Boko Haram Menance

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi ©IDOSR Publication International Digital Organization for Scientific Research ISSN: 2550-7974 IDOSR JOURNAL OF ARTS AND MANAGEMENT 6(1): 53-62, 2021.

Boko Haram Menance: A 21st Century Challenge to Peace and National Stability in Nigeria Ikeanyi Chike Joseph Department of Political Science, Tansian University , Umunya, Anambra State, Nigeria. e- mail: [email protected]: +234-8037-949-407; +234-556-601-721(GSM)

ABSTRACT The fourth wave of terrorism (1990s–present) is characterized by a fundamentalist view of the belief system and justification of acts of terrorism. Using Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria as our unit of observation and analysis,the specific task of task of this paper include an examination of the politicization of religion(Islamism) and extremist Islamic movements in the country, and providing an eclectic viewpoint encompassing religious, socio-economicand political implications of the Boko Haram menance in Nigeria. The paper hightslights the fact that religious fundamentalism,and Islamic revivalism is not an epiphenomenal factor in politics and society,but a means to political ends targeting the institutionalization of Islamic state through Islamization. The paper argues,among others,that terrorism motivated by religious fundamentalism, whether at the domestic setting,or at the international arena , is a particularly dangerous form of terrorism because it derives its strength of religiosity from ideology, which carries a political and moral weight when invoked. This we demonstrate by providing a socio- historical analysis of the evolving ideological and political content of Boko Haram and its implication for religious tolerance and national security in Nigeria. Keywords: Islamism; Boko Haram; Islamic movements.

INTRODUCTION Problematique Every nation, in every region, now has a a politically active instrument in both decision to make. Either you are withus, or national and international politics [8]. you are with the terrorists" [1,2,3]. Thus, in Islam there is a unity of the However, operating at both a conscious political and the religious, though,the and subconscious levels given the „shared political, though is often clothed in the cultural universe‟ or „collective religious. In otgher words,the religious cosmology‟ in term of the ideological fundamentalism,and Islamic revivalism is (beliefs);the ritualistic (practices);the not an epiphenomenal factor in politics experiential (feelings); the intellectual and society,but a means to political ends (knowledge); and the targeting the institutionalization of Islamic consequential(effects) [4,5,6], if state through Islamization [9]. Terrorism harmonized and used positively religion motivated by religious fundamentalism, could provide or serve as a instruments whether at the domestic setting,or at the of peace and conflict resolution for international arena , is a particularly peaceful co-existance. What however, dangerous form of terrorism because it makes religion appear as conceiced by derives its strength of religiosity from Max as „the heart of a heartless world, and ideology, which carries a political and the soul of soulless conditions‟ [7], is not moral weight when invoked [10]. However, not religion in itself , but the perceptual looking at region, one distinction that difference in individual religious many observers of faiths fail to make identity,and their modes of religious concerns the difference between identification. It is this ethnicity of revivalism and fundamentalism.While the religion that makes it a way of life for so religion of Islam is remarkable for its many people across the world. This explicit precepts favouring cultural and sentimental attachment to it by people of religious pluralism [11],muslim practice different culture and background makes it has often fallen short of Muslim principles. The charcter of terrorism in its fourth

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi phase today has shown that religion was taken, what enables terrorist religious provides a set of powerful political organizations to survive as an armed precepts and practices with universal group? ;what are the implications of implications [12]. One ,thus, understand religiously inspired terrorist activity [15]. why the latest manifestation of Sharia in This paper provides answers to the above the northern states of Nigeria, is a neo- questions from an eclectic,or fundamentalist project, degenerated from multidisciplinary viewpoint encompassing the overtly political religious agenda of a historical, economic,religious, political “return to Islam” into one that “is being perspectives for understanding the replaced by a plan to implement the sharia menance and challenges of Boko Haram in and purify mores,” [13], and the Boko Nigeria. The paper is organized into four Haram is not apolitical,even when it claims parts that answers the above to be the “People Committed to the questions.The first part presents a Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and taxonomy of theorization on the Boko Haram phenomenon in Nigeria ,which in ,وال جهاد ل لدعىة ال س نة اهل جماعة : Jihad(in Arabic Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati Wal- turn provides a concatenated framework Jihad). of analysis for understanding the Today,”religion is just a tool sometimes radicalizing role of religious ideology. The used to justify actions triggered by more second part discuses how ignorance and mundane reasons [14]. Thus,discources on poverty combine to explain the Boko new” religious terrorism or terrorist Haram based on Almajirai -Tsangaya religious organizations have a double system which serves as the repository of legitimacy handicap, as both terrorist and the Boko Haram membership religious .This leads quite naturally to the mobilization. The third part looks at the following questions: When we speak of Philosophy of Boko Haram‟s and how it Islam and terrorism ,which Islam are we contradicts its claims. The fouth part discussing? Is Islam a static set of discources how the state is implicated in authoritative cultural norms, or is Islam a the emergence of Boko Haram,and why the dynamic, spiritual response to life based state is the major target of its attacks. The on essential precepts? What explains the fifth part demonstrate why the re- emergence of terrorist religious emergence Boko Haram, is more political organizations from the broader social than religious.The sith part highlights the movement? What explains the terrorist implications of religiously motivated group’ selection of violence as a means of terrorism in Nigeri. The final part political opposition? Once this decision synthesises the discourse [16]. TOWARDS A TAXONOMY OF THEORIZATION ON THE BOKO HARAM PHENOMENON IN NIGERIA Though there are several well-known Islam have already indicated, Islamism can tropes such as the „„radicalizing‟‟ role of be usefully examined using multiple religious ideology, the socio-economic and disciplinary lenses [17] ,rather than a too political exclusion of specific social narrow analytical focus. At this juncture groups, the „„misinterpreting‟‟ of religious ,there is need to provide a concatenated texts, and so on, about Boko Haram, it is fromwork of analysis for understanding possible to group some of the more the Boko Haram menace from „reasonable‟ explanations of the sect multidisciplinary viewpoint that around some theoretical constructs and encompass historical, sociological, and then interrogate the validity of such religious and political as basis for „theories‟ in understanding both why the appreciating Boko Haram as a religiously sect came into being and the audacity of motivated terrorist group withing the its activities.As specialists of political paradigm of „new terrorism [18]. Human Needs and Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis To this end,the faith-based agencies see international community needs to be clear something beyond human security. The about "whose insecurity?" is the priority primacy of human rights distinguishes under the global war on terrorism"(GWOT) human security from traditional state- since terrorism accounts for only a tiny based approaches.For instance,the share of violence- related deaths. Poor

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi people suffer disproportionately from German church-based development insecurity [19]. The Directors of the three agencies, in a 2003 statement, noted that: The absence of global justice is a fundamental challenge to us, because it has for a long time been violating the lives of billions of people day-by- day, and not because it has for a short time also been linked to the horrifying terrorist use of force. It is not fear that makes us act, but the conviction that another world is necessary and possible" [6]. The extended concept of human security instance the CBN Governor Sanusi Lamido by the United Nations Development Sanusi was quoted by ThisDay of January Programme (UNDP) Human Development 28 2012 as blaming the rise of Boko Haram Report [20] as " protecing the vital core of partly on economic inequality among all human lives in ways that enhance states and regions caused by the principle human freedoms and human fulfilment" of derivation, which gives 13 percent of oil [21],is defeated ,once the expansionist revenue to the oil producing states. perspective of human development involve According to Sanusi, who had clarified that Human Needs theorists would argue that he was quoted out of context, "There is one of the primary causes of protracted clearly a direct link between the very violence is people‟s drive to meet their uneven nature of distribution of resources unmet needs. The argument here is that and the rising level of violence." A variant the relative poverty in the North, of this explanation is that the huge sums especially in the North-east, the Boko allocated in training former Niger Delta Haram‟s main base, disposes people to militants overseas under the Amnesty violence. While there is some merit in this Programme of the late Umaru Yaradua may position, we argue that this cannot have had the unintended effect of comprehensively explain the audacity of triggering envy and frustration or sending the sect‟s actions or why similar groups a message that violence pays. This have not emerged in other impoverished notwithstanding, while these may be partly parts of the country [22]. true, they cannot comprehensively explain The argument here is that frustration why the Boko Haram type of violence is causes aggression but when the source of not generalised in the North or why several the frustration cannot be challenged, the states in the South which do not benefit aggression gets displaced onto an innocent from the 13% derivation or the amnesty target. There are a number of explanations programme have also not taken to of the Boko Haram phenomenon that militancy [23]. would seem to fit into this theory. For The Almajirai -Tsangaya Thesis Most analyst have misconstrued the their territories and accepted their new contextual meaning of Boko Haram, by roles as mere traditional rulers used only erroeusly suggesting that literaily that for the system of indirect rule. In most of because of the conquest of northern these areas the British did not give much Nigeria and the eventual collapse of the recognition to the almajirai education original almajirai system , the new system as emphasis was on western system of education as a rival to the education.Under the new arrangement, the religious belief of the majority of the almajirai system did not get the type of people of northern Nigeria, is manifest in attention earlier devoted to it under the a tendency to view the mindset of the Sarauta/Emirate system, especially as people as being made up by western related to state funding.Thus, with the education, which also increased the level British withdrawal of state funding for the of their hatred to it. The colonial invasion almajiri schools, the emirs lost of Nigeria with particularly reference to fundamental control of the almajirai the northern region led to the collapse of system and it collapsed. In this way, the the almajirai system and the inability of disregard for the almajirai system in the government to maintain those favour of western education ignited involved. In this invasion most of the animosity and antagonism among the Emirs were either killed or disposed, while mallams, their pupils, and northern those who were subjugated lost control of Nigerian society at large. There was much

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi fear that western education, which is of very low [3]. It must, however, be made Christian-European origin, would lead clear that this sentiment was not shared by graduates to lose their Islamic identity and all northern aristocrats as some of them embrace anti-social behaviour that negated wholeheartedly accepted the establishment the values and principles of Islam [24]. of schools and even provided land for the As a result, the people were made to building of classrooms and staff quarters. believe that the colonialists were agents of For instance, the Emir of Bida did not only perpetuating Christian faith and ideology give a boy to Bishop Samuel Crowther to with the target of converting everyone to be educated, but also wrote to the new religion. On the other hand, the neighbouring Emirs appealing to them to educators, who were mostly Christian allow the Bishop to begin missionary work missionaries, were accused of preaching in their territories [4]. As a result, the the equality of all men and their system of people were made to believe that the education was thought to be capable of colonialists were agents of perpetuating causing “unrest and fanaticism” by Christian faith and ideology with the target bringing up a “separate educated class in of converting everyone to the new religion. rivalry with the accepted rulers of the On the other hand, the educators, who people” [25]. They were also made to were mostly Christian missionaries, were believe that the western education accused of preaching the equality of all introduced by the infidels was the same men and their system of education was thing as Christianisation, which had to be thought to be capable of causing “unrest avoided at all cost. It was therefore not and fanaticism” by bringing up a “separate surprising that even as late as 1936 educated class in rivalry with the accepted enrollment in newly established schools in rulers of the people” [7]. the northern part of the country was still The Almajirai System as the Repository of the Boko Haram Membership Mobilizaion . The larger and more numerous the goals of political work (da`wa, “call,” or mission) social movement organizations, the greater will, it is now believed, bring one‟s co- will be the requirement for mobilization of Muslims to the correct view [8]. resources and support.All social movement Accordingly, the almajirai education organizations face the challenge of system, originally called the Tsangaya, is generating resources and support in order one of the oldest educational system to attain their identified aims. To established in the area under a system overcome this,patient construction of local extending from the frontiers of northern institutions and social support of Nigeria across the Chadian region up to the underprivileged Muslims combine local borders of Libya.This system took root as empowerment with Islamization [9]. In this far back as between the 9th and 11th framework, emphasis is placed on the centuries with the establishment of Islam internal operations of the group: how does in the northeastern corner of present-day it recruit members, how does it keep Nigeria (Kanem-Borno). It was established members (e.g. incentives, ideological as an organised and comprehensive motivation). system of education for learning Islamic According to the Israeli historian principles, values, jurisprudence and Emmanuel Sivan, realizing the Islamic state theology. It was a replica of Islamic is really a triangular path, with consecutive learning centres in many Muslim countries, isolationist, educational, and violent steps such as the madrasah in Pakistan, [10]. First comes withdrawal from corrupt, Malaysia, Egypt and Indonesia, etc, [1]. neo-jahili, society. Believers start over by The Hausa word almajiri (plural almajirai), establishing their own small, puritan derived from the Arabic al-Muhajir (plural communities, typically near the desert or al-Muhajirun),is hinged on the Islamic far from the city‟s (or the West‟s) concept of migration, which is widely corrupting influence. In this stage of practiced especially when the acquisition meditation and self-purification, the of knowledge at home is either reborn Muslim is in hijra, internal exile inconvenient or insufficient [2]. It bests that may prepare him or her for the second describes an emigrant with specific stage: reentry. Peaceful educational and reference to early scholars as well as

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi others in quest for knowledge, who specifdic term, Sheik Abba Aji, a renowned migrates from the luxury of his home to Maiduguri-based Islamic scholar [4], noted other places or to a popular teacher in the that: quest for Islamic knowledge. In a more The word almajiri is a word borrowed from Arabic language and derived from the word “al-Muhajir” meaning a seeker of Islamic knowledge. The almajirai system of education practised in northern Nigeria has its origin in the migration of Prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. Those who migrated with the prophet to Medina were called “al-Muhajirun,” meaning emigrants, while those they met there were referred to as “Ansar,” meaning helpers.These emigrants (al-Muhajirun) because of the circumstances of their migration had no means of livelihood for getting to Medina, but based on the fraternity established by the prophet between the two groups, they did not engage in begging but rather were co-opted by the Ansar in their various trades and vocations as apprentices were paid for their services.” …. Islam frowns at begging in any form because it reduces a Muslim‟s self-esteem and dignity. Due to the relevance attached to this and their teachers, as the community system, and the fact that it was the major readily supported these almajirai most of source of training both in cultural and whom came from faraway places to enroll Islamic education (even for the ruling in the Tsangaya schools. In return, the houses), it was funded directly by the state almajirai offered services such as laundry, treasury and the state zakat funds, and cobbling, gardening, weaving and sewing under the control of the emirs of the among others as charity to the community traditional government system that existed that contributed to their well-being. during the period. It was thus not difficult Writing on the organization of the system, to ensure the welfare of both the students [6] stated the following: The almajirai system, though funded, was not over-dependent on the state. The students were at liberty to acquire a vocational and occupational skill in between their Islamic lessons and so were involved in farming, fishing, well construction, masonry, production, trade, tailoring, small businesses, etc. Many of them were the farmers of the northern Nigerian cotton and groundnut pyramids. They formed the majority of the traders in the commercial city of Kano. They were the leather tanners and leather shoe and bag makers in the old Sokoto Empire. The cap weavers and taylors in Zaria city were said to be Almajiris. Thus, they formed the largest percentage of the community workforce and made significant contributions to the economy of the society before the introduction of white collar jobs. After colonialization, they were recruited by the British as columbite and tin miners in Jos city, which was then under Bauchi before the creation of plateau state. Owing to the current socio-economic The report shows that among the six situation characterized by northernization geopolitical zones of the country, the of poverty as reflected in largely Northwest and Northeast recorded the unemployed youths, there has been the highest poverty rates of 70 per cent and 69 apprehension that this sorely neglected per cent, respectively. The projection of section of the young population could be the Bureau for 2011 was also gloomy with dragged into major political crises, if predictions of 71.5 per cent, 61.9 per cent, urgent steps are not taken to integrate and 62.8 per cent poverty rates for North- them into the mainstream of the socio- Central, Northeast and Northwest, economic life. Owing to widespread respectively [7] poverty, some parents are left with no Several studies such as [8,10,13], among choice than to continue sending their others , have pointed to how Almajiri children into the street disguised as Breeds future terrorists.The allegations of almajirai. According to the 2010 National the involvement of almajirai in the spate Bureau of Statistics‟ poverty profile, of sectarian crises which bedeviled the though poverty permeates the entire Northern states in has been substantiated country, it is more profound in the North. by the fact that the almajirai institution

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi provides repertoire and repository from societies in which they live. The virtual which Islamic fundamentalists in the North community constructed by Boko Haram‟s draw their membership. This institution provides its virtual citizens with a forum nurtured over the past century in northern to exchange ideas and a “news room” to Nigeria, is now open for the taking in provide “education” on current events. All extending wars of attrition at different those with access to the Internet can feel times in the name of God by radical that they are part of the brotherhood and Islamic groups. the dawa (the spreading of Islam) [7]. Wither Anti-Semitism: A Decontruction Supposedly,Boko Haram‟s philosophy is and and Double Reading of Boko Haram‟s not compatible with Western notions of Philosophy modernity, unlike Wahhabism ,it pursues Despite anti-Semitism being part of Boko its objective through the very products of Haram, is a jihadist terrorist organization Western modernity.Contrary to the literary based in the northeast of Nigeria,also [mis]interpretation of Boko Haram‟s interpreted as People Committed to the ideology as Western education” is Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and “sin/bad”, the contextual interpretation Jama'atu of its ideology had to be first and ,وال جهاد ل لدعىة ال س نة اهل جماعة ) Jihad Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati Wal-Jihad), foremost understood from the view point religious fundamentalists,generally, and the products of the Almajiranci System [the Boko Haram,in particular adopt many non Western educational seytem] who aspects of modernity (especially weaponry, claim to be socially,economically,and the Internet and other forms of politically, disempowered vis-à-vis their communication, as well as decentralized Northern elite" ,who the “sinful” Western organization) [7]. Also, Boko Haram‟s education produced and is empowered to propaganda machine reaches its be dominating them [9]. prospective constituency through many This simple logic of reasoning shows that aspects of modernity modern technology, the ideology of Boko Haram goes beyond the Internet. Boko Haram‟s print media this. The textual interplay‟ of a contextual outreach generally takes the form of interpretation of Boko Haram‟s ideology leaflets ,and video clips usually conveying of Western education” is “sin/bad is its “acts of valour”,and statement of supplementary and mutually constitutive assertion of its responsibility for acts of of its goal. Textuality promotes greater terrorism. These are accessible over the „theoretical reflexivity‟ through a double Internet in various languages, which process: the first is „self-consciousness of effectively complements Boko Haram‟s one‟s own historical time and place which media propaganda [8]. determines the questions that claim Thus, the mediascape and cyberspace ,a attention‟, the second is „the effort to product of Western modernity allows them understand the historical dynamics that to construct a virtual Islamist community brought about the conditions in which that is frequented by members, these questions arose‟ by ruling out the prospective members and sympathizers. possibility of objective knowledge [12]. Boko Haram‟s targeted web-surfers are often Muslims who feel alienated from the The Failed or Failing State Thesis In addition, [15] has highlighted poor due to government's inability to provide governance and management of State functional education and gainful resources as stimulating the emergence of employment for its citizens. all sorts of messianic groups in the name Similarly,crime rate and state of insecurity of providing alternatives to the , youth restiveness and other criminal unemployed, underemployed, hungry, activities in Nigeria have been linked to poor, cheated, uneducated and to a certain the issue of youth unemployment , extent, the unenlightened but educated spiritual poverty and joblessness of the and rich ones. What can be seen as the youth, the effect of which there is palpable failure of governance is the army of fear for security of lives and property all jobless youth and collection of semi and over the country [5]. As a result, [13] stark adult illiterates scattered all over, contends that Nigeria has lost enormous

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi human and material resources that are Nigeria in 1999. Given the expected role of critical to national development as a result the state as the guarantor of security, [15] of ethnic and religious violence since the regrets that: enthronement of democratic rule in The inability of the state to effectively perform its core functions of providing or guaranteeing security for the people as well as act as regulator has led to a weakening of its bargaining strength and capacity in relation to the ethnic and religious groups in society, which poses a serious challenge to national security. Islamism, Re-Emergence Boko Haram, Middle East, the current political, Political Social Movement , More Political economic,and social conditions in than Religious. Though,emerging studies northern Nigeria suggestthat the region is have established a link between poverty, ripe for infiltration by radical Islamic ignorance, violent crisis and terrorism, groups [9]. especially in most parts of the Third World In retrospect, a careful analysis of the the [8,9,14], in the case of Nigeria (with „modus operandi‟ of the Yantatsine and the specific reference to the northern part as Shiites suggests that they were a well as evidence from the Niger Delta misunderstood social movement against area), terrorism is a tactic used by the the present level of social injustice in weak to intimidate the strong and by the Nigeria; they were simply reformist strong to intimidate the weak [16]. Thus,as organization expressing what were Gurr explains terrorism is a tactic but it supposed to be popular grievances, but may also be a strategy.Religiously inspired using unpopular strategies. When terrorist activity has been linked with testifying before the Aniagolu Tribunal, radical Islamists, who employs it as a the Emir of Kano, His Royal Highness, Ado strategem at the national and international Bayero, noted that though the desire to levels [9] for political end. make money could explain some of the Indeed, they are drawing strength from the things Mohammed Marwa did during his inability and unwillingness of the federal, life time, the over-riding agenda of his state, and local governments to either religious fundamentalism was political. improve ordinary Nigerians‟standards of According to the Emir, Marwa saw himself living, or fully respect their politicaland first and foremost as a reformer who civil rights.In actual fact, based on the needed political power to effect his experiences of othercountries with large reformation of the society [13]. Muslim populations in NorthAfrica and the IMPLICATIONS OF RELIGIOUSLY MOTIVATED TERRORISM IN NIGERIA While religious extremists are willing to the Contemporary World;and Terror in the murder because they embrace theologies Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious that sanction violence in the service of God Violence by [8]; [3],and [4],Religious and have no sympathy for their victims, Resurgence and Politics in the because they view those victims as Contemporary World [8] by Emile Sahliyeh enemies of God, they “maintain the pure (ed.),Terror in the Mind of God:The Global state of their religion knowingly or Rise of Religious Violence [15] by Mark unknowingly by violating the rights of Juergensmeyer,among others. other people” [11]. Religious extremists This militantly political re-appropriation readily sacrifice their own lives because of religious precepts by those who act they expect huge and immediate afterlife under the “veil of ignorance” raises the rewards in return form “martyrdom” [6]. question of whether “God has a favourite Thus,by pursuing more radical strategies religion [4],or whether a religion is better for political and social change men have and more acceptable to God than some been very willing to “kill in the name of others.Harkening to this notion of God” This is suggestive of the themes of ethnicity of religion explains the reason several studies such as “The Rise of why men actually kill in the name of god Religious Nationalism and Conflict: Ethnic for several reasons,other than Conflict and Revolutionary Wars, 1945 – religious.This has had the implication, that 2001,” Religious Resurgence and Politics in

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi religiously motivated killings across the several other violent outbursts and/or polity [1,2,3]. religious riots that followed Although most of the terror pepetrated sequentially,including the Bullum-Kutu care often gabbed with religious (Maitatsine) in October 1982, Rigasa colouration, it has been established over (Kaduna) in 1982, Jimeta-Yola; Gombe time that the actors had appropriated (Bauchi state) in 1984. As Similarly, religion in the pursuit of other ends.This Hussaini Abdul (n.d.) had observed: was the case of Maitatsine Uprising and

Since the 1980s, Ethnic and Religious crises have become a reoccurring decimal in Northern Nigeria. There is virtually no state out of the 19 states that constitute the Northern Nigeria that crisis of this nature has not raised its ugly head. Since the middle 1980s the spate of violence has continued to increase. Among these includes: Maitatsine crisis in Kano 1980, Bullum- Kutu 1982, Maiduguri 1982, Yola 1984, Ilorin 1984, Bauchi 1984, Ilorin 1987, Kano 1984, Kafanchan 1987, Zuru 1980, Birnin Kebbi 1990, Katsina 1991, Tafawa Balewa 1991, Kano 1991, Jalingo 1992, Kaduna Polytechnic 1992, Kasuwar Magani (Kaduna) 1994, Gure Kahugu 1987, Kafanchan 1987, 1999, Kaduna 2000 Jos 2001, Kano 2001, Tafawa Balewa (since 2000), Nasarawa 2001. Others include Chamba-Kuteb crisis in Taraba state since 1975 Tiv-Jukun crisis, Bassa-Igbira crisis in Toto and a host of others. While these crises continue to exhibit ethnic and religious colorations, and portray clear manifestation of criminality and frustration resulting from sociological and economic alienation coming from wide spread poverty and unemployment, there are other forces whose identity and character are difficult to define. Many people lost their lives as a result of these crises, some sustained injuries of various degrees, some had their properties worth millions of Naira either destroyed or looted; yet others get permanently dislocated and psychologically depressed. These crises have created a general threat to the security of the citizens, it has resulted in the violation of the rights of citizens. Many people “either through miscarriage of justice or through the failure of the state to prosecute perpetrators and instigators of these clashes” have been unjustly treated. TOWARDS A SYNTHESIS From the foregoing discourse ,an attmpt we identified the institutionalization of have been made to present a concatenated the almajirai education system, originally analysis of the Boko Haram menace in called the Tsangaya whose origin dates as Nigeria .We have demontreated that while far back the 9th and 11th centuries in the virtually everything about Boko Haram is northeastern corner of present-day Nigeria contested, including the reasons for its (Kanem-Borno), with the repository from radicalisation after some seven years of which Islamic fundamentalists in the North being a peaceful group, what is not are drawing their membership. We also contested, however, is that it is a noted that despite anti-semitism being part religiously inspired terrorist group linked of Boko Haram‟s philosophy ,virtually all with Islamism.Also, we have shown that religious fundamentalists, generally, and Boko Haram(the People Committed to the Boko Haram,in particular, adopt many Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and aspects of modernity (especially weaponry, the Internet and other forms of ل لدعىة ال س نة اهل جماعة Jihad (which in Arabic Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati communication). As a religiously ,وال جهاد Wal-Jihad) is first and foremost a social motivated terrorist group, though civilians movement ,constitutive of overlapping of are often the victims, the state is religious, ideological, economic, political generally,seen as an actor that needs to be and other factors.Its sympathizers range destroyed and not negotiated with. In view from political thugs to fanatical zealots, its of these, the observation is that religion is ranks include jobless street both the point of departure and the end of youth,mobilized from the successful the road, in any analysis of new businessmen and sitting Senators in the terrorism.Henece,whether as a tactic or a Nigerian National Assembly. In addition, strategy, ideological uses of religion vi-a-

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi vis religious motivated terrorism, entails a societies‟ economic, cultural, and political rational choice that may have a wide range behaviours.However, this has the of political goals. This is a fact we potemtial of polarizing the society along demonstrated in the Nigerian context, religious lines, which may have the effect religiously motivated violence targeted at of reinforcing ethnicitization of religion Christians to illustrate the fact violence is and politics. This will be the greatest a function of political competition, and a greatest challenge to the Nigerian state in strategic tool aimed at winning this the near or distant future, as has already competition.Thus,religion has never been been demonstrated by reintroduction of apolitical; throughout history, religion has Sharia law in the 12 Northern states. played an important role in shaping REFERENCES 1. Abba, I. A. (1983). “Bara by Some 14. Ayandele, E.A. (1979). Nigeria Almajirai in the 20th Century: A Historical Studies. London: Frank Critical Assessment.” In B.M. Cass and Company Ltd. Barkindo(ed.) ,Studies in the History 15. Baffa, F.Y. (2009, August 27). Boko of Kano. Nigeria: Heinemann Haram: The Real Issues. Leadership. Educational Books. Thrusday, 14. 2. Abdulqadir, I. A. (2003). The 16. Balogun , K. A. (1988).“Religious Almajiri System of Education in Fanaticism in Nigeria: Problems and Nigeria Today. Paper presented at Solutions” in the place of Religion the 21 convocation ceremony of in the Development of Nigeria Bayero University, Kano. edited by K. A. Balogun, P. A. 3. Aliyu U. Tilde( ). THE NEW Dopamu etc. Ilorin, p. 328. CHALLENGES OF BOKO HARAM 17. Elombah.com. (2012). “How Poverty 4. Alubo, S.O. (2006). Nigeria Ethnic Fuels Boko Haram Insurgency.” Conflicts and Citizenship Crisis in Monday, 30 January. the Central Region. Lagos: Eddy 18. Emile Sahliyeh (ed.), Religious Asae Nigeria press. Resurgence and Politics in the 5. Arendt, H. (1969). On violence. New Contemporary World (New York: York: Harcourt, Brace & World. State University of New York Press, 6. Arendt, H. (2002). Reflections on 1990); Mark violence. In C. Besteman (Ed.), 19. English, R. (2009). Terrorism: How Violence: A reader, (pp. 19-34). New to Respond. Oxford: Oxford York: New York University Press. University Press. 7. Argungu Mission Diary (1943). 20. Eskor ,T. (2009, August 30). Boko 8. Arkoun, M. (2007) .Islam: To Reform Haram and Western Education: A or to Subvert? London: Saqi Books. Comment. In Constitution 9. Arkoun, Mohammed. (2007) Islam: 21. Fabiyi, M.(2012).”Boko Haram: An To Reform or to Subvert? London: Existential Threat to the Nigerian Saqi Books. Nation” ,January 21, 2012 - 10. Army Chaplain.” THISDAY, 19:41,http://saharareporters.com/a September, 21. rticle/boko-haram-existential-threat- 11. Asprey, R. B. (1994).War in the nigerian-nation-malcolm-fabiyi-phd. Shadows: The Classic History of 22. Federal Republic of Nigeria ( 1981 Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient ).Report of the Tribunal of Inquiry Persia to the Present, rev. edn on Kano Disturbances, Lagos: (Boston: Little, Brown). Federal Government Press, p. 27. 12. Augsburger, David. 1992. Conflict 23. Fox, Jonathan (2004).“The Rise of Mediation Across Cultures: Religious Nationalism and Conflict: Pathways and Patterns. Louisville: Ethnic Conflict and Revolutionary Westminster/John Knox Press. \ Wars, 1945 –2001,” Journal of Peace 13. Avruch, K. (1998). Culture and Research 41, no. 6 , 715–731; Conflict Resolution. Washington, 24. Fox,J.(2004).“The Rise of Religious DC: United States Institute of Peace Nationalism and Conflict: Ethnic Press. Conflict and Revolutionary Wars,

www.idosr.org Ikeanyi 1945 –2001,” Journal of Peace Research 41, no. 6 (2004): 715–731; 25. Galtung, J. (1997). “Conflict Life Cycles in Occident and Orient”, in D. P. Fry and K. Bjorkqvist, eds, Cultural Variation in Conflict Resolution: Alternatives to Violence. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.