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Regulation of Erythropoiesis in the Fetus and Newborn Arch Dis Child: first published as 10.1136/adc.47.255.683 on 1 October 1972. Downloaded from Review Article Archives of Disease in Childhood, 1972, 47, 683. Regulation of Erythropoiesis in the Fetus and Newborn PER HAAVARDSHOLM FINNE and SVERRE HALVORSEN From the Paediatric Research Institute, Barneklinikken, Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway The present concept of the regulation of erythro- sis in the human is predominantly myeloid during poiesis is based on the theory that a humoral factor, normal conditions. In other species (mice, rats) erythropoietin, stimulates red cell production it is different, with the shift from hepatic to myeloid through its effects on the erythropoietin sensitive stage occurring after birth (Lucarelli, Howard, stem cell, on DNA synthesis in the erythroblast, and Stohlman, 1964; Stohlman, 1970). and on the release of reticulocytes (Gordon and A progressive increase in erythrocyte content per Zanjani, 1970; Hodgson, 1970). Erythropoietin ml and in Hb concentration has been found in production is regulated by the difference between human blood during the course of intrauterine oxygen supply and demand within the oxygen development, leading to the normal high values at sensitive cells in the kidney. As a response to birth (Thomas and Yoffey, 1962; Walker and hypoxia, a factor called erythrogenin is produced in Tumbull, 1953). Marks, Gairdner, and Roscoe the kidney. This factor acts on a serum substrate (1955), however, found no increase in Hb values copyright. to generate an active humoral factor, the erythro- with gestational age after 31 weeks gestation. poietic stimulating factor (ESF) or erythropoietin The alteration in Hb structure during intrauterine (Gordon, 1971), increased amount of which leads and early neonatal life changes its physical proper- to increased red cell production. ties (de Verdier and Garby, 1969; Delivoria- Many details in this theory are still a matter of Papadopoulos, Poncevic, and Oski, 1971). Hb-F controversy, as for example where in the kidney has a left-shifted oxyhaemoglobin dissociation erythrogenin is produced, where the active ESF curve, i.e. the affinity between Hb-F and oxygen is is generated, whether the kidney is the sole site of high, which makes Hb-F more suitable for providing 02-tension registration and of erythrogenin produc- oxygen transport to the fetus from the placenta. http://adc.bmj.com/ tion, and whether the active ESF is the only factor Though delivery of oxygen to peripheral fetal involved in the regulation of red cell production. tissue must be affected due to this high affinity, Some data, for instance, indicate a more complicated other compensating mechanisms secure sufficient model, and an erythropoietic inhibitory factor has tissue oxygenation. The polycythaemia of the been postulated whereby increased erythropoiesis fetus is probably the most important factor. could also result from a decrease of the inhibiting Mention should be made here of the major factor (Krzymowski and Krzymowska, 1962; differences to be found between Hb-F and Hb-A Skjoelaaen and Halvorsen, 1971; Lindemann, 1971). in their reactions with certain organic phosphorus on October 1, 2021 by guest. Protected compounds in the red cell. 2,3-diphosphogly- Fetal Erythropoiesis cerate (DPG) interacts with the Hb molecule Erythropoiesis takes place at three main sites changing its stereotactic properties and thus its during fetal life; the yolk sac, the liver, and the affinity for oxygen, i.e. the oxyhaemoglobin bone marrow (Yoffey, 1971). In general, erythro- dissociation curve. Hb-F interacts nearly as poiesis at the yolk sac stage, which is predominantly effectively as Hb-A, however, so that this factor megaloblastic, ceases by the end ofthe first trimester. turns out to be not very important in the present Hepatic erythropoiesis then takes over and becomes context (de Verdier and Garby, 1969). dominant until the beginning of the third trimester. Experiments in sheep favour the idea that Hb-F It is at this time that bone marrow erythropoiesis is superior to Hb-A for transport of oxygen through begins, but the hepatic erythropoiesis continues placenta. Exchange transfusion in sheep fetuses until a few days after birth. At birth, erythropoie- using adult sheep blood resulted in a decrease in 83 2 Arch Dis Child: first published as 10.1136/adc.47.255.683 on 1 October 1972. Downloaded from 684 Finne and Halvorsen oxygen affinity of the fetuses' blood and a decrease liquor reflects the ESF levels in fetal blood. The in its oxygen saturation. A reticulocytosis also transfer of ESF from the fetus to the liquor is occurred in the fetus after such an exchange trans- thought to be through the urine, since a correlation fusion, though the Hb concentration (oxygen is found between ESF content in fetal blood, urine, carrying capacity) was the same as before transfusion and liquor (Finne, 1964). These clinical findings (Battaglia et al., 1969). in man imply that ESF plays an important role in Adult Hb is first detected in the fetus at the the regulation of red cell production during intra- 13th week of gestation and increases in concentra- uterine life, at least in the third trimester. tion until birth to approximately 20 to 30% of the Experiments in animals confirm this conclusion, total Hb. A rapid decline in Hb-F is noted since the fetus is able to react with increased ESF during the first months until the normal adult formation when fetal anaemia is induced by phenyl- level of about 2% is reached at the age of 5 months hydrazine (Zanjani and Gordon, 1971). Additional (Bertles, 1970). evidence for the importance of ESF in fetal ery- thropoiesis is the depression of red cell production Regulation of Fetal Erythropoiesis in the fetus when erythropoietin antiserum is injec- While much is known of the morphology of fetal ted into the mother (Schooley et al., 1968). But erythropoiesis, little is known about its regulation. whether ESF is the sole regulator of fetal erythro- It seems to be quite independent of the mother, poiesis, and whether ESF is active during all three though maternal hypoxic conditions (anaemia or stages of fetal erythropoiesis are questions that hypoxia) may activate fetal compensatory mechan- remain unanswered. The available data in man isms. In man, ESF is found in fetal blood during mostly relate to the last trimester and thus to the the last trimester, and in increased amounts when myeloid stage. Whether ESF is of the same increased need for red cells is present as in erythro- importance during the yolk sac and hepatic stages blastosis fetalis (Finne, 1966). A rise in ESF of erythropoiesis as in the myeloid stage is question- level in the blood is also found in the normal able according to animal experiments. Recent work in mice indicates that yolk sac erythropoiesis fetus with increasing gestational age, leading to a copyright. high level in cord blood at term (Halvorsen and is insensitive to ESF, while the hepatic erythro- Finne, 1968). According to the theory of ESF poiesis is sensitive to ESF at least during some regulation of erythropoiesis, this indicates the period of intrauterine life (Cole and Paul, 1966). presence of a hypoxic stimulus in the near term In man, recent studies (Basch, 1972) indicate fetus. At delivery a sharp decline in blood ESF that fetal liver erythropoiesis is also sensitive to level is demonstrable in agreement with the rapid ESF as it is in the mouse. change in oxygen supply to the newborn. The fetus thus seems to have the ability to The Kidney and Fetal Erythropoiesis compensate for hypoxaemia. The compensation The question of the kidney as the production http://adc.bmj.com/ occurs whether the cause of hypoxaemia is in the site of ESF during intrauterine life is also a matter fetus itself (anaemia), the placenta (reduced perfu- of debate. Since red cell formation antedates the sion), or the mother (anaemia, hypoxaemia), since development of the kidney, the initiation of ery- increased ESF levels are found in fetal blood when thropoiesis and its regulation at the yolk sac stage fetal anaemia is present, in placental dysfunction, cannot be governed by ESF produced in the kidney, and in maternal hypoxaemia (Finne, 1966). The though it could be produced in the kidney anlage. available data are conflicting regarding the occur- The influence of maternal ESF is unlikely, since rence of polycythaemia in cases of placental maternal polycythaemia (i.e. suppressed maternal on October 1, 2021 by guest. Protected dysfunction and of postmaturity (Humbert et al., erythropoietin) does not influence fetal red cell 1969; Usher and Lind, 1965; Walker and Turnbull, formation (Jacobson, Marks, and Gaston, 1959). 1953). The aetiology of neonatal polyglobulia Data from adults imply that the kidney is not the (i.e. venous haematocrit > 70) is thus largely sole site of ESF formation, since erythropoiesis unknown, though several causes have been postu- in anephric man continues though at a much reduced lated. A lack of an inhibitor in the urine of these rate, and hypoxia still elicits a rise in ESF levels patients has been shown (Lindemann and Halvor- (Nathan et al., 1964). However, species dif- sen, 1971), but this needs confirmation. ferences are found. Nephrectomy in the dog The composition of the liquor amnii reflects in (Naets, 1960) and the rat suppresses erythropoiesis many ways the state of the fetus. In the last almost entirely. The authors know of no thorough trimester of pregnancy ESF has been detected in investigation of erythropoiesis in cases of bilateral liquor and it has been shown that the level in the renal agenesis in man, but our observations on a Arch Dis Child: first published as 10.1136/adc.47.255.683 on 1 October 1972. Downloaded from Regulation of Erythropoiesis in the Fetus and Newborn 685 single case suggest that hepatic erythropoiesis is tion between the decrease in the oxygen affinity in functioning at birth and that there is no anaemia.
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