 98 restaurant environment ...................................................................... The 109 3.0 proposed olfactory cueing model ..................................... 3.1 Stimuli 109 variables contributing to the model ...................................... 3.2 Subject variables contributing to the model 111 3.3 The importance ....................................... 113 relative and control of the model variables ................... 3.4 The proposedolfactory cueing model demonstratingthe effects of 115 exposureto a food odouron food choice,consumption and acceptability ... 4.0 Conclusions 116 ...................................................................................... 5.0 The application and implications of the investigation 117 5.1 The role in behaviour 117 of olfactory cues eating .................................... 5.2 The in behaviour 119 role of olfactory cues spending ................................ 5.3 The trademark 120 protection of odours .................................................. 5.4 The in industry 122 application of olfactory cues the retail ......................... 5.5 Recommendations for further 124 research .............................................. Appendices 125 ....................................................................................... Glossary 143 ............................................................................................ List 145 of references ............................................................................ 4 List of tables Page NQ. Table 1 Chemical tested for further 49 odours experiments ........................................ Table 2 Food odours tested for further 51 experiments .............................................. Table 3 Analysis foods 51 of used to produce odours ................................................ Table 4 Mean hedonic for foods 53 ratings given the and their respectiveodours ............. Table 5 Methods used to food 56 produce odours ..................................................... Table 6 Odour
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