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Southwest Hydrology A bimonthly trade magazine for hydrologists, water managers, and other professionals working with water issues. Publisher Betsy Woodhouse
Technical Editor Howard Grahn
Editors Mary Black Erika Noebel
Graphic Designers From the Publisher Cindy Grooms Shiloe Fontes Increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere are contributing Technical Writer to climate change, and most scientists agree that human activity, especially Alison Williams
the burning of fossil fuels, is responsible. Geologic sequestration of CO2 is SAHRA Knowledge Transfer being advocated as a way to stop this increase and slow the rate of climate Gary Woodard warming. This involves capturing CO2 released to the atmosphere from such Contributors Scott Anderson Stephen J. Cullen Patricia R. Pfeiffer point sources as power plants, compressing it into a dense liquid-like state, Janick F. Artiola Amy Hardberger Gregory Schnaar and releasing it deep underground into geologic formations where, ideally, Matthew Bailey Susan D. Hovorka Dennis H. Shirley John L. Boyer Joel E. Kimmelshue Jeffrey C. Silvertooth it remains forever and can no longer affect climate. A lot of research and Daniel J. Collins Bruce J. Kobelski Marian Stone testing is going into figuring out how well sequestration could work and Richard J. Myhre Advisory Board what the risks are. So far, the scale of the tests are extremely small compared to the amount of CO2 David Bolin, R.G. being generated, but advocates believe they are a significant first step to getting the large-scale buy-in Charles Graf, R.G. Jim Holway, Ph.D. by major power generators needed to make a difference in atmospheric conditions. Jeff Johnson David Jordan, P.E. Karl Kohlhoff, P.E., B.C.E.E. Don’t forget to make plans to attend Southwest Hydrology’s upcoming workshop, “Water and Land Stan Leake for Renewable Energy in the Southwest,” October 22-23 in Tucson. For information on the program, Ari Michelsen, Ph.D Mark Murphy, Ph.D. speakers, and registration, see page 15 or visit our website. Peggy Roefer Martin Steinpress, R.G., C.HG.
We thank all the contributors to this issue, and extend special recognition to Greg Schnaar of Printed in the USA by CityPress
Daniel B. Stephens and Associates, who provided numerous ideas, contacts, comments, and content Southwest Hydrology is published six times per year for the feature articles. We also thank our valued sponsors and advertisers, recognized on pages 9 and by the NSF Center for Sustainability of semi-Arid Hydrology and Riparian Areas (SAHRA), College of 43, who are integral to our ongoing publication. Engineering, The University of Arizona. Copyright 2009 by the Arizona Board of Regents. All rights reserved. Limited copies may be made for internal use only. Credit must be given to the publisher. Otherwise, no part of this publication may be reproduced without prior written permission of the publisher. ISSN 1552-8383
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The Midwest Correction Advertising Geological Advertising rates, sizes, and contracts are available at MW10a MW-5 MW-2 Mesquite MW www.swhydro.arizona.edu. Please direct ad inquiries to Sequestration MW-1 NP-2 MW-3 NP-3 us as shown below. Space must be reserved 50 days Consortium’s Illinois 30 prior to publication date. Basin-Decatur site 25 Free Job Announcements in Decatur, Illinois. 20 Southwest Hydrology will publish job announcements in the Employment Opportunities section. The first 70 Drilling of the 15 ~7,000-foot-deep words for each announcement is free; after that, the 10 charge is $70 per additional 70 words. To place an ad, CO2 injection well ADEQ MCL for Nitrates contact us as shown below. All announcements, of any 5 length, may be posted on our website for no charge
began Feb. 14, 2009 Nitrate-N Conc. (mg/l) 0 (www.swhydro.arizona.edu). and was completed Aug-04 Feb-05 Sept-05 Mar-06 Oct-06 Apr-07 Nov-07 Jun-08 Dec-08 May 4, 2009. Photo The chart of nitrate-N concentration versus time on page 24 Editorial Contribution by Daniel Byers for Southwest Hydrology welcomes letters and contributions of the July/August 2009 issue of Southwest Hydrology had the MGSC. of news, project summaries, product announcements, x-axis labeled incorrectly. The correct version is shown here. and items for The Calendar. Send submissions by mail or email as shown below. Visit www.swhydro.arizona.edu for additional guidelines for submissions.
Publishing Southwest Hydrology furthers Web Sites SAHRA’s mission of promoting sustainable Southwest Hydrology - www.swhydro.arizona.edu management of water resources in semi-arid SAHRA - www.sahra.arizona.edu CONTACT US This publication is supported by SAHRA (Sustainability of semi-Arid Hydrology and Riparian Areas) under the STC Program of the National Science Foundation, Agreement Southwest Hydrology No. EAR-9876800. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the The University of Arizona, SAHRA views of SAHRA or of the National Science Foundation. PO Box 210158-B, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158. Phone 520-626-1805. Email [email protected]. 4 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology [SOUND PRINCIPLE NO. 31] Even grown-ups play with cool new toys.
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Departments 8 On the Ground CO2 Sequestration ■ Mine water used for irrigation, by The supercritical state of CO in the subsurface has fluid-like behavior, thus Jeffrey C. Silvertooth, Janick F. Artiola, 2 and Joel E. Kimmelshue many aspects of hydrology apply to its sequestration. A good candidate storage site, often identified with the help of multi-phase flow modeling, ■ ADDing Water for Central Arizona, by Matthew Bailey has sufficient porosity to accommodate the volumes of CO2 being injected and low-permeability caprock to prevent its escape. Monitoring through 12 Government wells, geophysics, and surface measurements is used to determine if any ■ Revised review process for uranium ISR leakage is occurring. If CO2 does escape, it could reach drinking-water ■ NM limits H2O rights condemnation aquifers and impact water quality, or it could migrate to the surface, ■ ASARCO must clean El Paso GW thereby defeating the purpose of sequestration. Regulations to minimize ■ NV pipeline hearing postponed the risks of CO2 sequestration are in development, and pilot projects to test ■ CO requires water permits for the process are underway across the country, including in the Southwest. CBM drilling ■ Fish show pollution in CA lakes ■ SoCal rebate demand exceeds supply 18 Opportunities for Carbon 24 Regulating Geologic ■ Releases invigorate Black Canyon flows Capture and Geologic Storage Sequestration of CO2 ■ Pesticides to be tested for endocrine Richard J. Myhre and Marian Stone Patricia R. Pfeiffer and Bruce J. Kobelski disruption Carbon dioxide capture and geologic Th e U.S. EPA regulates all underground ■ Animas-La Plata is finally filling storage is being touted as a means of injections in order to protect drinking- ■ EPA reforms IRIS substantially reducing the amount of water aquifers, but the injection of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere by the CO2 calls for new guidelines. Proposed 12 HydroFacts industrial and energy-supply sectors. rules take into account the physical and New research is examining the feasibility chemical characteristics of CO2, such as 32 R&D of large-scale projects and the associated its buoyancy and potentially corrosive ■ Rock snot blown away by streambed energy and eff ort required to separate nature, as well as the likely magnitude of movement CO2 from fuel or exhaust gases, pipe it its pressure front underground. Other to a suitable geological formation, and issues under discussion include fi nancial ■ Lake Tahoe depths explored keep it immobilized and confi ned. responsibility, long-term liability, and ■ Personalized water budgets tested use and ownership of the reserves. in SoCal 20 The Hydrology of Geologic 26 Frio Brine Pilot: The First U.S. ■ Saltcedar beetles remotely sensed Sequestration Sequestration Test ■ Humpback chub numbers up Gregory Schnaar and Stephen J. Cullen ■ Bubble curtains help guide salmon What makes a good geologic sequestration Susan D. Hovorka site? Finding a subsurface “trap” is critical What was learned in the past about the ■ Nanomaterial water risks explored but not easy when looking thousands carbon capture and storage process was ■ Blocs block CO River adaptive of feet underground. Once a potential based on storage in reservoirs from which management location is found, modeling can help hydrocarbons had been extracted. But if predict what might happen to CO2 injected widespread sequestration is to occur, storage 37 The Water Page there. But ultimately, if the site is used, in previously unperturbed formations careful monitoring is the best tool for also will be needed. Th e Frio Brine Pilot 38 People & Companies measuring successful sequestration. Study near the Texas coast was the fi rst in ■ Golder acquires E&H the country to inject CO2 into such a site, ■ CH2M HILL lauded for Rio Salado 22 Managing the Risks of CO2 composed of brine-bearing sandstone. Sequestration ■ Breslin takes helm of Water for People 28 Exploring Geologic CO2 Amy Hardberger and Scott Anderson 39 In Print & Online Storage in Arizona Th e primary risks of carbon capture ■ Gleick joins the blogosphere and sequestration are leakage through Dennis H. Shirley, Daniel J. Collins, ■ Reference for new and pending unplugged wells, faults, fractures, or and John L. Boyer regulations caprock to the earth’s surface or to Demand for electricity in Arizona is ■ Water recycling not catching fire in CA drinking-water aquifers. Th ese risks can be predicted to double in the next 20 years. managed with solid assessments of possible In an area rich in both generating plants ■ CA’s coastal future migration patterns, identifi cation of sites and coal deposits on the Colorado Plateau, ■ Special issue addresses emerging with suitable geology for storage, and sound a well site has been chosen to evaluate the contaminants state and federal regulation and monitoring. potential for storing CO2 emitted in power generation. Th e demonstration project ■ A global view of water-quality trading will inject and monitor the CO2 plume, ■ Isotopes predict contaminant measure changes in water chemistry, degradation and estimate the amount of CO2 that ■ Tool calculates water footprint dissolves or becomes immobilized. 39 Business Directory 42 Calendar
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HAC-022201 KL.indd 1 12/5/07 8:06:54 PM On the Ground
Mine Water Used a consulting company, to ensure which could impact crop production if for Irrigation the safe utilization of the water. not properly managed. The total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of the water is Jeffrey C. Silvertooth and Janick F. Artiola – Water pumped from the mine is treated around 6,000 milligrams per liter (mg/l). University of Arizona and Joel E. Kimmelshue in a new 2,500 gallon-per-minute, high- All parties involved agreed that a 10:1 – NewFields Agricultural & Environmental density-sludge lime treatment facility to Resources LLC blending ratio of mine water to CAP water remove metal ions and adjust the pH. The Resolution Copper Mining LLC, based in would provide irrigation water with a TDS treatment uses lime and soda ash to raise concentration of around 1,200 mg/l, which Superior, Arizona, is investigating what the pH of the water from around 5.8 to would be safe for irrigating even alfalfa, may be the largest untapped copper ore 8.6, causing the metals (primarily iron) to the most sensitive crop grown in the area. body in North America. To safely carry precipitate. The treated water is piped to out the investigation, which includes NMIDD, blended with Central Arizona In all arid irrigation systems, additional construction of a 7,000-foot-deep Project (CAP) water, and introduced to water is applied to crops beyond what shaft, groundwater that has naturally the canal system for irrigation of cotton, they need in order to adequately leach accumulated in the closed Magma alfalfa, sorghum, turf grass, and pasture. soluble salts below the root zone. Based underground mine must be removed. on continuous measurement of flow, Thus, over the next two to three years, Resolution Copper obtained a dewatering knowledge of on-farm irrigation practices, Resolution Copper will recover 6,000 to permit from the Arizona Department and documentation of irrigated acres, 7,000 acre-feet of water from the closed of Water Resources for removal of researchers working with NMIDD mine. Rather than simply disposing of 5,000 acre-feet of water per year, an have determined that the continued it into the surrounding environment, aquifer protection permit from the application of about 40 percent more Resolution Copper constructed a treatment Arizona Department of Environmental water than the crops can consume plant and gravity pipeline to carry the Quality for containment of the sludge will prevent soil salinization. water 27 miles to the New Magma at the treatment plant, and a special-use Irrigation and Drainage District (NMIDD) permit from the U.S. Forest Service for Monitoring the System in central Arizona, where growers will portions of the pipeline crossing public To learn more about the effects of the use it for crop irrigation at no cost. land. The mine water is classified as process and to ensure its safety, all water naturally occurring groundwater rather NMIDD signed a memorandum of sources (CAP, mine, and blended) are than industrial wastewater, therefore analyzed daily with real-time telemetric understanding with Resolution Copper no additional permit was needed for monitoring systems. Samples of soil and for the water transfer project. Resolution discharge into the irrigation canals. Copper, NMIDD, and the growers plant tissue will be collected quarterly are working with the University of Managing Salinity to monitor for evidence of impact from Arizona and NewFields Agricultural Scientists’ greatest water-quality concern the mine water. Finally, researchers & Environmental Resources LLC, regarding the mine water is salinity, are tracking climatic conditions, irrigation practices, farm management practices, and crop-water demand. The rate of pumping from the mine varies according to irrigation demand, and is greatest in the summer. Based on expected demand, Resolution Copper It’sI a Southwest necessity. estimates the mine will be drained in two to three years. After that, pumping Together we can attain it. will continue at a much-reduced rate to keep the mine open; some of that water will be used for mine operations as development proceeds, and some may • Groundwater resource evaluation and basin inventory analysis continue to be available to NMIDD. • Modeling of groundwater and surface water flow systems • Wellhead and aquifer source protection The rate of pumping from the mine can • Assured water supply planning and development be modified daily to account for changes • Litigation support for water rights and resource damage in NMIDD demand. This flexibility • Water quality evaluation and treatment (including arsenic) allows careful and timely management of the overall salinity of the irrigation For more information, contact Brad Cross at 480.905.9311 water to within acceptable ranges, thereby or via e-mail at [email protected]. protecting the crops and soils as well as optimizing the dewatering of the mine. ■ LFR Inc. is an environmental management & consulting engineering firm with 29 offices nationwide. For more information, call 800.320.1028 or visit us at www.lfr.com. Contact Jeffrey Silvertooth at [email protected].
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ADD Water: Central county service area. Ultimately, CAP following question: Assuming CAP is Arizona’s Next Bucket likely will acquire new water supplies from to be the primary entity that acquires, of Water sources such as retired farm land along develops, and delivers new water supplies the Colorado River or treated brackish for its three-county service area, how Matthew Bailey – Snell & Wilmer LLP groundwater in the Phoenix area and should the water be shared and paid for? Preserving Arizona’s Oasis distribute it to ADD Water participants To address this question, ADD Water is Central Arizona’s image as an oasis in throughout CAP’s service area. taking a five-step approach: 1) understand the desert is the result of many historic stakeholder interests and information political, legal, and resource decisions. Project ADD Water needs; 2) determine, define, and prioritize Although the oasis is not under immediate The ADD Water concept originated when criteria; 3) generate alternatives; 4) threat, central Arizona’s continuous various municipal water providers and evaluate alternatives against criteria; growth is nonetheless absorbing its CAP began discussing a public process and 5) develop recommendations to currently available water supplies. At for developing a new wholesale water- present to the CAP Board. The first and some point in the future, demand will supply program. These discussions second steps were completed in 2008; exceed supply. Thus, the same visionary led, in part, to CAP’s adoption of its some representative criteria include water resources management that made Strategic Plan in 2006. In 2007, CAP meeting current and future water-user central Arizona flush to this point is now applied the Strategic Plan directive demands in CAP’s three-county service needed to cultivate its water future. to create Project ADD Water. area and ensuring ADD Water’s financial The “ADD Water” process seeks to achieve ADD Water is a CAP-led stakeholder sustainability. The third step is expected just that. Officially called “Acquisition, process. Stakeholders, who may join at to wrap up by late summer 2009. The Development, and Delivery of Water,” any time, can be any interested entities remaining steps will begin thereafter. ADD Water is increasingly referred to as willing to participate in the process, central Arizona’s next bucket of water. such as agricultural interests, industrial Collaboration and Consensus Once established, ADD Water will provide users, municipalities, and individuals. One of ADD Water’s greatest innovations a new water supply for water users within Stakeholders meet regularly to develop is that the stakeholders are working the Central Arizona Project’s (CAP) three- ADD Water’s framework around the collaboratively through a public process to determine how the program will function. Unlike when Arizona’s water supplies were allocated by courts or government agencies, stakeholders now are deciding ADD Water’s fate. Perhaps a minor point to some, this change in western water management philosophy cannot be overstated. ADD Water’s second great innovation is its goal of consensus. Achieving consensus among the views of the myriad stakeholders means decision-making is at times contentious, but this generates healthy debate rather than an adversarial environment. This innovative concept is not often embraced throughout the West. ADD Water represents a unique opportunity for stakeholders to achieve common goals of determining how to share and pay for central Arizona’s next bucket of water. The process is not easy and reflects as many perspectives as there are stakeholders. The inherent struggles and diversity of interests should make for better product, although many long hours of hard work remain. In the end, only stakeholder participation will ensure ADD Water’s success. ■
Contact Matthew Bailey at [email protected].
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NRC Changes Uranium The environmental reviews assess ASARCO Must Clean Review Process impacts of ISR operations on land use, El Paso Groundwater transportation, surface water, groundwater, In June the Nuclear Regulatory Much of the $52 million proposed for geology, soils, threatened and endangered Commission (NRC) published its final cleanup of an ASARCO smelter site in species, and waste management, among generic environmental impact statement El Paso will be dedicated to groundwater other things. (GEIS) for in-situ leach uranium recovery remediation, reported the El Paso (ISR) operations in the western United Visit www.nrc.gov. See the final “Generic Times after a public meeting in May. A States. In addition, NRC announced a Environmental Impact Statement on In Situ presentation there by an official of the Leach Uranium Milling Facilities”: www.nrc.gov/ change to how environmental reviews reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr1910/. Texas Commission on Environmental of new ISR facilities would take place. Quality (TCEQ) was the first time the NM Governor Signs government had acknowledged that NRC originally proposed preparing groundwater contamination is a serious environmental assessments (EAs) for Water Rights Bill issue at this site, noted the paper. new facilities, but instead the agency will In April, New Mexico Gov. Bill issue full supplemental environmental Richardson signed a bill limiting the According to the Times, groundwater impact statements (SEIS), a more thorough power of municipalities to condemn remediation will be accomplished using form of environmental review. SEISs also water rights. HB40 puts water used by $21 million to drill wells to keep the provide greater opportunities for public an acequia, community ditch, irrigation diesel-fuel- and metal-contaminated participation and comment. This change district, conservancy district, or political plume from spreading toward the Rio was made in response to public concern subdivision of the state beyond the Grande and to treat the pumped water. that the generic review approach would reach of condemnation. In other cases Members of the Texas legislature overlook unique site characteristics. where condemnation is still allowed, the commented that $52 million would not municipality must meet certain criteria, NRC will continue to prepare EAs for be enough for the cleanup and that the including showing that the water is needed applications to expand or renew licenses of true cost would be closer to $250 million, for public health and safety or that there is existing operations. These may be issued for leaving taxpayers to pick up the tab, no other way to obtain the needed water public comment if a particular application reported the Times. According to the at a reasonable price. Just compensation has high public interest, and will either paper, funds are also needed to clean is required and mediation is encouraged. result in a finding of no significant impact contaminated soil in neighboring Juarez, or lead to the preparation of an SEIS. Municipalities in New Mexico enjoy help former ASARCO workers who are preferential powers to hold water rights ill, and remediate contaminated dust NRC expects approximately 17 license unused for up to 40 years without threat in homes. Over 1,200 public comments applications for ISR milling facilities of forfeiture. The new bill may push were submitted prior to the meeting. through 2010, including new facilities, municipalities to be more proactive in expansions, and restarts. The GEIS will The site, which began as a lead smelter, securing capacity in the marketplace to serve as a starting point for site-specific operated from 1887 to 1992. In 1995 the meet their future water needs. The bill may environmental reviews of these applications. Texas government found that the facility also help preserve the agricultural industry NRC believes this will improve efficiency, had made unauthorized discharges of solid by protecting farmers’ water rights. and the agency expects to complete most waste, wastewater, and stormwater. In licensing reviews within two years. Visit www.governor.state.nm.us and www.nmlegis.gov. 1999 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the state of Texas filed a civil enforcement action against ASARCO, HydroFacts which resulted in a decree requiring ASARCO to complete corrective action Number of Wild and Scenic Rivers designations by the U.S. Congress: 203 at the site. In 2005 TCEQ issued a Total miles of river protected: 12,556 corrective action directive, but ASARCO Miles added in March 2009: 1,100 declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy that same year. That case is still pending Number of dams in U.S. National Inventory of Dams: 79,000 in federal court in Corpus Christi. Miles of river impacted by dams: about 600,000 In March 2009, TCEQ, EPA, and Gallons of water consumed per capita in the U.S., 1976: 1.6 ASARCO filed a settlement agreement Gallons of water consumed per capita in the U.S., 2007: 29 in the bankruptcy court, placing Terminal velocity of a small (1 mm) raindrop, in miles per hour: 9 the El Paso smelter property in an environmental custodial trust with Terminal velocity of a large (4 mm) raindrop, in miles per hour: 20 $52 million in funding from ASARCO. Sources: National Wild and Scenic Rivers, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, International Bottled Water Association, United Nations, and SAHRA. The bankruptcy court approved the continued on page 14
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settlement in June. TCEQ and EPA Ranchers who used water they felt was Program and was the largest study will carry out the remediation plan. threatened by coalbed methane production ever conducted on contaminants in filed the case to protect their water rights, sport fish from lakes and reservoirs in Visit www.elpasotimes.com. See settlement agreement and related documents: www.tceq. claiming that the withdrawals for coalbed California. The results are from the first state.tx.us/remediation/sites/asarco.html. methane were in fact a beneficial use. year of the two-year statewide survey. The district water court agreed with them in 2007. The Colorado Supreme Court In 2007 over 6,000 fish were analyzed Snake Valley Pipeline for PCBs, DDT, Dieldrin, chlordanes, Hearings Postponed affirmed the water court’s decision, stating the coalbed methane process uses water mercury, and selenium. The contaminant In April Nevada’s state engineer issued to accomplish a particular purpose, thus of greatest concern was mercury, a an interim order delaying administrative meeting the 1969 definition of beneficial legacy of mining that can turn up in hearings on the Southern Nevada Water use. In this case, the use is extraction and distant lakes as a result of atmospheric Authority’s (SNWA) controversial storage and the purpose is the release deposition. Twenty-six percent of lakes plan to extract groundwater from of methane gas. They found the use of surveyed had at least one fish species Snake Valley and pipe it to the Las water could not be considered merely a with an average mercury level exceeding Vegas area. The hearings, previously nuisance because it is an integral part of the consumption limit determined by scheduled for September, were delayed the process, adding that even if the water the Office of Environmental Health until fall 2011 upon SNWA’s request becomes a nuisance after it has been Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). for more time to create a complex extracted, that does not mean it has not groundwater-flow model, reported PCBs accounted for the second biggest already been put to a beneficial use. the Las Vegas Sun in April. concern: 36 percent of the lakes had at least According to the Denver Post, Colorado one fish species that exceeded OEHHA’s According to the Salt Lake Tribune, hosts 5,000 wells used for coalbed methane Fish Contaminant Goal (contaminant SNWA could not meet a June deadline to production, but only those wells that levels that pose no significant health risk provide documents to the state engineer affect surface water will need a permit at the standard consumption of one eight- because of delays in the Bureau of Land and further, only those that impact senior ounce fish serving per week). However, Management’s (BLM) review process. water rights will require an augmentation only one percent of the lakes sampled had SNWA said they needed to see BLM’s draft a species with an average concentration plan. The state engineer told the Post environmental impact statement before level that exceeds the point at which that energy companies have plenty of they could proceed, but BLM said they OEHHA may consider a recommendation resources to develop augmentation plans. could not finish the statement until SNWA of no consumption. Other pollutants were demonstrated the capability of its models. The Associated Press reported that also found, but at generally low levels. BLM is involved because the proposed related legislation, developed by parties Another 130 lakes were sampled in 2008, pipeline would cross land it manages. in the lawsuit, was in the Colorado and those results along with trend analyses Senate. The bill would allow energy Although SNWA asked for only a one-year will be available in 2010. Altogether the companies one year to apply for permits delay, the Tribune reported that the state 2007 and 2008 surveys included more than and submit plans. It would also give engineer wanted to allow even more time 200 popular fishing lakes and 50 other the state engineer a way to determine for interested parties in pending lawsuits lakes chosen out of California’s 9,000 which wells affect tributary water and to prepare their own scientific studies. by random sampling to provide a basis thus would fall under state water law. SNWA told the Sun that the hearing delay for statewide statistical assessment. would not affect construction plans. Visit www.cobar.org, www.denverpost.com, and www.ap.org. Visit www.waterboards.ca.gov. See Davis, Visit www.lasvegassun.com and www.sltrib.com. J.A., A.R. Melwani, S.N. Bezalel, and others, 2009. Contaminants in fish from California CA Lakes Polluted, lakes and reservoirs: Technical report on year CBM Drilling Requires one of a two-year screening survey, California Fish Show State Water Resources Control Board. Water Permits in CO In May the California State Water The Colorado Supreme Court ruled in Resources Control Board released SoCal Rebate Demand April that water diverted for coalbed findings of a 2007 study that looked Exceeds Supply methane production requires a water at contamination in fish samples from Within hours of releasing funding in permit and sometimes an augmentation 150 lakes and reservoirs. Only 15 percent May, the SoCal Water$mart rebate plan. The state engineer and BP America, of the lakes sampled were considered program ran out of money for the an intervenor in the case, argued that the clean—meaning all average pollutant remainder of its fiscal year ending withdrawal of groundwater for coalbed concentrations in all species in the June 30, reported the San Diego Union methane is a nuisance rather than a lake were below state thresholds. beneficial use, and therefore does not Tribune. The program’s funding allocation need to be regulated under the priority The survey was conducted as part of for April ran out in eight days. administration system of state water law. the Surface Water Ambient Monitoring continued on page 16
14 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology Renewable Water and Land for Renewable energy is coming Energy in the Southwest to the Southwest- Focus on Concentrating Solar Power How will it impact a workshop & symposium hosted by Southwest Hydrology our natural October 22-23, 2009 resources? Marriott University Park Hotel, Tucson, Arizona Topics: • Issues and opportunities for renewable energy in the Southwest • Incentives and barriers to Register NOW! renewable development • $220 early registration deadline is Sept. 18 • Federal, state, and utility roles Reserve your room: • The permitting process • $109 single/double rate • Land and water requirements and availability available until Sept. 21 • Costs and benefits of various technologies • CLE credit available Participating organizations include: Hosted by: Sponsored by:
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SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 15 Government
The Metropolitan Water District of of more than 6,000 cfs. In 2007 the peak EPA to Test Pesticides for Southern California administers the flow was only 1,700 cfs. The National Park Endocrine Disruption program for other water wholesalers Service (NPS) and environmental groups In April, the U.S. EPA issued the first and retailers. It makes available rebates had expressed concern about negative list of pesticides to be screened for their for clothes washers, toilets, synthetic effects on the ecosystem: vegetation and potential to disrupt endocrine systems grass, and irrigation equipment and debris were no longer washing away controls. According to the Union Tribune, and were impairing water quality and in humans and animals. The testing the rebate program started in July fish habitat, reported the Gazette. is part of the Endocrine Disruptor 2008 with $4 million from water sales Screening Program (EDSP) initiated by revenues, and funding was increased to Although NPS was granted a water right the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act. $6 million as a result of high demand. for protective flows in 1978, years of EPA also announced revised policies and wrangling with other interests prevented procedures that the agency will follow Rebates were originally guaranteed the amount of water in the right from to order initial screening tests, minimize to anyone with a receipt, but funding being established. In 2003, conservation duplicative testing, promote equitable shortages led the district to institute groups successfully challenged an cost-sharing, and protect manufacturers’ a reservation system, allocating a agreement between the state of Colorado confidential business information. certain amount of money each month, and federal agencies that would have reported the Union Tribune. With many prevented protective flows. In late EPA planned to issue test orders in summer southern California water agencies 2006, a federal court judge determined 2009 to the manufacturers of 67 pesticide resorting to voluntary or mandatory the 2003 agreement violated several chemicals to determine whether they are conservation measures as a result of provisions of federal law. That ruling endocrine disruptors. Manufacturers are drought, water users were trying to take established the federal government’s required to conduct testing as specified advantage of ways to help conserve. responsibility to maintain the park’s by the screening program and submit water right and natural resources. results to EPA in a reasonable time Visit www3.signonsandiego.com and www.sdcwa.org. period, or EPA can suspend the sale After months of negotiation, or distribution of the substance. The Black Canyon Surges with conservationists, water users, listed pesticide chemicals were selected Spring Flow hydroelectric-power producers, federal because they have high potential for agencies, the state of Colorado, and other In May, 7,000 cubic feet per second (cfs) human exposure through food and water, groups reached a settlement guaranteeing a of water was released down Black Canyon residential activity, or agricultural pesticide year-round minimum flow of 300 cfs along of the Gunnison in Colorado for the first application. Testing will eventually be with higher annual peak and shoulder time in decades, reported the Denver expanded to cover all pesticide chemicals. flows tied to natural water availability. The Post and the Colorado Springs Gazette. final settlement agreement was approved If a chemical is found to have the potential According to the papers, before three dams by the state water court in early 2009, to disrupt endocrine systems, it will were constructed upstream of the canyon allowing May’s high flow to take place. proceed to Tier 2 testing, designed to between 1937 and 1978, peak spring Visit www.westernresourceadvocates.org, identify adverse endocrine-related effects flows reached 13,000 cfs with an average www.gazette.com, and www.denverpost.com. and establish a quantitative relationship
Twenty-five25 years of excellence 2009 2004 1984 1999
1994 www.elmontgomery.com 1989 TUCSON PHOENIX SANTIAGO DE CHILE
16 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology between dose and effect. EPA is currently $338 million to $500 million, and found in the environment. Government developing and validating Tier 2 tests. reduction in the scale of the project agencies and private entities use IRIS to to address opponents’ concerns. help characterize public health risks of Visit www.epa.gov. chemical substances at specific sites. The project was originally developed to Animas-La Plata Project supply over 190,000 acre-feet of water per In the past, the IRIS program has been Begins Pumping year for irrigation and drinking, but the hampered by an assessment development final version is limited to 57,100 acre-feet process that took too long, was redundant, The Bureau of Reclamation’s 40-year- of depletion and contains no water for and was not transparent to the public (see old Animas-La Plata project in Colorado irrigation, reported the Herald. It does, Southwest Hydrology, Sept/Oct 2008). In began pumping water to fill its 120,000 however, provide water for the Southern January 2009 the General Accountability acre-foot-capacity reservoir, Lake Ute Indian Tribe and the Ute Mountain Office identified the IRIS process as one of Nighthorse, in early May, but an almost Ute Indian Tribe as part of the 1986 three program areas warranting attention immediate malfunction pushed back the settlement of their water right claims. by Congress and the executive branch. date the reservoir will be full by as much as six months, reported the Durango Herald. Other Colorado partners in the project The new process will be entirely managed are the state and the Animas-La Plata by EPA and contains a streamlined The reservoir is being filled from the Water Conservancy District. New review schedule. It will no longer provide Animas River by eight pumps with Mexico partners—the Navajo Nation, other federal agencies the opportunity capacities varying from 14 to 56 cubic the San Juan Water Commission, and to request suspension of an assessment feet per second, noted the paper. It was the La Plata Conservancy District— process in order to conduct research expected to fill over a span of 18 months also receive water from project on “mission-critical” chemicals. Other to three years, but the crest gates that drawn from the San Juan River. federal agencies and White House offices allow water to flow into a fish screen area will still have opportunities to submit before it is pumped uphill malfunctioned. Visit www.durangoherald.com. comments as long as they are from health According to the Herald, the problem scientists and focus on scientific and was expected to be solved in only a EPA Reforms IRIS Process technical aspects. After considering this few days but caused the project to miss In May, the U.S. EPA announced reforms input, EPA will have final authority over high flows from spring snowmelt. to its Integrated Risk Information the contents of all IRIS assessments. The project was authorized by Congress System (IRIS). This database includes Rigorous independent external peer review in 1968 but has been hampered by information on ways human health as well as public review and comment setbacks. According to the Herald, is impacted by exposure to chemical will remain key components of the new these included suspension of federal substances released to air, water, and land IRIS process. In addition, all written funding, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at contaminated sites, as well as exposure comments from other federal agencies, concerns about the endangered Colorado through the use and disposal of products. including White House offices, regarding pikeminnow, lawsuits by environmental It currently contains qualitative and IRIS assessments will be made public. ■ groups over loss of wetlands and quantitative health effects information wildlife habitat, cost increases from for more than 540 chemical substances Visit www.epa.gov/iris/process.
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 17 CO2 Sequestration
The magnitude of the combined electric- energy, and often represents the second- Opportunities power and industrial-sector CO2 emissions largest CCS energy use after separation. means that developing and applying CCS Thus RD&D also is underway on more for Carbon to even a portion of this sector could efficient CO2 compression techniques. impact overall efforts to stabilize and If an industrial facility with CO capture ultimately reduce CO2 concentrations in 2 Capture and the atmosphere. In fact, many analysts does not overlie a geologic formation believe such an achievement will not be suitable for long-term storage, the Geologic possible without widespread deployment compressed CO2 must be transported of CCS. The challenge lies in making to an injection wellhead via pipeline. Storage CCS available for broad commercial CO2 pipeline technology is mature; application by resolving current technical, several thousand miles of pipelines have economic, and legal/regulatory barriers. operated safely for decades to supply Richard J. Myhre and Marian Stone – CO2 for enhanced oil recovery. In Bevilacqua-Knight Inc. the Southwest, the industrial facilities CCS Consumes Energy generating the largest amounts of CO ndustrial carbon dioxide capture 2 CO2 is a nontoxic natural substance that tend to align well with geology suitable for and geologic storage (CO capture 2 is the primary product of combustion storage, so costs associated with pipeline and storage, or CCS) is the subject I and other industrial and agricultural runs are not likely to be prohibitive. of substantial research, development, processes. Most technologies for separating The energy use for transporting and demonstration (RD&D) activity it from other gases were developed supercritical CO2 is relatively small. around the world because of its potential for applications where separation was to significantly reduce the amount of required commercially, such as in CO2 injection technology is also mature, CO2 emitted to the atmosphere from natural gas processing and urea fertilizer given decades of commercial application industrial and energy-supply activities. manufacturing. Some of these processes for enhanced oil recovery. Injection wells These two economic sectors are the are now being modified for different are similar to oil and gas wells, and are largest emitters of greenhouse gases, operating pressures, gas-stream impurities, drilled and completed using the same together accounting for about 45 percent or gas-treatment volumes in order to types of rigs and construction methods. of global anthropogenic emissions, capture CO2 from fuel or exhaust gases Cements and other downhole materials according to the Intergovernmental at power plants, oil refineries, cement may be specially selected to withstand Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007). plants, and other large facilities. the mildly acidic conditions that can be produced by CO2 storage in aqueous Adding CCS to fossil-fuel power plants The separation processes currently environments. As with pipeline transport, and other large industrial facilities— use significant amounts of energy, the energy use associated with injecting which can reduce a plant’s CO2 emissions and many CO2 capture processes CO2 already compressed to dense- by 80 percent or more—would enable increase cooling-water requirements. phase conditions is relatively small. these sectors to significantly reduce their Accordingly, much current RD&D “carbon footprint.” However, not all is aimed at process improvements or The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE, of these large emitters will adopt CCS. alternatives that use less energy and 2009) estimates that the sum of all energy The feasibility of adding CCS to existing cooling water, take up less space, and uses for CCS application to existing plants depends on such considerations avoid the need for expensive construction coal-fired power plants could equal 20 to as adequate space for new equipment, materials or gas pretreatment systems. 30 percent of the plant’s energy output access to safe geologic storage, and cost- without CCS. Because this represents effectiveness. Newer plants generally offer Once the CO2 is separated, it must be both a significant portion of CCS costs the most cost-effective opportunities compressed to a dense phase—a liquid- and a large new energy demand, DOE for CCS conversion, and many coal- like state known as a supercritical fluid— has established RD&D programs aimed at based plants currently being built in to make underground storage and any reducing CCS energy requirements for coal the United States are designed to later intermediate pipeline transportation power applications to about 10 percent of incorporate CCS, should regulations make more efficient. Compressing CO2 to the plant’s output without CCS, halving it advantageous (or necessary) to do so. dense-phase conditions also consumes the energy use of today’s systems.
18 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology to confirm the stratigraphy and rock and fluid properties of promising sedimentary strata; and 3) validating CO2 storage capability, groundwater protection, and monitoring techniques through CO2 injection tests. The West Coast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership will soon drill a CO2 injection test well near Arizona Public Service Company’s Cholla power plant in northeastern Arizona near Holbrook (see page 28). The Southwest Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SWP) has ongoing CO2 injection and monitoring projects in New Mexico, Utah, and Texas. ■
Contact Richard Myhre at [email protected].
References IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge and NY. Deep saline formations (shown in dark blue) are prevalent throughout much of the Southwest and offer the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), largest potential CO storage capacity (from NETL, 2008). 2008. Carbon Sequestration Atlas of the United 2 States and Canada, 2nd ed., U.S. Dept. of Energy, www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_ Where Will It Go? the case of storage in coal seams, surface seq/refshelf/atlas/ATLAS.pdf DOE’s regional carbon sequestration adsorption. Standard practices in oil and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), 2009. Retrofitting the research teams have estimated a potential gas production often can be adapted to existing coal fleet with carbon capture technology, www.fossil.energy.gov (accessed June 25, 2009). geologic CO2 storage “resource” of roughly CO2 monitoring. To protect freshwater 3,500 billion metric tons in the United resources, shallower monitoring wells are States and portions of Canada (NETL, typically used to warn of encroachment by 2008). This figure is derived from estimates saline waters from the CO2 injection zone. of available pore space ranging from 1 to Integration and overall scale-up of CCS 4 percent in deep (>3,000 feet) sedimentary processes is another critical step to basins believed to contain high-salinity commercialization. Together, three of the water (>10,000 parts per million total world’s largest long-term CO storage dissolved solids) in closed reservoirs or 2 projects—the Weyburn-Midale CO Expertise and with regional confining layers of shale or 2 Monitoring Project in Saskatchewan, other low-permeability rock (see map, Technology Canada, the Sleipner Saline Aquifer CO above). The estimate also includes storage 2 for Storage project in the North Sea, and the In opportunities in depleted hydrocarbon Salah Project in Algeria—currently inject Managing Water reservoirs and deep, unmineable coal an amount equal to about one-fourth of the seams. This storage resource corresponds to Resources annual CO emissions of the single largest over 1,100 years of the current rate of CO 2 2 coal-fired power plant in the Southwest. emissions from the area’s point sources (NETL, 2008). Although some fraction Experience from more large-scale projects will prove uneconomical for development, Decision-support system will be needed before undertaking development and application in general, storage space will not be the widespread commercial deployment, limiting factor to CCS deployment. Groundwater/surface water and small-scale injection tests will help modeling characterize commercially suitable CO RD&D efforts are concentrated on 2 GIS, data mining, and data storage sites in areas without a long developing and refining computer models management history of oil and gas production. to predict, and monitoring techniques Conjunctive use strategies to detect, the subsurface location and Litigation support Research in the Southwest behavior of CO2 over time. The physical Visit INTERA on the web at and chemical mechanisms by which The Southwest is home to two DOE www.intera.com, or call: CO2 is immobilized and stabilized in the Regional Carbon Sequestration Albuquerque, NM 505-246-1600 subsurface include structural trapping, Partnerships, each guided by three main Austin, TX 512-425-2000 residual or pore space trapping, dissolution/ goals: 1) characterizing the West’s CO2 Boulder, CO 303-652-8899 solubility trapping, mineralization, and in storage resource base; 2) drilling test wells Tampa, FL 813-600-5737
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 19 CO2 Sequestration The Hydrology of Geologic Sequestration
Gregory Schnaar and Stephen J. Cullen – Daniel B. Stephens & Associates Inc.
lthough somewhat controversial, for geologic sequestration will likely be is also expected in response to geologic sequestration of carbon more closely regulated than enhanced pressure differentials between the Adioxide (CO2) is poised to become oil and gas recovery projects, requiring injectate and native fluids. a key component of the global response substantial characterization and monitoring to climate change. In the United States, of the site. For example, proposed EPA Several subsurface processes, collectively geologic sequestration is now recognized regulations under the Underground referred to as trapping mechanisms, as the only feasible approach to continued Injection Control (UIC) program require may promote long-term sequestration of CO . These include physical containment dependence on coal while mitigating CO2 the demonstration of site injectivity and 2 emissions. Understandably, the popularity long-term storage effectiveness, as well as beneath low-permeability geologic strata of geologic sequestration has increased delineation of the three-dimensional area (caprock); trapping as a residual, non- among researchers, industry, and policy of impact, through an iterative approach mobile fluid phase in formation pore space advocates in the last several years, as a U.S. of site characterization, multiphase fluid (capillary trapping); dissolution of CO2 Department of Energy-directed research modeling, and monitoring (EPA, 2008). into native groundwater; precipitation of program has moved forward and the U.S. carbon-bearing minerals (mineralization), Environmental Protection Agency has Trapping Mechanisms and sorption of CO2 onto mineral surfaces begun to build a regulatory approach for (Metz and others, 2005). In the short CO2 will in most cases be injected term, physical containment beneath these projects. However, concerns remain underground as a supercritical fluid—a that geologic sequestration projects may caprock is essential for isolating CO2 from phase state exhibiting properties of both a overlying aquifers and the atmosphere. pose a threat to groundwater and in liquid and vapor. The injected CO remains 2 Over longer periods, a combination of the long-term may prove ineffective for a supercritical fluid at depths greater these trapping mechanisms is expected to isolating CO2 from the atmosphere. than around 2,600 feet due to elevated permanently sequester the injected CO . temperature and pressure. At lesser depths, 2 CO2 has been injected underground for over 30 years to enhance oil and CO2 exists in either liquid or gaseous form. There is some risk that injected CO2 gas recovery, so much of the necessary Maintaining CO2 as a supercritical fluid could escape the target storage formation infrastructure, technology, and expertise is ideal, as this results in the maximum and move upward toward drinking- already exist. However, the gargantuan storage of CO2 per volume of porous media. water aquifers and the atmosphere. CO2 injectate may contain impurities, Abandoned well bores that penetrate volumes of CO2 that will have to be injected in order to mitigate anthropogenic including mercury, hydrogen sulfide, and the storage formation are recognized atmospheric emissions (see sidebar) dwarf sulfur dioxide. At sufficient concentrations, as the most likely leakage pathway for the scale of existing projects and pose these impurities may significantly alter the CO2. However, CO2 may also migrate physico-chemical properties of the injectate. through faults or fractures in the caprock several unique challenges. CO2 injection system. Saripalli and McGrail (2002) Compared to demonstrated that an accumulated aqueous fluids, CO thickness of approximately 60 feet supercritical CO 2 2 beneath the caprock is sufficient to has low density cause leakage into caprock microcracks and viscosity. Pure- or crevices 2 microns in diameter. phase CO2 plumes in the subsurface
~2,400 feet will thus be highly Project Siting ≥ mobile and tend Geologic sequestration is envisioned to take to move upward. place primarily in deep saline formations Lateral and and oil reservoirs. More than 90 percent of even downward storage capacity is projected to be in saline CO2 movement formations (Dooley and others, 2006), which are predominantly sandstone and carbonate strata containing groundwater unsuitable for drinking water (>10,000 milligrams per liter total dissolved solids). Other geologic formations of interest for sequestration include natural-gas reservoirs, unmineable coal seams, saline-filled
Schematic diagram illustrating the geologic sequestration of CO2. basalts, salt caverns, and organic shales. 20 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology Although they account for less than 10 percent of potential storage capacity, Can We Make a Difference? oil reservoirs may be the focus of early CO is released to the atmosphere by many sources, but most estimates are that geologic sequestration projects. Actively 2 around 95 percent comes from natural processes, primarily the decay of organic produced fields and so-called “depleted” material. How, then, can the small fraction generated by humans make any reservoirs are both of interest for CO 2 difference? Most scientists think that until recently, the rate of CO2 release storage, and some well fields may already was balanced by its absorption, primarily by plants and the ocean, keeping the have the required infrastructure for atmospheric concentration relatively stable. But anthropogenic sources have upset CO2 injection. Oil reservoirs are also this balance, resulting in steadily increasing concentrations that affect global climate. generally better characterized than deep Thus, the focus on reducing these sources is an attempt to regain the balance. saline formations, and are overlain Some figures: by caprock sufficient to restrict the • Global CO2 anthropogenic emissions, 2006: 29.2 billion metric tons (bmt) upward movement of oil and gas. (EIA, 2009) • Regardless of the type of formation, a U.S. CO2 anthropogenic emissions, 2006: 6 bmt (EIA, 2009) promising geologic sequestration site must • U.S. CO2 emissions from nontransportation (potentially capturable) sources, have a target formation with sufficient 2006: 4 bmt (EIA, 2009) injectivity to receive the amounts of CO2 • More than 8,100 large CO2 point sources (potentially capturable) worldwide to be injected and be overlain by at least account for more than 60 percent of all anthropogenic CO2 emissions; they are one caprock layer that will restrict upward predominantly fossil-fueled electric power plants (GTSP, 2006). flow of CO2. The caprock structure is also • The cumulative amount of CO2 that would need to be stored over the next important. For instance, if the strata dip too century to to achieve atmospheric CO2 stabilization is estimated to be 20 bmt steeply, CO2 could migrate laterally along in the United States and more than 100 bmt worldwide—this would require the target formation/caprock interface. increasing current sequestration deployment by three to four orders of Anticlinal formations are ideal physical magnitude (GTSP, 2006). traps for geologic sequestration sites. Based on these figures, if all 8,100 large sources were captured at 80% efficiency, that would represent less than 14% of the amount needed to achieve stabilization.
Site Monitoring References Monitoring is an essential component Energy Information Administration, 2009, Annual Energy Outlook, U.S. Dept. of Energy, of the management of a geologic www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/. sequestration site, providing data Global Technology Strategy Program, 2006. Carbon dioxide capture and geologic storage. www.pnl.gov/gtsp/docs/ccs_report.pdf. related to the effectiveness of CO2 storage as well as any risks to drinking- water aquifers and the atmosphere. at geologic sequestration projects (such be accomplished using an infrared gas Monitoring programs at geologic as Doughty and others, 2008, and Bickle analyzer attached to an eddy covariance sequestration sites will be designed to and others, 2007), including seismic tower. Soil gas may be sampled using track the evolution of injected CO2 and electromagnetic surveys. These vapor monitoring wells, and flux of and any mobilized constituents, as well techniques have been employed both at CO2 from the soil to surface air can be as formation pressure. A variety of the ground surface and down-hole, and measured using soil-flux chambers. In techniques, developed for use at oil and are capable of providing monitoring each of these applications, it is important gas well fields and contaminated sites, are data over much larger areas than could to characterize natural variability in available to monitor these parameters. reasonably be accessed with monitoring CO2 concentrations for comparison to wells. Although geophysical methods monitoring data, and to collect sufficient Monitoring for changes in pressure, in general will be a key component of spatial data to account for this variability. aqueous geochemistry, salinity, or the monitoring geologic sequestration sites, presence of drinking-water contaminants no single technique is applicable to Computational Modeling will require direct access to the target all sites. An evaluation will need to be CO flow through the subsurface is formation and overlying strata via conducted for each geologic sequestration 2 extremely complex, involving multiphase monitoring wells. However, installation site to determine the appropriate suite fluid flow, CO dissolution into of monitoring wells will be a relatively of monitoring technologies to be used. 2 expensive part of these projects, and groundwater, mineral precipitation there is some risk that the monitoring Because leakage of CO2 to the atmosphere and dissolution, and in some cases, wells themselves could become conduits and into buildings is of concern, it is geomechanical impacts. The fate and for fluid movement. Therefore, a likely that surface air and soil gas will transport of CO2 will be very site-specific, limited number of monitoring wells will be monitored in the vicinity of geologic depending on geological structure and likely be placed strategically in areas sequestration projects. Monitoring at the mineralogy. The transport properties of surface and in the vadose zone can detect CO also vary greatly with temperature predicted to overlie the eventual CO2 2 plume and area of elevated pressure. and quantify leakage of CO2 from the and pressure. For these reasons, state- target formation, and will also indicate of-the-art computational modeling has Geophysical techniques have been used if CO2 has leaked into drinking-water been advocated as an integral tool for to monitor changes in CO2 saturation aquifers. Surface monitoring for CO2 may see Hydrology, page 30
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 21 CO2 Sequestration
Managing the Risks of CO2 Sequestration
Amy Hardberger and Scott Anderson – Environmental Defense Fund
he most effective way to combat extensive and thick enough to counter such areas, hydrologic studies and the predicted impacts of climate total buoyant forces of CO2 accumulation. monitoring well protocols could be Tchange is to limit carbon dioxide Potential escape mechanisms include designed to ensure the protection of the (CO2) emissions, particularly from coal- unplugged wells, faults, fractures, and drinking-water source and permit CCS. burning power plants which produce half insufficient impermeable caprock. These Injected CO can displace existing saline the nation’s electricity. Technologies such risks can be managed by demonstrating 2 water far beyond the space occupied by the as carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) the effectiveness, lateral extent, and CO plume. Regulations can be tailored enable coal to be used while avoiding 2 uniformity of the reservoir seal or to prevent this from posing a threat to significant greenhouse-gas emissions. CCS confining layer before the site is selected, underground drinking-water sources by is technically ready to be deployed now, using standard structural geologic and requiring a containment zone that will but it is expensive. However if the current geophysical studies that map fractures, retain displaced water pressure generated administration successfully passes and faults, and quantify the potential for by the project. Hydrologic transport funds a climate bill, the market for carbon fault slippage. Injection pressure must models that incorporate movement of will be primed and CCS will achieve the be managed to avoid risk of tensile both the CO2 plume and formation incentive needed for commercialization. failure (fracturing of caprock) or sheer fluid can assist with the evaluation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate failure (reactivation of dormant faults). Remedial response protocols should be Change (IPCC, 2005) concluded that the local health, safety, and environmental A principal concern expressed about CCS is that CO2 leaks risks of CCS are comparable to the risks [ of current activities such as natural-gas could impact drinking-water aquifers. storage and enhanced oil recovery if there is “appropriate site selection based Current regulations tend to focus only established if a drinking-water source on available subsurface information, on prevention of tensile failure. All is potentially endangered. If danger is a monitoring programme to detect wells in the surrounding area should detected, ceasing injection will quickly problems, a regulatory system and be catalogued and properly sealed. reduce pressure. Additional steps to the appropriate use of remediation Assessment of possible migration patterns reduce pressure or prevent migration to methods to stop or control CO2 releases can help determine where existing a water source can then be considered. if they arise.” Early sequestration fluid could travel when displaced. projects combined with over 30 years of Finally, there is some concern that CO2 injected into brine reservoirs could experience injecting CO2 for enhanced Opponents of CCS often cite a 1986 oil recovery provide confidence that incident at Nyos Lake, Cameroon. In this pollute future drinking-water alternatives. Presently, water with concentrations of long-term sequestration is feasible in volcanic lake, CO2 accumulated gradually properly selected geologic formations in the lower depths of the lake and then, up to 10,000 parts per million (ppm) total triggered by a natural event, rose suddenly dissolved solids (TDS) is considered to be to the surface, emitting a large cloud of of drinking-water quality. In comparison, The Risks seawater has 35,000 ppm TDS. The CO2 that suffocated nearby people and What are the risks? Those most water quality of the brine reservoirs commonly cited include long-term livestock. While tragic, this situation is not an appropriate corollary to regulated under consideration for carbon storage leakage of CO2 back to the atmosphere has three times the concentration of the CCS: a shallow, tectonically active through an inadequate seal, a seal dissolved solids of seawater. Protecting volcanic crater would never be considered damaged through operation, or via deep sources of water with that level an appropriate sequestration site. well holes back to the atmosphere; of TDS should not prohibit or limit localized, high-volume leaks to the Contamination: A principal concern CCS projects. However, consideration atmosphere producing an asphyxiation expressed about CCS is that CO leaks should be given to protecting hazard to people or ecosystems; and 2 could impact drinking-water aquifers. groundwater just above 10,000 ppm leakage to and contamination of One regulatory proposal to guard against TDS since such water may in fact be groundwater by either CO and its 2 this is to prohibit any CCS activities an important resource in the future. co-contaminants or by saline water forced upward by high CO pressures. above the lowest drinking-water aquifer. 2 Aquifers are shallower than potential How Are Risks Managed? Leakage: This is the most frequently storage formations in most areas, but Perhaps the biggest tool to manage risk voiced concern about CCS. For a confining a potential conflict could arise where is the regulatory framework promulgated layer to be effective, it must be laterally deep groundwater resources exist. In for CCS projects at the state or federal
22 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology level. Regulations must be grounded in a thorough scientific understanding of the risks involved and ensure they are managed properly. Rules must be flexible, We see solutions adaptive, performance-based, and include where others don’t. requirements for site characterization, site selection, and long-term monitoring.
Site selection is one of the most important aspects of a CCS project. The proposed site must have large capacity and retention capabilities, and geology that promotes both structural trapping and residual pore-space trapping. Rock chemistry that facilitates dissolution and mineralization to ensure Focused on solutions that work. permanence is also desirable. Under Specializing in ground engineering and environmental solutions, with local most circumstances, CO2 will dissolve expertise in water resources, Golder gives you global reach and local presence in water and lower pH. In a system on six continents. For 45 years, Golder has developed a rock-solid reputation containing reactive mineral phases, built on client service, innovative thinking and cost-effective solutions. decrease in pH is buffered by dissolution of carbonate-bearing silicate minerals. A World of Capabilities Delivered Locally.
Once a project has begun, monitoring of groundwater quality, geochemical Local offi ces: Tucson (520) 888-8818 | Phoenix (480) 966-0153 changes, and pressure changes should Albuquerque (505) 821-3043 | Silver City (505) 388-0118 be performed above the confining zone [email protected] to detect any problems before they become serious. Operators should have the flexibility to choose monitoring www.golder.com protocols as long as they meet overall requirements and cover the CO2 plume, extent of injected or displaced fluids, and areas of increased pressure. Key monitoring parameters include pressure, temperature, and fluid chemistry in the injection reservoir and immediately above the primary confining zone. A variety of surface and downhole geophysical techniques can provide information on the location and geometry of the CO2 plume and the integrity of the confining unit and wells. At the surface, soil-gas and surface-air monitoring can detect CO2 leakage (WRI, 2008). In summary, although CCS presents some challenges, environmental concerns can be mitigated through careful project planning and execution. Considering the urgency of climate change, the benefits of CCS far exceed the risk. ■
Contact Amy Hardberger at [email protected].
References IPCC, 2005. Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, ed. by B. Metz, O. Davidson, H. de Coninck, and others. Cambridge University Press. World Resources Institute (WRI), 2008. Guidelines for Carbon Dioxide Capture, Transport, and Storage, Washington, DC.
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 23 CO2 Sequestration Regulating Geologic Sequestration of CO2
Patricia R. Pfeiffer and Bruce J. Kobelski – U.S. Environmental PProtectionti Agency
n 1974, the Safe Drinking Water potential environmental impacts associated and specific infrastructure needs for Act (SDWA) authorized the U.S. with CO2 geologic sequestration. carbon capture and storage (CCS) in IEnvironmental Protection Agency various areas of the country. The research to establish an Underground Injection Geologic sequestration of CO2 differs is funded through an interagency Control (UIC) program to protect from other types of injection activities agreement with DOE for work on the underground sources of drinking water currently regulated under existing potential groundwater quality impacts of UIC requirements. There are specific (USDW) from endangerment by fluids CO2 injection at the Lawrence Berkeley injected into wells. USDWs are defined characteristics of CO2 geologic National Lab (LBNL) in California. EPA is as aquifers containing less than 10,000 sequestration that warrant the tailored also working with U.S. Geological Survey, milligrams per liter (mg/l) of total requirements in the July 2008 proposal. Department of Interior, Department of dissolved solids. The UIC program has It is predicted that over time, the CO2 Treasury, states, tribes, industry, NGOs regulatory authority over the construction, plume and pressure front associated with and international organizations. operation, permitting, and closure of a full-scale geologic sequestration project injection wells from the well head down. will be much larger than those of other States also are moving toward the types of UIC operations. In addition, regulation of geologic sequestration States and tribes may choose to apply the relative buoyancy and complex (see map, above right). Several state for primary enforcement authority, behavior of the CO2 in the subsurface legislatures have recently enacted laws or primacy, to implement the UIC suggest that the area of influence will be aimed at accelerating efforts to reduce program within their respective borders. noncircular. Therefore, the traditional carbon emissions and are working A state or tribal UIC program must area-of-review delineation methods such to publish regulations for geologic meet all federal requirements in order as a fixed radius or simple mathematical sequestration this year. If state or tribal to obtain primacy; otherwise, EPA computation would not be sufficient to UIC regulations are issued prior to EPA implements the program directly. predict the extent of CO2 movement. regulations and determined by EPA to be less stringent, then the state or tribe Underground Injection of CO2 The July proposal includes enhancements will be required to revise their regulations Geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide to typical deep-well construction and to obtain EPA primacy approval. (CO2) through well injection meets the operation requirements to provide definition of “underground injection” additional barriers to CO2 leakage Challenges of Nationwide as outlined in the SDWA, and therefore outside of the injection zone due to CO2’s Regulation buoyancy. The potentially corrosive is regulated under the UIC program. In developing the proposed rule for However, the current UIC regulations nature of the injectate (when in contact nationwide regulation of geologic were not specifically designed for the with water) is also being addressed in sequestration, EPA and stakeholders have injection of CO . Thus, EPA has developed the proposed regulations. For example, 2 considered a number of challenges. new regulations for this type of injection a leaking annulus would be a significant to prevent endangerment of USDWs. migration pathway for CO2. Therefore, Geologic Variability: The proposed rule limits CO2 injection to formations beneath The CO2 plume and pressure front associated with full-scale the lowermost USDW. The eastern United geologic sequestration projects will be much larger than States is well-suited for this requirement [ because most eastern USDWs are shallow other types of underground injection operations. and the salinity of geologic formations typically increases with depth. Some EPA is moving rapidly to develop federal the quality of the well materials, proper saline formations along the Gulf Coast of regulations for CO2 geologic sequestration well construction, composition and Texas and Louisiana, however, transition wells under the UIC program. Proposed placement of appropriate cement along into USDWs within very short distances July 25, 2008 regulations would revise the wellbore, and appropriate maintenance due to nearby aquifer recharge zones. the UIC program’s regulatory framework are crucial components being addressed. In the West, the occurrence of USDWs to address the unique nature of CO2 is far more complex. For example, injection. The proposal creates a new EPA is coordinating with the Department USDWs are found at depths greater geologic sequestration well class, Class VI. of Energy’s Regional Carbon Sequestration than 10,000 feet in the Powder River EPA is also conducting research related Partnership as it conducts pilot projects to Basin of Wyoming and 6,500 feet on the to USDW protection as well as other determine the most suitable technologies North Slope of Alaska. In such areas,
24 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology operators have expressed the need for WA regulatory certainty for wells that both MT ME enhance oil recovery and sequester CO2. ND Stakeholders are concerned that it may OR MI VT MN NH be difficult to clarify the distinction ID SD WI NY MA between a well used for EOR (Class II) WV CT MI and a well used for geologic sequestration IA PA NJ (Class VI). While many suggestions NV NE OH MD UT IL IN RI have been offered concerning schemes CA CO VW DE for transitioning between well classes, KS MD VA DC KY EPA is still evaluating this issue. NC TN AZ OK Other Challenges: Some sequestration- NM AR SC GA related issues being discussed are MS AL currently outside SDWA authority, but TX LA are nevertheless important, including states with final rule FL the use and ownership of pore space, states with draft rule potential impacts to mineral rights, and states with relevant legislation the application of eminent domain. For example, reservoir interference and Graphic by: Chris Guzzetti, EPA Region 8 pore-space rights have traditionally Status of state carbon capture and storage regulations, as of June 2009. been managed by the states. However, areas-of-review for full-scale projects are aquifers that are not of drinking water large geographic areas. The increased predicted to cover large areas and may quality—and thus might be potential pressure in receiving formations could involve transboundary concerns, such geologic sequestration sites—are typically cause the displacement of native brines as CO influences that cross national, sandwiched between those that are. Given and the migration of CO plumes over 2 2 state, tribal, or federal boundaries. this variability, the proposed requirement considerable distances, potentially would severely limit the deployment of affecting USDWs at great distances Another topic under discussion is the geologic sequestration in some parts of from the injection well. Research has potential for geologic sequestration the western United States and Alaska. shown that eventually these large plumes injection in proximity to other resources will stabilize and be trapped through such as oil- and gas-bearing formations. Financial Responsibility: The proposed natural physical and chemical processes. Resource extraction and processing rule requires operators to provide However, due to the time scale at which procedures must be developed and used financial assurance mechanisms to ensure these processes occur, some stakeholders where these situations occur. Drilling that adequate resources are available have suggested transferring liability procedures and operations associated for corrective action, the plugging and to either state or federal entities. This with resource extraction will need to abandonment of injection wells, post- issue is under discussion both within be developed to prevent injected CO injection site care and site closure, and 2 and outside the federal government, from escaping to the atmosphere. ■ for emergency and remedial response and strategies continue to emerge for failed injection wells. EPA held as the process moves forward. Contact Patricia Pfeiffer at [email protected]. three webcasts during spring 2009 to Although the authors are employees of U.S. EPA, this article is not a statement of EPA policy. For discuss potential financial responsibility Conversion from Enhanced Oil Recovery information on GS and the UIC program, visit mechanisms for geologic sequestration to Geologic Sequestration: Current www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/. For information on the wells with the aim of leveraging the practices for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) DOE/EPA partnership, visit fossil.energy.gov/sequestration/partnerships/. For experience of states, regions, and include the injection of CO2. Following information on the EPA/LBNL partnership, visit other stakeholders to determine which publication of the proposed rule, many www-esd.lbl.gov/GCS/projects/CO2/index_CO2.html. fiscal responsibility instruments and mechanisms are appropriate for Class VI wells. A summary of the webcasts is available in the rulemaking docket at www.regulations.gov.
Long-Term Liability: During the public a DPRA Company comment period for the proposed rule, Isotopes Laboratory EPA received numerous comments D/H 13C/12C 15N/14N 18O/16O 34S/32S regarding long-term liability of geologic sequestration sites. The unusually large • 13C/12C of MTBE, BTEX, and Chlorinated Solvents in Water and Soil 15 14 18 16 - 15 14 18 16 volume and the nature of the injectate • N/ N & O/ O of NO3 ; N/ N of NH3; D/H & O/ O in Water were identified as two primary concerns. • 34S/32S & 18O/16O of Sulfate in Water Due to the volume of injected fluid, • D/H & 13C/12C of Crude, Petroleum Fuels and Gases commercial-scale sequestration projects have the potential to impact very www.ZymaxUSA.com 760.781.3338 [email protected]
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 25 CO2 Sequestration Frio Brine Pilot: the First U.S. Sequestration Test
Susan D. Hovorka – Gulf Coast Carbon Center, University of Texas at Austin.
andstones of the Frio Formation east rigorously monitored than a large area, setting. Texas American Resources of Houston, Texas were selected to and that limiting injection time to a Company made available a site in South Stest the feasibility of using carbon short period would allow observation Liberty Field, south of Dayton, Texas, capture and storage (CCS) in geologic and monitoring through all stages of where the upper Frio Formation lies formations to reduce atmospheric the process through post-injection between a shale confining zone above buildup of greenhouse gases. The Frio stabilization, thus providing critical and an oil-producing formation below. Brine pilot study was based on two small- information relevant to the performance A new injection well was drilled and an volume, short-duration carbon dioxide of large-scale, long-duration tests. existing production well was modified (CO2) injections into two previously to serve as an observation well. unperturbed brine-bearing sandstones. Finding a Site Existing and new borehole-based These injections were designed to answer High permeability, steep local dip, and questions about CCS using a process geophysical measurements, a 3-D seismic limited lateral flow were considered survey, geochemical sampling, and core of intensive multiphysics monitoring desirable formation characteristics analyses provided detailed characteristics before, during, and after injection, that would allow rapid equilibration of the formation that were used to test with subsequent history-matching to within the experiment. The need conceptual hydrologic and geochemical test the accuracy of numerical models for a well-characterized site, as well models in advance of the injection of flow and geochemical changes. as budgetary and public-acceptance tests. Additional hydrologic and tracer Prior to this study, experience with considerations, led us to seek brine- tests provided data on permeability trapped buoyant fluids bearing sandstones within an oil-field between wells. Detailed modeling using such as oil, methane, and CO2 provided reason Shale Depth Day Day Day Day Day Porosity Fraction (ft) 4 10 29 66 142 fraction for optimism that CO2 injected for storage would 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.4 0 4995.0 be retained in analogous settings for long periods of 5000 time. But previous storage experience was only in Top “C” formations (reservoirs) shale 5010 from which hydrocarbons had been extracted. The volume of those fluids 5020 constitute a fraction of the CO2 produced from combustion of fossil fuel; if 5030 significant CCS is to occur, injection into brine-bearing
formations that have never 5040
held hydrocarbons will Frio “C” sandstone be needed. Moreover, the
natural accumulation of 5050 hydrocarbons is typically much slower than the rate 5055.0 of injection that would CO2 saturation calculated from pulsed Model porosity neutron reservoir saturation tool log be used to sequester Model permeability CO2 saturation calculated by model large volumes of CO2. Perforations
Thus, testing was needed Permeability from log calculations and averages used in TOUGH2 simulation. Saturation logging illustrates the displacement to examine storage in of brine by CO2. Shaded areas show calculated CO2 saturation with depth in the observation well; at the end of injection (Day unperturbed formations. 10), saturation was the maximum observed. After injection, CO2 saturation decreased as the plume spread. The black lines show the modeled concentration of CO2. During injection, CO2 moved outward more rapidly than predicted. The slight offset A pre-injection study in the location of the plume between the model prediction and test results is due to higher reservoir heterogeneity (lower bed showed that a small continuity) than in the model. The key result is that the CO2 was trapped in the formation by capillary forces as predicted. area could be more Figure prepared by Christine Doughty from data provided by Shinichi Sakuri.
26 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology TOUGH2, a numerical simulation model at a depth of 5,050 feet below the surface mineralogic study, however the Fe-Mn for multiphase flow, was performed over 10 days; observations were collected spikes were duplicated in the laboratory throughout the tests (Doughty and others, over 18 months. Initially the front of the in follow-up testing. We deduce that 2007). Good matches between modeled CO2 plume moved more rapidly than these metals were released by small and observed CO2 saturation imparted had been modeled, but by the end of the amounts of high-surface-area, reactive confidence in model predictions of CO2 10-day injection, the plume geometry in trace minerals such as clay or fine movement and permanent storage. the plane of the observation and injection pyrite, which were then depleted. In addition, contamination by fluids that reacted with the steel tubing contributed Post-injection measurements showed that CO migration [ 2 to the amount of iron released. under gravity slowed greatly two months after injection. Post-injection measurements showed that CO2 migration under gravity slowed Geophysical logging, pressure and wells had thickened to a distribution greatly two months after injection. temperature measurement, and similar to that modeled (see figure, left). This matched modeled predictions that geochemical sampling were also conducted a significant amount of CO would As expected, part of the CO dissolved 2 during injection to allow comparison 2 become trapped as relative permeability rapidly into brine, causing pH to fall of pre- and post-injection conditions to CO decreased as a function of and calcite to dissolve (Kharaka and 2 (Hovorka and others, 2006). Monitoring saturation, a common two-phase others, 2006). Unexpectedly large objectives were to measure changes in CO capillary trapping process known from 2 amounts of iron (Fe) and manganese saturation during the months following hydrocarbon production. A production (Mn) were also dissolved in the initial injection in cross-section and aerially, and test months after the end of injection fluids as CO moved though the rock- 2 was unable to produce significant CO , to document accompanying changes in water system. Concentration decreased 2 demonstrating that it was effectively pressure and temperature using gas-phase after injection but did not fall to initial and aqueous tracers and brine chemistry. values. Geochemical modeling conducted trapped because saturation had by Lawrence Livermore National decreased to near-residual and relative Test No.1 Laboratory predicted that iron would permeability to CO2 was near zero. The first test, conducted in September be present only in trace amounts. No 2004, injected about 1,600 tons of CO2 manganese phase was predicted from see Frio Brine, page 31
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SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 27 CO2 Sequestration
Exploring Geologic CO2 Storage in Arizona
Dennis H. Shirley – Montgomery & Associates Inc., Daniel J. Collins – Sandia Technologies LLC, and John L. Boyer – Arizona Public Service Company
rizona power companies are in coal are found in shallow, mineable and in areas with similar geology in the a predicament. On one front, deposits in the Black Mesa area alone. southern Colorado Plateau. Sponsoring Apopulation growth has led to industry partners include Arizona Public substantial rise in demand for electric The Colorado Plateau in Arizona is Service Company (APS), Salt River power. If recent trends continue, this underlain by a thick sequence of nearly Project, Tucson Electric Power, Arizona demand will increase about 3.6 percent flat-lying sedimentary strata with multiple Electric Power Cooperative, and Peabody per year in Arizona and electricity potential reservoirs in the Paleozoic Investments. Project funding, in kind consumption will double in about section that may be suitable for long- services, and/or technical contributions 20 years (Western Resource Advocates, term CO2 storage. The reservoirs range are provided by the California Energy 2007). With abundant coal resources in in depth from approximately 3,000 to Commission, U.S. Department of Energy, Arizona’s Black Mesa Basin and elsewhere 7,500 feet and are capped by thick and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in the western interior, utilities have regionally extensive shale confining beds. (LBNL), Electric Power Research Institute turned to coal-fired generating plants However, hydrologic conditions and (EPRI), and the five industry partners. as the dominant power source. Yet coal water quality in the plateau are poorly The total project budget is $5.5 million. is the largest anthropogenic emitter known in all but the uppermost aquifer. of carbon dioxide (CO ) globally, and 2 To evaluate potential CO2 storage in this Site Selection pending legislation would regulate carbon area, Arizona industry partners have Based on regional geologic and emissions by imposing significant limits teamed with the West Coast Regional hydrologic conditions (Montgomery on conventional coal-power generation. Carbon Sequestration Partnership & Associates, 2007), a site at the APS Consequently, reliance on coal power may (WESTCARB) to conduct the Arizona Cholla Power Plant near Joseph City, be viable in the future only if conventional Utilities CO2 Storage Pilot. The pilot Arizona was selected for the pilot project. or next-generation, advanced-technology project entails drilling, constructing, and Two important factors were pivotal in coal plants can achieve carbon capture testing one injection well for CO2 storage. selecting the site. First, of all land in and geologic storage. Moreover, from an The proposed well is an experimental the Colorado Plateau of northeastern industry perspective, investment in costly technology well to allow the WESTCARB Arizona outside the Navajo Nation capture technology would be considered consortium to gather information on and Hopi Indian Reservation, this area only under reasonable assurance that the geology and suitability for CO2 offers the best potential for CO2 storage. production-scale CO2 emissions could be sequestration in the Holbrook Basin Second, highly saline conditions present safely and reliably stored underground. Thus, a critical first step is testing west east geologic sequestration of confining confining and/or reservoir CO2 at a very small scale 8,000 reservoir* Oak Creek where the process can basalt *These units are potential CO2 Moenkopi storage reservoirs where depths be carefully studied. 7,000 Formation exceed 3,000 feet below the surface Meteor Kaibab-Coconino- Crater 6,000 Schnebly Hill formations Holbrook The Starting Point Little Colorado River Chinle In Arizona, the Colorado Esplanade Winslow Proposed test well (projected) Formation i Forma 5,000 Lower Supai Moenkop tion Plateau Province is the
obvious starting point to Supai Formation Kaibab-Coconino 4,000 Mis evaporites sis formations evaluate geologic storage sip N Tapeats pi ac an o of CO2. According to the Sandstone a Fo 3,000 nd rm D at Supai Formation Department of Energy, six ev io on n ian large coal-fired electrical ca 2,000 rb Precambrian on generating stations operating at es Target: Altitude above mean sea level (feet) Precambrian 3,000 – 4,000 feet in this region produce 1,000 over 70 million tons of below ground surface CO2 annually, or roughly 0 three percent of overall 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 146 CO2 emissions from the Section distance (miles) electric power sector. Over a
billion tons of high-quality East-west regional schematic geologic cross-section of the WESTCARB CO2 sequestration pilot project.
28 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology in the uppermost aquifer suggest that and subsequent blow-out prevention. The and 3,700 feet within the perforated casing. underlying groundwater in potential remaining borehole will be drilled with an Vertical seismic profiling and formation CO2 reservoirs will also be saline. 8½-inch drill bit using a salt-based mud. fluid sampling of the injection well will be conducted prior to and for three to five The well site selected for the Due to uncertainty regarding the adequacy months after the end of CO2 injection. demonstration project offers: 1) target of downhole conditions for CO2 injection reservoirs in the Pennsylvanian Naco in the Naco and Martin formations, one or The CO2 used in this test is the amount Formation and the Devonian Martin two drill-stem tests are planned to isolate generated by a typical 1,000-megawatt Formation (a primary target; see each formation during drilling to obtain coal-fired power plant in approximately 2.2 hours. Although this amount is quite small, the pilot project will provide critical A critical first step is testing geologic sequestration of CO2 at information about the injectivity of CO2 [ into the geologic formation, test numerical a very small scale where the process can be carefully studied. modeling codes that estimate the extent and stabilization of the CO plume, diagram below left), which likely have interval-specific information on formation 2 measure changes in water chemistry saline groundwater conditions and pressures, water quality, and permeability. within the formation, test and demonstrate possibly have permeability and porosity Upon reaching total depth, a full suite of methods for monitoring the location of suitable for CO storage; 2) sufficient geophysical logs will be obtained in the 2 the CO plume, and estimate the amount depth of burial and hydrostatic head uncased borehole, and sidewall cores will 2 of the injected CO that dissolves in the for CO storage as a supercritical fluid; be collected from selected intervals. If field 2 2 reservoir water or becomes immobilized 3) extensive overlying fine-grained data confirm adequacy of the injection in the formation. Upon completion of confining beds to prevent vertical leakage intervals, a 5½-inch protective casing will be testing, the injection well will be plugged of CO ; 4) access to or near the site set and cemented in the borehole and zones 2 and abandoned, or preserved as a on paved roads; and 5) an easement will be selected for perforation of the casing. monitor well under APS ownership. ■ for land use and ease of permitting through the cooperation of APS. And Finally, Injection Contact Dennis Shirley at [email protected]. Field and laboratory data obtained from References Drilling, Completion, the test well, such as water quality and Montgomery & Associates, 2007. Regional Geologic and Testing petrophysical properties, will be evaluated and Hydrologic Characterization, Northern The test well will be drilled into to determine if the pilot CO2 injection Arizona Saline Formation CO2 Storage Pilot, test should proceed. If testing confirms Colorado Plateau Region of Northern Arizona, Precambrian basement rock at a depth report prepared for West Coast Regional Carbon of approximately 4,000 feet using saline groundwater exists in sufficiently Sequestration Partnership, May 7, 2008, 38 pp. conventional mud-rotary drilling. LBNL permeable zones within the Martin and/or Sandia Technologies and Montgomery & Associates, and EPRI scientists have engaged Sandia Naco formations, up to 2,000 metric tons 2009. WESTCARB Arizona Utilities Carbon of food-grade CO will then be transported Dioxide Storage Pilot Test, Pilot Well Installation Technologies of Houston, Texas, and 2 Plan, prepared for EPRI, WESTCARB & APS Montgomery & Associates of Scottsdale, by truck to the site and injected into the Cholla Plant, May 2009. Arizona, to oversee and manage the well- completed well. Injection will occur in Western Resource Advocates, 2007. A Clean Electric drilling and testing program. As property targeted zones between depths of 3,200 Energy Strategy for Arizona, 31 pp. owner, APS obtained a drilling permit from the Arizona Oil and Gas Conservation Commission (AOGCC), a temporary aquifer protection permit from the Arizona Department of Environmental Quality, and an underground injection control permit from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for the planned CO2 injection pilot test. Well drilling began in July. Well completion plans (Sandia Technologies and Montgomery & Associates, 2009) call for setting and cementing a conductor casing followed by drilling a 12¼-inch borehole into the upper Supai Formation to a depth of around 965 feet. A protective surface casing will be installed to isolate the wellbore and regional C-Aquifer from underlying saline groundwater. The surface casing will be equipped with a pressure-seal assembly for required pressure testing
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 29 Hydrology, continued from page 21 using statistical routines, CO2 migration References managing geologic sequestration projects through artificial penetrations, hysteretic Bickle, M., A. Chadwick, H.E. Huppert, M. Hallworth, and S. Lyle. 2007. Modeling carbon and understanding associated risks. relative permeability curves and residual CO trapping, and mineral precipitation dioxide accumulation at Sleipner: Implications Proposed U.S. EPA regulations require 2 for underground carbon storage, Earth Planet. and dissolution reactions and subsequent computational modeling results to be Sci. Lett., 255: 164–176. changes in formation porosity and provided in permit applications, and Dooley, J.J., R.T. Dahowski, C.L. Davidson, and permeability. Somewhat simpler analytical others, 2006. Carbon Dioxide Capture and ongoing model calibration to monitoring and semi-analytical models have been Geologic Storage: A Core Element of a Global data during the lifetime of the project. Energy Technology Strategy to Address Climate developed for initial site screening. Change. Battelle, Joint Global Change Research Existing model frameworks developed for Institute, College Park, MD. A limited number of studies (such multiphase flow and reactive transport Doughty, C., B.M. Freifeld, and R.C. Trautz, 2008. as Doughty and others, 2008) have Site characterization for CO2 geologic storage problems can be applied to modeling compared initial modeling predictions and vice versa: the Frio Brine Pilot, Texas, the injection of CO . Modeling CO USA as a case study, Environ. Geol., 54: 2 2 to monitoring data collected from early injection and sequestration poses 1635-1656. geologic sequestration pilot projects. several challenges, however, such as Metz, B., O. Davidson, H.C. de Coninck, and others These studies have demonstrated the (eds.), 2005. Carbon dioxide capture and the need to properly characterize CO2 necessity of calibrating models to storage, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Spec. Rept., Cambridge Univ. Press, transport properties across a large monitoring data whenever feasible. range of temperatures and pressures, New York. For example, CO2 is prone to traveling Saripalli, P., and P. McGrail, 2002. Semi-analytical and to adequately characterize the vast through high-permeability channels approaches to modeling deep well injection of subsurface areas considered for injection. that may not have been identified CO2 for geologic sequestration, Energy Convers. Mngmt., 43: 185-198. during initial site characterization Several research studies published in Schnaar, G., and D.C. Digiulio, 2009. Computational the last several years have modeled and included in the model grid. The modeling of the geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide, Vadose Zone Journal, 8: 389-403. the subsurface injection of CO for most comprehensive understanding of 2 U.S. EPA, 2008. Proposed rule for federal geologic sequestration (Schnaar and the migration of CO2 and mobilized constituents will be obtained through requirements under the Underground Injection Digiulio, 2009). The most comprehensive Control (UIC) Program for carbon dioxide an integrated site characterization, numerical models reported in peer- (CO2) geologic sequestration (GS) wells, monitoring, and modeling approach. ■ USEPA,Washington, DC. reviewed literature are capable of www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/wells_sequestration. replicating formation heterogeneity Contact Greg Schnaar at [email protected]. html#regdevelopment.
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30 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology Frio Brine, continued from page 27 high-permeability zone; it was detected near citizens, and environmental groups; the top of the Frio Blue sandstone at the media interviews; and an online log Test No.2 observation well 100 feet away. Differences (www.gulfcoastcarbon.org). The public and In September 2006, the second injection in measurements from the two different environmental concerns expressed were test was conducted using the same injector/ injections illustrate the interactions among moderate, practical, and proportional to monitoring wells, but the injection was into injection rates, injection strategy, the the minimal risks taken by the project, and the Frio Blue sandstone, a hydrologically heterogeneity of the injection interval, generally related to issues such as traffic separate formation 390 feet below that and their impact on plume evolution. and potential risks to water resources. investigated in the first test. This test Overall, press coverage was positive. ■ injected a smaller volume (about 250 tons) of CO2 over five days into the lower part Meanwhile, Back on Top… Contact Susan Hovorka at of a 30-foot-thick unit in a heterogeneous The feasibility of near-surface monitoring [email protected]. fluvial sandstone and monitored the in this setting using soil-gas fluxes and stabilization. A low injection rate was used concentrations, introduced tracers, References to simulate processes at the edge of the and shallow-aquifer response was also Daley, T.M., R.D. Solbau, J.B. Ajo-Franklin, and tested. High complexity in seasonal S.M. Benson, 2007. Continuous active- plume, where attenuated injection pressure source monitoring of CO2 injection in a causes buoyancy to exert a significant aquifer level and composition was brine aquifer, Geophys., 72(5): A57–A61, influence on flow processes, as was noted in this high-water-table, warm DOI:10.1190/1.2754716. observed in the results. A seismic source- environment that had been perturbed Doughty C., B.M. Freifeld, and R.C. Trautz, 2007. Site characterization for CO2 geologic storage and and-receiver system set up by Lawrence by the developed oil field with roads that vice versa: The Frio brine pilot, Texas, USA as a Berkeley National Laboratory provided pond drainage. Introduced tracers were case study, Envir. Geol., 54(8): 1635-1656, DOI: 0.1007/s00254-007-0942-0. CO2 migration data that could be fully used to document no leakage of CO2 to integrated with other concurrent borehole the surface. The test site was closed when Hovorka, S.D., C. Doughty, S.M. Benson, and others, 2006. Measuring permanence of CO2 storage in measurements (Daley and others, 2007). the experiment ended in May 2009. saline formations: The Frio experiment, Environ. Geosci., 13(2): 105–121. Seismic data were collected every Another important objective of Kharaka, Y.K., D.R. Cole, S.D. Hovorka, and 10 seconds during injection and provided the Frio Brine study was to gain others, 2006. Gas-water-rock interactions 3-D information on CO migration. During public acceptance of CCS. This was in Frio Formation following CO2 injection: 2 Implications for the storage of greenhouse gases injection it traveled vertically near the accomplished through outreach, which in sedimentary basins, Geol., 34(7): 577–580. injection wall and laterally through a thin included site visits by researchers, local
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 31 R & D
Streambed Movement water quality conditions, except for point in the creek. The authors also Deters Nuisance Algae total dissolved phosphorous. They advocate the development of predictive believe that higher flows leading to models that include water quality, Researchers at the University of streambed movement—and specifically hydrologic, and biologic parameters Colorado at Boulder have discovered the initiation of motion as measured by that would allow for the testing of a potential way to stop the spread of a Shields stress—may be the dominant specific management strategies. stalk-forming freshwater algae called scouring mechanism and a way to Didymosphenia geminata, or rock snot. Visit www.colorado.edu. See Miller, M.P., D.M. potentially control the algae’s growth. McKnight, J.D. Cullis, and others, 2009. Factors Although some amount of rock controlling streambed coverage of Didymosphenia However, other studies of D. geminata geminata in two regulated streams in the Colorado snot is tolerable, it can grow out of Front Range, Hydrobiologia, 630(1): 207-218. control, covering the stream bed with have shown the algae prefer or are thick mats, outcompeting natural limited by various water quality algae, and destroying habitat for parameters. The authors of the present Depths of Lake Tahoe insects that fish eat. The researchers study noted that the small number Explored monitored the abundance and of samples collected and the short The Undersea Voyager Project, a coverage of D. geminata in Boulder amount of time and distance between nonprofit organization whose mission Creek during the summer of 2006. sites made assessing the importance is to explore Earth’s oceans, spent the of water-quality variables difficult. month of May studying Lake Tahoe The results, published in the online to train project crew in underwater According to the authors, their findings version of the journal Hydrobiologia, exploration and provide information that suggest that controlled reservoir releases show that the algae prefer systems with can be used to preserve the lake. low phosphorous concentrations and during the summer could limit the low mean discharge. The researchers impact of D. geminata. A researcher is The project conducted experiments as also found that large changes in now working on a model to predict how deep as 1,600 feet below the surface hydrologic conditions played a greater much water flow it would take to create using a manned submarine, a remotely role in controlling the algae than did movement in the streambed at a given operated vehicle, and a dive team.
32 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology The crew planned to transect the people on their current water use and A drawback of the water budget lake, evaluate three previously little- their estimated needs. Although the program, reported the website, is that studied tsunami-producing fault lines, district told the website that many the budgets took a year to develop, study plant and animal life, explore properties are already under budget, one including on-site visits to ground- shipwrecks, and perform water- restaurant is metered at 25,000 gallons truth the satellite imagery. The district quality analyses. According to the a month while the program estimates does not yet have plans to use the Reno Gazette-Journal, the two-person it only needs 6,100. This summer the program for all of its 55,000 accounts. submarine made more than 40 dives in district began charging higher rates to Visit voiceofsandiego.org. Tahoe and nearby Fallen Leaf Lake. those customers who exceed their budget. continued on next page Long renowned for its impressive clarity, Lake Tahoe is now threatened by sediment input, algae growth, and aquatic invasive species. The project used ultraviolet lights on the submersible to fluoresce algae in order to locate and map their presence. At Fallen Leaf Lake, 1,000-year-old trees were sonar tagged and cored to determine historic weather patterns. According to the Gazette-Journal, the crew found evidence that trees were rooted in the lake bottom, giving evidence that ancient droughts lowered the lake level far and long enough to allow them to grow. The project website provides a live feed of images, video, and findings. The subsequent ocean expedition is expected to last five years.
Visit www.underseavoyager.org and www.rgj.com.
Water Budgets for Conservation Tested Ten water agencies in southern California are testing a water budget program developed by the San Diego County Water Authority and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation to help measure the water needs and usages of their customers, reported voiceofsandiego.org in April. According to the website, infrared satellite imagery shows what kind of landscaping a parcel has. Using information extracted on vegetation type and square footage, the program then estimates how much water a property needs for its landscape while accounting for climate and seasonal variations. Helix Water District is piloting the program with 878 customers—1.5 percent of its customer base—reported the news source. Helix will send these customers a personalized water budget based on program results to educate
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 33 R & D
Satellite Monitors Tamarisk-Eating Bugs Scientists at the University of Utah are using satellite data to monitor saltcedar leaf beetles that have been deployed to attack invasive tamarisk in the Southwest. The beetle was first released in Utah in 2004; widespread defoliation was noticed near Moab in 2007. Many stretches of the Colorado River Basin are remote, so the researchers tried using satellite images to detect from NASA data. University of Utah, Phil Dennison, Photo: leaf loss due to the beetles. Infrared images from ASTER of the confluence of the Colorado (flowing from the top) and Dolores (entering from the right) rivers in Utah show the effects of salt-cedar beetles between 2006 (left) and 2007 (right). Vegetation, including an alfalfa field The scientists used two just below the confluence, appears bright red. The river-bottom area appears much darker in the 2007 image where beetles ate the tamarisk leaves. instruments—ASTER and MODIS—on one of frequent but lower-resolution images Endangered Humpback NASA’s Earth-observing satellites to that can detect changes over time. Chub Population Increases study four areas in the Colorado River Between 2001 and 2008, the adult Basin. Both instruments make images Images from both instruments showed population of the endangered humpback using red and near-infrared light. In extensive tamarisk defoliation between chub in the Grand Canyon increased near-infrared images, tamarisk-covered 2006 and 2007. The researchers also used about 50 percent, according to a U.S. areas appear red and defoliated areas the satellite to estimate evapotranspiration Geological Survey report released in are brown or black. ASTER produces from the satellite data and showed April. This increase reverses population higher-resolution images that can that tamarisk water-use declined declines that occurred from 1989 be used to map defoliated areas (see modestly as plants were defoliated. to 2001. The researchers estimate images, above), while MODIS provides Visit unews.utah.edu. there are between 6,000 and 10,000 adult chub in the Grand Canyon. Researchers believe that three primary factors contributed to the increase: the experimental removal of large numbers of rainbow trout and brown trout, drought- induced warming beginning in 2003, and a series of experimental flow releases from Glen Canyon between 2000 and 2008. First, rainbow and brown trout are thought to prey on young fish and compete with the humpback chub for food. Between 2003 and 2006, the rainbow trout population in the Colorado River near the Little Colorado River, the area where most Grand Canyon chub are found, was reduced by more than 80 percent. Second, prior to 2003, water temperatures in the main channel of the Colorado River were too cold for humpback chub to successfully reproduce near the Little Colorado River. As the level of Lake Powell dropped, warmer water
34 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology found closer to the surface of the reservoir salmon. Past studies have shown that reported that changes in water flow reached the release structures. Third, salmon that stay in the main stem of the from the rock barrier cause more humpback chub hatched in 1999 may San Joaquin River have better survival smelt to be sucked into the pumps. have prospered as the result of substantial rates than do those that move into the instream warming created by the 2000 central delta through the Old River. According to AP, without a barrier, half low summer steady-flow experiment. the Chinook salmon enter the Old River— In previous years, a rock barrier approximately equal to its share of flow— The humpback chub, a freshwater was installed as part of an adaptive and the previous rock wall, culvert, and fish that may live up to 40 years and management plan to protect the migrating net combination stopped 100 percent of is found only in the Colorado River Chinook. However, a December 2008 the fish. The nonphysical barrier stopped Basin, was placed on the first federal biological opinion on delta smelt found about 80 percent of Chinook smolts in list of endangered species in 1967. Only that the rock barrier negatively impacted the first three of seven planned releases six populations are currently known to that species, and The Associated Press continued on next page exist—five above Lees Ferry, Arizona, and one in the Grand Canyon. Other populations of native fish in the Grand Canyon have experienced similar rebounds, in contrast to those in the rest of the Colorado River Basin. Factors that likely contributed to the historical decline of Grand Canyon native fish include changes in flow and reduced water temperature resulting from the regulation of the Colorado River by Glen Canyon Dam, the weakening of young fish by nonnative parasites such as Asian tapeworm, and competition with and predation by nonnative fish species. Specific recovery goals for humpback Geophysical Well Logging/ chub in the Grand Canyon are currently Inspections being developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which has jurisdiction Basic well logging to advanced methods over federally endangered species. • Leader in the industry in imaging acquisition & analysis & fracture characterization Visit www.usgs.gov. See Abundance trends and 1730 W. Sunrise Blvd. status of the Little Colorado River population of • 2” to 8 ft. diameters to 10,000 ft in depth Suite B-104 Humpback Chub: An update considering data from • Open & cased hole capabilities 1989-2008, USGS open-file report 2009-175. Gilbert, Arizona 85233 Ph: 480.926.4558 • Acoustic, electric, induction, nuclear, fluid properties, acoustic/optical televiewer, gyro & California Tests Fx: 480.926.4579 Web: www.swexp.com magnetic deviation Nonphysical Fish Barrier • Backpack/helicopter/ATV/4x4 truck In May, the California Department of Water Resources announced the Over 60 years combined Exploration for Water, Minerals & Geothermal preliminary success of an experimental, experience! • Physical parameters nonphysical fish barrier designed to keep Environmental & Engineering young Chinook salmon on a safer path Five logging trucks • Pier evaluation, elastic moduli, rock properties to the ocean, away from the agricultural ready to roll your way! • Flow log acquisition, analysis, modeling diversions and huge pumps sending water south from the Sacramento-San Joaquin • Ambient & stressed flow; single & multi-well testing Delta to other parts of California. & analysis • Fluid sampling The bubble curtain, located where Well evaluations with video and imaging the Old River diverges from the San Joaquin River, combines acoustics and • Water production wells, gas storage and monitor wells a strobe-lit sheet of bubbles to create an • Real-time digital video—DVDs on site underwater wall of light and sound at • Casing thickness evaluation (4” to 20”) frequencies that repel juvenile Chinook
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 35 R & D
of hatchery juveniles. The four remaining in new processes for desalination and cardiovascular disease, the ways they releases were planned for late May 2009. water treatment. Carbon nanotubes are might be released into the environment very strong, conduct heat efficiently, during their life cycle, and how to protect The San Francisco Chronicle reported that and have useful electrical properties. workers exposed to nanomatierals. similar nonphysical barriers have been In nanostructured water-treatment used successfully in the Great Lakes and Visit ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/ filters, either carbon nanotubes or newsalert/ and www.desalination.biz. See the special in England, while AP said that scientists nanocapillary arrays provide the basis issue on nanomaterials at ec.europa.eu/environment/ with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in for nanofiltration. In nanoreactive integration/research/newsalert/pdf/12si.pdf. Denver performed lab tests that found just membranes, functionalized nanoparticles the right combination of bubbles, lights, aid the filtration process. Colorado River Adaptive and low-frequency bass notes to deter Management Questioned Chinook smolts. However, University of While the newsletter noted that California, Davis wildlife biologist Peter more research into the risks of Despite science that shows the ecological Moyle told the Chronicle that nonphysical nanotechnology is needed, it discussed benefits of changing the flow regime barriers work best temporarily because some research results to date. One study of the Colorado River through the fish can become used to them over time. showed that a specific type of carbon Grand Canyon, a 25-member Adaptive nanotube has asbestos-like effects on Management Work Group failed to AP noted the $1 million price tag is mice, while two others found that change Glen Canyon Dam operating twice the cost of installing and removing nanomaterials can damage DNA. conditions in any way, charged the rock barrier every year but may Greenwire in May. According to the become cheaper if it is permanent. Another article referenced in the news service, the group was developed newsletter identified gaps in knowledge for just this purpose as part of the Grand Visit water.ca.gov, www.sfgate.com, and www.ap.org. about the interaction of engineered Canyon Protection Act in 1992, but nanoparticles with fungi, bacteria, members continue to vote in blocs of Risks of Nanomaterials in and algae in natural ecosystems, power producers and Colorado River Desal, Other Processes and yet another noted that research Basin states versus environmental In April, the European Commission’s efforts should focus on developing groups and wildlife agencies. Directorate General for the Environment more sensitive analytical methods produced an issue of the Science for for characterizing and detecting The construction of Glen Canyon Dam Environment Policy Newsletter on the nanoparticles in the environment. and Lake Powell altered flows on the use and safety of nanomaterials. Colorado River, capturing sediment Other studies raised concerns about and cooling water temperatures—both Desalination & Water Reuse noted that the toxicity of nanomaterials, their problems for native fish. Greenwire some of these nanomaterials are used potential to cause respiratory and said that three high-flow experiments conducted by the Bureau of Reclamation since the mid-1990s have demonstrated that a high flow in the spring—mimicking historic snowmelt—followed by low summer flows to prevent erosion can benefit the native humpback chub, which thrives in the habitat created by sandbars. Innovative Solutions in Hydrology In fact, USGS scientists have found that the humpback chub population in the Grand Canyon increased by 50 percent between 2001 and 2008 (see Groundwater page 32), probably partially as a result Recharge Studies of these experiments. According to Mine Closure and Greenwire, federal biologists say this Reclamation Studies research is enough to advocate a flow- Water Resources regime change, which was also advocated Heap Leach Optimization by the Grand Canyon National Park Vadose Zone Monitoring superintendent last year. But power Flow and Transport Modeling utilities and the states have not agreed Arizona · Nevada · Oregon 2015 N. Forbes Ave. Suite 105 Hydrologic Testing Laboratory to make permanent changes to the flow Tucson, Arizona 85745 1IPOFt'BY1122 regime because that could mean lost power and revenue, claimed Greenwire. ■ www.geosystemsanalysis.com Visit www.eenews.net/gw.
36 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology The Water Page
Seasonal Precipitation,p, Oct. 2008 - July y 2009 Drought Monitoring, as of August 4, 2009 % of average*ge* >150 129 - 150150 110 - 129129 abnormallyabnormally drydry droughtdrought - moderatemoderate 100 - 109109 droughtdrought - severesevere 90 - 999 droughtdrought - extremextremee 70 - 899 droughtdrought - exceptional 50 - 699 <50 not avail.vail. *1971-2000 Drought impact typestypes:: delineate dominant impacts aagriculturalgricultural ((crops,crops, pastures, ggrasslands)rasslands) hyhydrologicaldrological ((rivers,rivers, ggroundwater,roundwater, reservoirsreservoirs))
A product of the Western Regional Climate Center and these agencies:
http://drought.unl.edu/dm
Prepared by Mark Svoboda, National Drought Mitigation Center.
Reservoir Storage as of August 1, 2009 Capacity of Reservoirs Reported (1,000 acre-feet) Prepared by NOAA, National Weather Service, Colorado Basin River Forcast Center (figures do not include Lake Mead and Lake Powell) www.cbrfc.noaa.gov 3188 *6,082 14,365 37,048 72 8,320 2,478 3,889 3,260 5,252 100 28-day streamfl ow average, as of August 11, 2009
75
50 no report
25 Percent of Useable Contents
0 AZ CA CO ID MT NV NM OR UT WA WY 3/4 0/151 76/74 24/24 42/45 1/7 13/13 24/31 25/28 10/13 12/13 No. Reservoirs Reporting/No. Reservoirs above average average below average average over 1971-2000
Data from USDA, National Resources Conservation Service, National Water and Climate Center www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov
Colorado River Reservoir Storage percentile classes (based on all measurements at the location) Lake Mead Lake Powell 1250 3750 low <10 10-24 25-75 76-90 >90 high capacity: 25.9 MAF at 1,220 feet amsl much below below normal above much above capacity: 24.3 MAF at 3,700 feet amsl Provided by USGS Water Watch, water.usgs.gov/waterwatch/ 1150 3650 Southwest Weather Severe drought continued in South Texas. Public water systems in Houston, Dallas, Austin, and San Antonio were 1050 3550 among 230 statewide under mandatory restrictions. August 1, 2009 storage: 11.0 MAF August 1, 2009 storage: 16.1 MAF elevation (feet amsl) elevation (feet amsl) at 1,094 feet amsl (42% full) at 3,641 feet amsl (66% full) El Nino circulation began developing in the tropical Pacific 950 3450 Two-month change: -2.5 ft. (-0.2 MAF) Two-month change: +11 ft. (+1.3 MAF) Ocean in June, creating uncertainty in summer monsoon dead storage elevation forecasts across the Southwest but hope for greater rainfall in dead storage elevation California this winter. 850 3350 1935 1955 1975 1995 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 The first half of the monsoon season delivered near-normal precipitation to Arizona and New Mexico. MAF = million acre-feet; amsl = above mean sea level. Vertical red bars indicate elevation range for the year. California is in its third drought year, the 12th driest 3-year period in the state’s measured hydrologic record. Data source: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, www.usbr.gov/main/water
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 37 People & Companies
Golder Acquires E&H and Environmental Awards Program the water is returned to the aquifer, with In May, Golder Associates Inc. purchased for its design work on the Rio Salado quality improved by natural processes. Restoration Project. Engineering and Hydrosystems Inc. Visit www.ch2m.com and www.phoenix.gov/riosalado/. (E&H), a Denver-based consultancy. In partnership with the City of Phoenix In the transaction, Golder acquired and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, six engineers and scientists who CH2M Hill was the engineering design Breslin New CEO of co-developed the Reservoir Conservation lead for this 40-year project that restored Water for People approach for the World Bank, used ecological function and provided flood Denver-based Water for People, a nonprofit to identify approaches to sustainably protection for five miles of the Salt River international development organization, manage surface-water reservoirs through downtown Phoenix. The project recently named Ned Breslin its chief through sedimentation management. included 595 acres of restored habitat, executive officer. Breslin had been acting Visit www.golder.com. integrating a low-flow channel with CEO for the previous eight months; he joined terrace areas consistent with the natural the organization in 2006 as the director of hydrology and hydraulics of the river. international programs. During his tenure, CH2M Hill Earns Kudos Water for the project is pumped from a the international programs budget grew CH2M Hill received the 2008 Chief of contaminated shallow aquifer, treated, from $3.3 million to $6.5 million. ■ Engineers Award of Excellence in the and then used to meet all of the project’s U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ Design water demands. Nearly 60 percent of Visit www.waterforpeople.org.
quifer Science & Technology provides geophysical surveys targeted for water WE FIND WATER! resource investigations. We work with water agencies, water utilities, engineers and A [email protected] hydrogeologists to provide services tailored to their specific project needs. We can provide www.aquiferscience.com a clear picture of the subsurface for projects including: 262.542.5733 • Well siting and groundwater exploration • Artificial recharge siting studies • Monitoring recharge system performance • Basin analysis studies • Well rehabilitation • Salt water intrusion and water quality studies
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38 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology In Print & Online
Gleick Joins the Blogosphere from only two issues had been fully implemented and from nine were partially implemented. Finally, of the 15 issues for which City Brights no recommendations had been implemented, some work was San Francisco Chronicle underway for most. Peter Gleick, president of the Pacific Institute, recently started the “City Brights” blog on the San Francisco Chronicle website. According to the white paper, the top priorities have changed His comments address water issues ranging from desalination since 2003; they now include communication with the public, to agriculture, bottled water, water conflicts, efficiency, and state leadership and advocacy, regulatory consistency, funding, sanitation and hygiene. Each post includes a “water number,” a and public support. Five new issues were also identified: statistic that will likely surprise many readers; in fact this feature constituents of emerging concern (pharmaceuticals and personal- could appropriately be called “reality check.” For example, Gleick care products), antidegradation (protecting water quality while determined that his personal water bill amounts to nearly $4,400 supporting beneficial use), salinity management, indirect potable per acre-foot, compared to $10 to $100 per acre-foot that farmers reuse, and improved water-recycling information. typically pay. In another post, the water number was “not zero” Primary obstacles to addressing the issues were identified as lack for the number of new dams built in California in the past few of leadership (often at the state level), the need for legislative decades—in spite of much publicity to the contrary. Gleick has change, and lack of funding. much to teach us about California, western, and world water issues, and this site provides information in easy-to-digest nuggets. Access the 52-page paper at www.nwri-usa.org/epublications.htm. continued on next page Visit www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/blogs/gleick/. Site Promotes Government Transparency Business Directory Regulations.gov U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) john j ward, rg This website allows users to search, view, and comment on groundwater consultant regulations issued by the U.S. government. It is currently undergoing redesign, based on user comments collected over the - water supply - water rights summer, to facilitate greater discussion about the issues. - peer review - litigation support - expert witness - due diligence Regulations.gov contains all proposed federal regulations and the final rules as published in the Federal Register, as well as Tucson AZ supporting materials and public comments. Users can comment phone: (520) 296-8627 email: [email protected] on proposed rules to the relevant agencies through the site. It cell: (520) 490-2435 web: www.wardgroundwater.com holds 2 million documents from more than 160 federal entities.
Visit www.regulations.gov.
Water Recycling Progress Slow in CA Water Recycling 2030: Recommendations of California’s Recycled Water Task Force National Water Research Institute This paper outlines progress made in the last six years to address challenges associated with implementing water recycling projects in California. Progress was evaluated according to whether 2003 recommendations by the California Recycled Water Task Force (CRWTF) have been implemented, and if so, what level of success has been achieved. The task force identified 26 regulatory, economic, and societal issues affecting the implementation of water recycling projects and recommended means for addressing each. Issues included such topics as bonds, cross-connections, plumbing code changes, education, community involvement, leadership, and other regulatory matters. The white paper concluded that of 14 key issues identified by CRWTF, no recommendations had been fully implemented and recommendations for only five issues had been partially implemented. Futhermore, of all 26 issues, recommendations
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 39 In Print & Online
A View of California’s measures, and reduced development in programs worldwide, of which 26 are Coastal Future vulnerable areas. active, 21 are under consideration or development, and 10 are inactive or The Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on the Detailed maps showing areas of population California Coast are completed pilots with no plans for and critical infrastructure at risk are future trades. Most were in the United The Pacific Institute included in the report and available online. States, with only six programs existing This analysis prepared for three Visit www.pacinst.org/reports/sea_level_rise/. elsewhere—four in Australia, one in California state agencies estimates that New Zealand, and one in Canada. 480,000 people, a wide range of critical Special Issue Addresses infrastructure, vast areas of wetlands The authors identified five key factors and other natural ecosystems, and Emerging Contaminants that stakeholders attributed to successful nearly $100 billion in property along Contaminants of Emerging Concern in implementation of their trading programs: Water Resources the California coast are at increased risk • strong regulatory and/or nonregulatory from flooding from a four-foot sea-level American Water Resources Association drivers, which helped create a demand rise if no adaptative measures are taken. Edited by USGS scientists William for water-quality credits; Populations in San Mateo, Orange, and Battaglin and Dana Kolpin, the February • minimal potential liability risks to the Alameda counties were found to be 2009 issue of the Journal of the American regulated community from meeting especially vulnerable. The selected sea- Water Resources Association contains regulations through trades; level rise is the projected change by 2100 a collection of papers that address the • robust, consistent, and standardized based on medium- to medium-high environmental occurrence of trace organic estimation methodologies for nonpoint greenhouse-gas emissions scenarios. compounds such as pharmaceuticals, source actions; In the past century, sea level has risen personal care products, pesticides, and nearly eight inches along the coast. hormones, and their potential adverse • standardized tools, transparent effects on aquatic and terrestrial life and processes, and online registries to Adaptation strategies that could reduce minimize transaction costs; and the impacts include coastal armoring and human health. The papers address how other flood protection, erosion-prevention the compounds enter the environment, • buy-in from local and state stakeholders. detection capabilities, and questions concerning contaminant environmental Before going to the expense of developing fate and behavior, as well as wastewater a water-quality trading program, the and drinking-water treatment efficacies. report recommends that the relevant The edited volume arose from a 2007 bodies—either governmental or AWRA specialty conference and nongovernmental—ensure these factors provides an overview of the detection are in place. and sources of contaminants of emerging Access the 16-page report at www.wri.org/ concern, their fate and transport publication/water-trading-quality-programs- in natural and engineered systems, international-overview. receptors and effects, and social and engineering solutions to problems. Predict Contaminant
Journal available in libraries or to AWRA members Degradation from Isotopes at www.awra.com. Also visit toxics.usgs.gov. A Guide for Assessing Biodegradation and Source Identification of Organic Groundwater Contaminants Using Worldwide Water Quality Compound Specific Isotope Analysis Trades Evaluated U.S. EPA Water Quality Trading Programs: An International Overview When organic contaminants are degraded in the environment, the ratio World Resources Institute of stable isotopes of elements in the According to the World Resources compounds often changes, and the Institute, water-quality trading is gaining extent of degradation can be recognized traction in watersheds around the world. and predicted from that change. Recent The market-based approach works with advances in analytical chemistry make water-quality regulations to improve possible compound-specific isotope water quality, provide flexibility in how analysis (CSIA) on dissolved organic regulations are met, and potentially contaminants such as chlorinated solvents, lower the cost of regulatory compliance aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons, and and abatement. WRI researchers fuel oxygenates, at concentrations in water identified 57 water-quality trading that are near their regulatory standards.
40 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology Stable isotope analyses can provide an to inform clean-water and drinking- Also included is a wiki to facilitate in-depth understanding of biodegradation water program managers about climate collaboration and information sharing. or abiotic transformation processes change topics, issues, and opportunities. Visit www.epa.gov/watershedcentral. in contaminated aquifers. Because Visit www.epa.gov/ow/climatechange/. CSIA is a new approach, there are no widely accepted standards for accuracy, Calculate Water Footprint precision, and sensitivity, and no Watershed Resources Global Water Tool established approaches to document Clearinghouse World Business Council for Sustainable accuracy, precision, sensitivity, or Watershed Central Development representativeness. This December 2008 publication provides recommendations for U.S. EPA Businesses can calculate their water sampling, measurement, data evaluation, This new website aims to help footprint, determine areas where they and interpretation in CSIA. watershed organizations and others might improve efficiency, and evaluate find information on implementing water-supply-related risks relative to their Access the 82-page report (EPA 600-R-08-148) at www. global operations and supply chains with epa.gov/ada/pubs/reports/600r08148/600r08148.pdf. watershed management projects. The site links not only to EPA web this update of a web tool first released in 2007. Created by CH2M Hill and the Get Climate Info Updates resources, but also to those of state, tribal, and federal partners; universities; World Business Council for Sustainable Climate Change and Water E-Newsletter and nonprofit organizations. Key Development, the tool appears best U.S. EPA information includes environmental suited to companies with a wide data, watershed models, nearby local international presence that need general EPA’s National Water Program now guidance for dealing with water issues, offers a weekly electronic newsletter organizations, guidance documents, and particularly in countries with limited covering news and information related other information, as well as links to water resources or that lack improved to water programs and climate change. watershed technical resources, funding water and sanitation facilities. ■ It provides short articles and links to sources, mapping applications, and related sites and is part of a larger effort information on specific watersheds. Access the Global Water Tool at www.wbcsd.org.
Excel spreadsheet tools for analyzing groundwater level records and displaying information in ArcMap, by Fred D Tillman http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/tm4f1
Southwest principal aquifers regional ground-water quality assessment, by D.W. Anning, S.A. Thiros, L.M. Bexfield, T.S. McKinney, and J.M. Green http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2009/3015
Spatially referenced statistical assessment of dissolved-solids load sources and transport in streams of the Upper Colorado River Basin, by T.A. Kenney, S.J. Gerner, S.G. Buto, and L.E. Spangler http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2009/5007
Identifying hydrologic processes in agricultural watersheds using precipitation-runoff models, by J.I. Linard, D.M. Wolock, R.M.T. Webb. and M.E. Wieczorek http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2009/5126
Groundwater quality, age, and probability of contamination, Eagle River Watershed Valley-Fill Aquifer, North-Central Colorado, 2006-2007, by M.G. Rupert and L. Niel Plummer http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2009/5082
Occurrence of selected organic compounds in groundwater used for public supply in the plio-pleistocene deposits in East-Central Nebraska and the Dawson and Denver Aquifers near Denver, Colorado, 2002-2004, by J.B. Bails, B.J. Dietsch, M.K. Landon, and S.S. Paschke http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5243
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology | 41 Calendar
SEPTEMBER 2009
September 13-16 WateReuse Association. 24th Annual WateReuse Symposium. Seattle, WA. www.watereuse.org/conferences/symposium/24 September 13-17 Ground Water Protection Council. Water/Energy Sustainability Symposium. Salt Lake City, UT. www.gwpc.org/meetings/forum/forum.htm September 13-19 Rocky Mountain Section of AWWA and Rocky Mountain Water Environment Association. Joint Annual Conference. Albuquerque, NM. www.rmwea.org/rmwea/committees/annual_conference/annual.htm September 14-16 Soil and Water Conservation Society. From Dust Bowl to Mud Bowl: Sedimentation, Conservation Measures, and the Future of Reservoirs. Kansas City, MO. www.swcs.org/en/conferences/sedimentation/ September 22-23 National Ground Water Association. 7th International Conference on Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water. Baltimore, MD. www.ngwa.org/DEVELOPMENT/conferences/details/0909225013.aspx September 23 Nevada Water Resources Association. Well Drillers Workshop. Las Vegas, NV. www.nvwra.org September 29-30 Multi-State Salinity Coalition and Coachella Valley Water District. Water Supply, Agriculture, and Salinity Management Workshop. Indian Wells (Palm Springs area), CA. multi-statesalinitycoalition.com/events.php September 29-October 1 San Francisco Estuary Partnership. Our Actions, Our Estuary: 9th Biennial State of the San Francisco Estuary Conference. Oakland, CA. www.sfestuary.org
OCTOBER 2009
October 2-5 National Ground Water Association. 2009 Theis Conference: Ground Water and Climate Change. Boulder, CO. www.ngwa.org October 3-7 American Institute of Professional Geologists. 2009 Geology and Resources Conference: Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Plateau Canyons, Resources, and Hazards. Grand Junction, CO. www.aipg.org/ October 5-7 National Ground Water Association. Environmental Geochemistry of Metals: Investigation and Remediation (short course). Las Vegas, NV. www.ngwa.org October 5-9 CA-NV Section American Water Works Association. 2009 Annual Fall Conference. Las Vegas, NV. ca-nv-awwa.org/iMISpublic/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Events44 October 6-7 Groundwater Resource Association of California. 27th Biennial Groundwater Conference & 18th GRAC Annual Meeting—Water Crisis and Uncertainty: Shaping Groundwater’s Future. Sacramento, CA. www.grac.org/ October 6-8 National Rural Water Association. Annual Conference and Technology Exhibit. Louisville, KY. www.nrwa.org/evLForum.htm October 14-16 National Ground Water Association. Ground Water Management Issues Forum. Tahoe City, CA. www.ngwa.org/DEVELOPMENT/conferences/details/0910145009.aspx October 15-16 New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute. 54th Annual New Mexico Water Conference: Water Planning in a Time of Uncertainty. Isleta Pueblo, NM. wrri.nmsu.edu October 18-21 Geological Society of America. 2009 GSA Annual Meeting - From Volcanoes to Vineyards: Living with Dynamic Landscapes. Portland, OR. www.geosociety.org/meetings/2009/ October 19-23 International Mine Water Association. 2009 International Mine Water Conference. Pretoria, South Africa. www.wisa.org.za/minewater2009.htm October 22-23 Southwest Hydrology. Water and Land for Renewable Energy in the Southwest (workshop). Tucson, AZ. www.swhydro.arizona.edu/renewable
NOVEMBER 2009
November 2-4 National Ground Water Association. Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in GW: Prevention, Assesment, and Remediation Conference (Nov. 2-3); Assessment of LNAPL Volume, Mobility, and Recovery (short course; Nov. 4); Petroleum Hydrogeology (short course; Nov. 4). Costa Mesa, CA. www.ngwa.org November 3 Groundwater Resources Association of California. Nanotechnology for Environmental Cleanup and Pollution Control. Northern CA. www.grac.org/nanotech.asp November 3-4 Nevada Water Resources Association. 2009 Truckee River Symposium. Reno, NV. www.nvwra.org November 3-4 National Ground Water Association. Monitored Natural Attenuation: Mechanisms, Site Characterization, Evaluation, and Monitoring (short course). Denver, CO. www.ngwa.org/development/shortcourses/sc-details/147/091103147.aspx November 5-7 California Groundwater Association. 61st Annual CGA Convention & Trade Show. Reno, NV. www.groundh2o.org/events/index.html November 8 American Water Resources Association. 45th Annual Water Resources Conference. Seattle, WA. www.awra.org/pdf/AWRA2009Seattle.pdf November 15-19 American Water Works Association. 2009 Water Quality Technology Conference and Exposition. Seattle, WA. www.awwa.org/Conferences/wqtc.cfm?ItemNumber=32120&navItemNumber=3545
42 | SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2009 | Southwest Hydrology The Resource for Semi-Arid Hydrology We thank our advertisers for their support:
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