Non-Military Security and Global Order The Impact of Extremism, Violence and Chaos on National and International Security Peter Chalk Non-Military Security and Global Order Also by Peter Chalk WEST EUROPEAN TERRORISM AND COUNTER-TERRORISM: The Evolving Dynamic Non-Military Security and Global Order The Impact of Extremism, Violence and Chaos on National and International Security Peter Chalk National Security Research Division RAND Corporation Arlington, Virginia First published in Great Britain 2000 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0–333–77373–X First published in the United States of America 2000 by ST. MARTIN’S PRESS, LLC, Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 0–312–23167–9 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chalk, Peter. Non-military security and global order : the impact of extremism, violence, and chaos on national and international security / Peter Chalk. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–312–23167–9 (cloth) 1. Internal security. 2. Security, International. I. Title. HV6419 .C53 2000 363.3'2—dc21 00–021169 © Peter Chalk 2000 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 10987654321 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire Contents List of Tables vi List of Illustrations vii Preface ix List of Abbreviations xi Introduction 1 1 Terrorism 15 2 The Global Heroin and Cocaine Trade 37 3 Contemporary Maritime Piracy 57 4 Environmental Degradation 77 5 The Transnational Spread of Disease 95 6 Mass Unregulated Population Flows 115 Conclusion 135 Appendix 1: Statistical Tables 149 Appendix 2: Major International Conventions against Terrorism, Illicit Drugs Production and Trafficking, Piracy and Environmental Degradation 152 Appendix 3: The Maastricht Third Pillar of Judicial and Home Affairs Co-operation 155 Notes 159 Select Bibliography 210 Index 217 v List of Tables A1 International and Domestic Terrorist Incidents, 1968–88 149 A2 International and Domestic Terrorist Incidents by Geographic Location, 1989–96 149 A3 Casualties Caused by International and Domestic Terrorism, 1990–96 150 A4 Costs of Fighting Drug Abuse in the US, 1997–98 150 A5 Pirate Attacks by Geographic Location, 1991–98 151 A6 Violence Committed to Crew During Pirate Attacks, 1991–98 151 vi List of Illustrations Ch. 1 Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 Terrorist suicide kit: plastic explosive and ball-bearing belt worn around the upper torso and triggered by electronic detonator. 19 Fig. 1.3 The reality of modern-day terrorism. The after- effects of an LTTE ‘Black’ suicide bomber. 30 Fig. 1.4 With the threat of nuclear and radiological smuggling on the increase, many ports are now forced to deploy added security when loading and off-loading freight. 34 Ch. 2 Figs. 2.1 and 2.2 Double UO-Globe, commonly found on heroin importations into Australia, Canada and the US (courtesy of the Australian Northern Territory Police, through the Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence). 40 Fig. 2.3 Heroin block arrives in Australia (courtesy of the ANTP, through the ABCI). 42 Fig 2.4 Drugs packaged on the street (courtesy of the ANTP, through the ABCI). 45 Fig 2.5 The Bahari-314 was used to import heroin into Australia. About 123 kg of block heroin was recovered from this vessel in July 1994 (courtesy of Australian Customs Service, through the ABCI). 49 Fig 2.6 The Teh Sun, again used import block heroin. About 21 kg were recovered in July 1995 (courtesy of the Australian Customs Service, through the ABCI). 49 Ch. 3 Fig 3.1 The Anna Sierra, hijacked in a phantom ship attack in Southeast Asia (courtesy of the Regional Piracy Centre in Kuala Lumpur, through the International Chamber of Commerce, London). 63 Fig 3.2 The ‘crew’ who brought the ship to the port of Bei Hei, southern China (courtesy of the RPC, through the ICC, London). 64 vii viii List of Illustrations Ch. 5 Fig 5.1 Section through lung (naked eye appearance) showing numerous white nodules from a fatal case of tuberculosis (courtesy of Professor Jeremy Jass, Department of Pathology, University of Queensland, Australia). 97 Fig 5.2 Microscopic sample obtained from an ulcerated area in the large intestine showing Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan parasitical cyst responsible for amoebic dysentery (courtesy of Professor Jeremy Jass, Department of Pathology, University of Queensland, Australia). 100 Fig 5.3 Bubo in the left ingunial region of a Vietnamese woman. Needle aspiration subsequently revealed numerous micro- organisms which were confirmed as Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of bubonic plague (courtesy of Professor Robin Cook and Dr Geoffrey Bourke, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Australia). 101 Preface This book represents the culmination of four years’ research into the evolving nature of national and international security in the post-Cold War era. It is predicated on the belief that, in many ways, the world since the collapse of the Soviet Union has become more dangerous and unpredictable, involving threats and destabilising influences that lack the relatively clear and precise nature of the conventional influences with which the world was concerned during the height of US and USSR ideological confrontation. Threats in the contemporary era are diffuse, insidious, interrelated and only very occasionally part of the strategic power-plays of specific state actors. The period of large-scale conven- tional war and nuclear Armaggedon is gone. It has been replaced with a new era of insecurity, one that is, arguably, even more threatening than the age that preceded it. It is to an examination of the dimen- sions of this global disorder, and how the international community might best deal with it, that this study is devoted. The extensive array of published and unpublished information used in the preparation of the text is a testament to the number of people who have played a crucial role in the preparation of this book. I would, however, like to extend my particular gratitude to the following for their input, insights and logistical help: Eric Ellen and Jayant Abyankar of the International Maritime Bureau, London; Allen Nugent, the former Counsellor for Narcotics Affairs with the US Embassy in Bangkok; Rohan Gunaratna, British Chevening Scholar at the University of St Andrews; Bruce Hoffman, Director of the RAND Corporation’s Washington office; John McFarlane, Visiting Fellow with the Australian Defence Studies Centre; Douglas Ranmuthugala, Senior Analyst with the Australian Federal Police; Vice-Admiral Nitz Srisomwong, former Director of the Thai Institute of Advanced Naval Studies; John Martin, former Far East Manager of the Malaysian Regional Piracy Centre; Gavin Greenwood, Senior Asian Analyst with the Control Risks Group; Tony Davis, Specialist Correspondent with Jane’s Intelligence Review; Mohan Samarsinghe, Head of Public Information at the Sri Lankan High Commission in Ottawa; Hazel Lang, Research Assistant with the Australian National University’s Research School of Asian and Pacific Studies; Tex Enemark, Public Policy and Government Affairs Consultant in Vancouver; Hugh Barber, ix x Preface Senior Data Analyst with Pinkerton’s Risk Assessment Services, Washington D.C.; Mayer Nudell, Specialist Security Consultant, Virginia; Bob Thomas, Senior Liaison Officer with the Australian Federal Police in Manila; James Cooney, Director of Sustainable Development, Placer Dome Inc., Vancouver; and Alan Dupont, Fellow with the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Canberra. In addition, I would like to thank all those who were willing to talk to me but who, for various reasons, have preferred to remain anonymous. Needless to say, the thoughts contained herein are my own and I consequently take full responsibility for any errors or faults that might occur in the text. I am also grateful to Pinkerton’s Risk Assessment Services, the International Maritime Bureau, the Control Risks Group, the Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence, the Australian Federal Police and the US Embassy in Bangkok for their provision of statistical and visual data. Grateful thanks are due to the Strategic Defence Studies Centre, Taylor and Francis, Jane’s Information Group and Carfax, the publish- ers respectively of the Canberra Papers series, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Jane’s Intelligence Review and the Australian Journal of International Affairs, for permission to use some material from articles and monographs that I had previously written for these journals and magazines. Peter Munro was tireless in his editing assistance. The University of Queensland’s