This book is dedicated to one of my wisest high school runners, Matt Fulvio. As a sophomore, he said to his rambling coach, “Why don’t you just write this all down?” Well Matt, it took me four years to do it, and by the time I finished, you were no longer running.

Note to the reader

This book is not longer in print. Thus, the reason it is free on my website. However, this means that the version of the book you see here is pre- professional editing. There will likely be a number of editing mistakes. But with 400 pages of single-spaced text, you can see why I have not bothered to spend the time required to polish it.

Eric Anderson, August 2008

About the Author

Doctor Anderson has coached high school, collegiate, and elite distance runners since 1986. He has five degrees, including a Ph.D. from the University of California Irvine. Dr. Anderson has published a number of books relating do distance running, including: Training Games: Coaching Runners Creatively and Trailblazing: The True Story of America’s First Openly Gay Track Coach .

Introduction

Because running is a multi-faceted sport infused with both science and art, writing about it in a comprehensive fashion is difficult: entire books have been written on individual aspects of the large spectrum of factors that influence the distance runner. So what inspired me to tackle them all in one work? I desired to combat what I call postcard theory: that most students (of any discipline) desire to read a source of information that is short and precise; just enough to know what to do. Often, they do not want to know why or how it came to be . When you lack these other variables, the coach/athlete is unable to shape what to a variety of variables that influence the runner. To be a good coach or runner, you need to know much more than just what to do; you need to know why. For example, I once saw a high school cross country coach read an article titled Four Proven Workouts to Improve Speed. If used with the proper runners, at the proper time, the workout were descent. However, without understanding the overload principal, or having an understanding of meso and macro cycle training loads, this particular coach was ill- equipped to apply the knowledge he learned from the article. Because of this he assigned them to run 300 meter repeats with 45 seconds of rest, during the first day of summer practice. When I confronted him about the physical abuse to green runners, he replied, “How can it be wrong, I read about it in Runner’s World?”

In this aspect, you can see how having an understanding of the various academic disciplines that influence the sport of distance running will serve you well. That is why The Runner's Doctrine takes many fields into account. Drawing from physiology, psychology, sociology, nutrition, and health psychology, this book will teach you how to best utilize these fields in an easy to understand text. It is thorough, yet does not shy away from advanced theories. Whatever your motivation to run is, and however long you have been running for, this book will help you to do it better; to gain more from it; and to increase your love for it. I hope you enjoy and prosper from reading this runner’s doctrine.

Copyrights: 1990, 1992, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2005

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Physiological & Psychological Effects of Distance Running

Physiological Effects

The Disease of Lifestyle 1 The Cardiovascular System 2 The Respiratory System 4 The Skeletal Muscular System 6 Running and the Immune System 7 Did Running Kill Jim Fixx? 8

Psychological Effects

Running and Stress Reduction 9 Running and Depression 11 Running on Creativity and Imagination 11 The Runner’s High 12

Chapter 2 - Principles of Athletics

Health Related Components of Physical Fitness 13 The Overload Principle 14 Muscle Strength 15 Types of Muscle Contractions 15 Concentric vs. Eccentric Contractions 16 The Makings of a Distance Runner 16 Body Composition 17 Aerobic vs. Anaerobic 18 Muscle Twitch Fibers 19 Slow Twitch Fibers and Mitochondria 20

Chapter 3 - Training

The History of Training in America 22 The Galloway Pyramid 24 Developing a Training Pyramid 25 Pump up the Base: The Beginning of the Training Pyramid 26 Strengthening our Resources in the Training Pyramid 26 Speed Play in the Training Pyramid 27 Tapering at the End of the Pyramid 28 Tapering Schedules 29 The Trial Run of the Training Pyramid 30 Hard Days and Easy Days during the Training Pyramid 30 Recovery during the Training Pyramid 31 Racing during the Training Pyramid 33 Average Seasonal Improvements 35 Building a Training Pyramid 36 Sample Training Pyramid 37 Blank Training Pyramid 38 Blank Training Schedule 39

Chapter 4 - Types of Training Runs

The Warm-Up and Cool Down 40 Long Steady Distance 41 Long Steady Distance for the 800 Meters 42 Long Steady Distance for the Mile 42 Long Steady Distance for the 3,000 Meters 43 Long Steady Distance for the 5,000 Meters 43 Long Steady Distance for the 10,000 Meters 44 Long Steady Distance for the Marathon 45 Intervals and Speed Play 47 Tempo Runs 50 Hill Training: For the Base Phase 51 Hill Training: For the Strength Phase 51 Hill Training For the Speed Phase 52 Fartlek Runs 53 Time Trials 54 Muscle Soreness, Stiffness and the Role of Recovery Runs 55 Two-A-Day-Runs 56 Concentration Runs 57 Dogs are Smarter than Man 57

Bounding Exercises for Strength and Speed 58 Types of Kicks and How to Develop One 60 Breathing for Maximal Oxygen Uptake 61

Chapter 5 - Training Games

Different Types of Runs 65 Things to do While Running 66

Chapter 6 - Other Forms of Physical Training

Roy Benson on Cross Training 70 Running in the Pool 71 Weight Training 72

Chapter 7 - Training and Racing Factors

Training and Racing in the Heat 76 Fluid Balance 77 Dress for the Heat 79 Eye Protection 79 Training in and for the Cold and Rain 80 Running in the Sand 81 Altitude Training 82 Overtraining 83

Chapter 8 - Form Analysis

Footstrike 86 The Ankle 89 Stride Length and Frequency 89 Stride Cross Over or Duccessation 91 Arm Swing and Torso Function 92 The Hand Carry 94 The Head, Neck, and Shoulders 95 Biomechanics and Running Speed 96 Uphill Form and Hill Bounding 96 Downhill Form 98 Videotaping Form 99

Chapter 9 - Flexibility

Range of Motion 101 Injury Prevention 101 Forms of Stretching and Terminology 102 Stretching 102 The Overload Principle of Stretching 103 Performance 104 Stretching an Injury 104 Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation 105 A Stretching Regime 105 5 Recommend PNF Stretches 106

Chapter 10 - Psychological Training & Racing: Winning and Losing

The Subconscious Mind

The Power of the Subconscious Mind 107 Programming Your Subconscious Mind 109 Affirmations 111 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 113 Goal Setting 114

Mental Training

Imagery Defined 115 Imagery Research in Sport 116 Imagery and Performance 117 Theoretical Explanations for Imagery Effects 118 Psychoneuromuscular Theory 119 Symbolic Learning Theory 120 Uses of Imagery 121 Psyching Up 121 Arousal Regulation 123 Planning/Event Management 124 Emotional Rescripting 124 Other Imagery Uses 124 Imagery Perspective 125 Imagery Ability 126

Imagery Use 128 Summary 128 Sample Mental Training Session 129 Visualization Tips 131 Making Your Weaknesses Your Strengths 132

Racing Concentration and Attention 133 Praise 135 Cheering 136 Fear and Nervousness 137 Fear of Success and Winning 139 Arousal and Performance 140 Arousal Control 143 Anger 144 The Five Stages of Loss 145 Depression and Suicide 147 Watch-A-Holic 150 The All or Nothing Attitude 150 Dedication and Motivation 151 Chapter 11 - Utilizing Valuable Assets

The Coach 152 The Measure of Your Miles: The Log Book 155 The Progress Chart 158 Sleep 158 Napping 161 Music and Endorphins 162 Blank Running Log 163 Sample Progress Chart 164 Blank Progress Chart 165

Chapter 12 - Tracks, Times, Talk

Track Dimensions 164 The 440 Yard Track 164 The 400 Meter Track 167 Converting Times and Records 167 Hand vs. Electronic Times 168 Time Equivalency Charts 168 Pace Comparison Chart 169

Minutes per Mile Chart 169 440 Yard and 400 Meter Track Pacing Tables 171 How Courses are Measured 171 Spikes 171 Track Talk 173

Chapter 13 - Pre-Race Activities

The Week before the Race 178 The Day before the Race 178 The Day of the Race 179

Chapter 14 - Racing Tactics

Wind 184 Hills 187 Boxing 189 Gates 191 Narrow Paths and Dust 192 Breaking Their Stride and Forcing into Water 192 Cornering 193 Surging 193 Tangents and the Quickest Route Possible 194 1-2-3 Go 195 Catching Up 195 Staying Behind 196 Passing 196 Pressing and Verbally Psyching 197 The Reverse Psych 198 Puddles 198 Running Through Sand 198 The Road 199 When Things Get Rough 199 Falling 200 Use of the Watch 200 The Finishing Kick 201

Chapter 15 - Racing Strategies

Pacing

What it is 203 How to Develop Pacing: Schema Theory & Feedback 203 Racing Strategies 205 Starting Slow and Increasing the Pace: The Silky Sullivan Strategy 205 Going out Fast and Trying to Hold the Pace 207 Maintaining a Set Pace 209

Positioning

The Front Runner 210 The Pack Man 210 The Sitter 211 The Best Strategy is Often the Unexpected Strategy 212 Creating A Strategy 212

Race Strategies

The 800 Meters 213 The Mile: or 1500 Meters 217 The Two Mile: or 3,000 Meters 222 Racing Cross Country 225 The 5,000 & 10,000 Meters on the Track 228 The 5K Road Race 232 The 8K and 10K Road Race 234 Racing 10 Miles through 20 236 The Marathon 238

Chapter 16 - Team Tactics and Strategies

Cornering 243 Passing 243 Gates 243 Wind 243 Surging 244 Boxing 244 Team Strategies 244 Coach vs. Coach 246

Chapter 17 - Mental Tactics

Revivification 247 See the Outcome 247 Fantasies 247 Break up the Distance 248 Dealing with Fears 249 Mind Tactics 249

Chapter 18 - Pain

What is Pain? 251 Why We Can’t Just Ignore Pain 252 Practice Pain 253 The Art of Association 254 What to Do When you Feel Pain 255 A Lesson in Pain 256 The Borg Scale and Perceived Exertion 258 Strategies to Manage Race Pain 260 Dealing with Injury Pain 262 The Gate Theory 262

Chapter 19 - Energy Requirements for Performance

Energy Systems and Fuels 263 Body Fuel Stores 263 ATP-CP System 263 The Oxygen System 264 Factors Influencing Which Types of Fuels will be Burned 268

Fuel Ingested During Exercise 269 So Just What Causes Fatigue? 270

Chapter 20 - Nutrient Utilization

Carbohydrates 271 Fiber 272 Proteins 273 Fats 274 Losing Fat 275 Vitamins 277 R.D.A. vs. U.S.R.D.A. 277 The Vitamins 278 Minerals 279 Caffeine Controversy 281 Breakfast 283

Chapter 21 - Medical Problems and Treatments

R.I.C.E. 285 Medicating an Injury 286 Heat Exhaustion and Heat Stroke 286 Hypoglycemia 287 The Stitch 288 Leg Length Discrepancies 288 Nausea 289 Muscle Cramps 289

Chapter 22 - Coaching and Communicating

My Personal Philosophy 289 Road Blocks to Communication 290 The “I” Message 291 Active Listening 292 Hug Them 294 Behavior Modification Techniques 294 Create A Safe Team 296 Acknowledge Each Runner Each Day 296 Off the Track Activities 296 Create A Clean Team 297

Make Them Think It’s Their Own Idea 297 The Hart Approach 297 Never Embarrass an Athlete 298 Keep in Mind Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 298 End of Season Survey 299 Dealing with Little League Type Parents 299

Chapter 23 - Shoes

Basic Construction 302 The Outersole 302 The Midsole 302 The Innersole 303 The Upper 303 The Last 303 Stability Devices 304 Curve 304 Arc 304 Rebounding and Cushioning Mechanisms 305 Shoe Weight and its Effects on Stride Length, Fatigue and Racing 305 Footstrike Pattern 306 Fitting 306 Buying Shoes 308 Worn out Shoes 309 Protecting Shoes 310 Washing Shoes 310

Resources and References 311

Chapter One

PHYSIOLOGICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL

EFFECTS OF DISTANCE RUNNING

unning is one of the finest exercises we can do for the physical well being of Rour bodies. Most individuals are aware of a few of the benefits to be obtained form running (such as weight loss and increased energy) yet there are a myriad of physiological and psychological benefits to be derived from distance running. This chapter will explores them.

For the competitive runner to fully understand the training philosophies involved in his running, he must be aware of the physical effects running has on his body. For only in understanding what happens to you when you run can you plan a training schedule that will best improve your physical conditioning. Therefore, this chapter is a must-read for the competitive runner to comprehend his training program.

The Disease of Lifestyle

There are three categories for causes of disease and only one is largely under our control. These categories are: heredity, the environment, and lifestyle. The truth is, if you desire to live a long, healthy life you should pick parents that lived a long and healthy life. Understanding the difficulty in this, you must work to improve the quality and quantity of life through the other two categories. It is possible to manipulate our individual environment as to be conducive to better health. Refrigeration, air conditioning, and vaccinations are a few examples of altering our environment. However, our environment is largely out of the locus of our control, and this brings us to the last category of lifestyle in that how we live our lives plays one of the largest roles in determining our health and longevity.

Unfortunately, the majority of people in the United States avoid taking responsibility for their own health. Twenty three percent of Americans smoke and less than one third of Americans exercise regularly. Thus, nearly one-half of Americans are overweight. What does all of his add up to? Quite simply, the American population is out of shape, and we are paying the consequences. We are paying with a reduction in the quality and quantity of life.

A hundred years ago the top ten leading causes of death were environmental in nature. Diseases like Malaria, the Plague, yellow fever, and influenza were the killers.

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Modern medical science has fortunately eradicated most of these diseases, or has at least sharply reduced their fatality rates. Unfortunately, these medical miracles often install too much confidence in the power of the physician and we have grown to rely on our medical doctors to take care of our health problems after we acquire them. As Americans, we have given up control of our own health; instead counting on physicians to cure our earned ailments. In fact, the top leading causes of disease today are all diseases of lifestyle; and at the top of the list are cardiovascular diseases. In fact, heart and circulatory diseases account for 46% of all deaths in America! Only 5% of every health dollar is spent on prevention, in the United States, the rest is spent on intervention (Henderson, 1990). Running may help prevent eight out of the ten top diseases. Running, and other aerobic exercise, can help increase the quality and quantity of life you possess. Regular exercise can help ward off these top killers and help you enjoy your life as a healthy person.

Physiological Effects

The Cardiovascular System and its Diseases

The Cardiovascular System is the portion of the circulatory system that includes the heart and blood vessels. It functions to move blood between the body cells and organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary systems. In performing this action the heart acts as a pump that forces blood through the blood vessels. The blood vessels, in turn, form a closed system of ducts that transports blood and allows exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes between the blood and the body cells. Cardiovascular disease is the leading killer in the United States. Actually there are several different types of cardiovascular disease. You have probably heard of some. Arteriosclerosis, hypertension, arteriosclerosis, coronary occlusion, angina pectoris, and congestive heart failure are terminology used to describe the differing forms of heart disease. Together these diseases kill 700,000 people a year in the United States (Sheldon, 1988).

What can running do to help prevent this killer? Perhaps it helps more than any other single, controllable factor. But before we can understand how running helps prevent or reduce chances of cardiovascular disease it is important to understand the processes of such diseases. In the same process you will see how running enables you to develop the vascular system to transport more oxygen-rich blood to the working muscles, resulting in better running.

We all know that a high fat diet and lack of exercise have been shown to contribute to cardiovascular diseases. But why? Actually, there are many forms of heart disease. I

The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 2 will not cover all of them. The disease to best describe is that of arteriosclerosis. This disease is a blockage of the arteries. The main theory for the cause of arteriosclerosis is known as the lipid theory. It is with this theory people are most familiar. It is the fear the advertisers play on with their low cholesterol, low fat products. It is also the one the quacks utilize to sell their, fat burning, artery cleaning products i.e. pills and powders. Arteriolosclerosis need not be confusing, ignore the hype!

Our bodies store energy in three ways. First, sugars, proteins and fats are taken up where they are needed. Next, the body stores excessive calories in the liver, and muscles in the form of glycogen (a complex sugar). Once these stores are full the liver converts all energy matter to fat (a very concentrated form of energy). This fat is then released into the blood stream where it will travel around and eventually be deposited somewhere in the body. These are known as fatty deposits. When the fats stick to the walls of the arteries, they decrease the diameter and flexibility of the arteries. It makes the hole narrower, and less flexible. This condition poses multiple threats. The severity of the threat depends on the location and the size of the blockage. Organs, appendages, and other vascular areas can suffer from arteriole blockage. One major threat is the rise in blood pressure, which can cause problems like cerebral hemorrhaging, or renal failure. The largest problem is posed when the fatty deposits clog up the arteries that lead to the heart (right and left coronary arteries). If these arteries are blocked enough (usually 2/3 or more) the heart ceases to receive its vital blood supply; thus incurring a heart attack.

It is recognized that fatty deposits are not the only contributors to arteriolosclerosis. Other factors include: age, obesity, hypertension, smoking, stress, excessive alcohol, and diabetes. All of which either contribute to the lack of flexibility of the arteries, such as in smoking, or toward the clogging of the arteries with plaques, such as in obesity. Of course, your individual heredity is the most causative factor.

Running can help in that it requires enormous amounts of energy. According to Dr. David Costill, when we begin running the muscles burn stored glucose and glycogen; first from the muscles, then from the blood stream and liver. After running for approximately 30 minutes we begin to break down fat for fuel. This fat comes from all over the body. It may be taken from under the skin, or in the arteries. When it is taken from the arteries we literally clean them up. We increase the diameter and the flexibility of these blood vessels that allows them to transport more blood, with less pressure thereby greatly lowering our chances of acquiring cardiovascular disease. These factors will benefit our running as well. As the diameter of the arteries become wider, and increase in flexibility, your cardiovascular system will be more efficient in transporting the oxygen carrying red blood cells to the working muscles. Obviously, the more we run the more fatty deposits we burn. I am not claiming that running is a cure-all for heart disease; however, it is one of our strongest weapons against it.

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Another response to the stress of running is that heart size will increase as the result of running. Like any other muscle in the body, the more work we request our heart to do the stronger the heart will grow. This increased heart strength results in a more powerful contraction, and accordingly, a larger volume of blood is put out per beat, which produces lower blood pressure. In short the heart becomes more efficient (Arnheim, 1985, 95). Paavo Nurmi, a seven time Olympic champion, had a heart nearly three times normal size. A larger stroke volume allows, again, for more oxygen carrying red blood cells to be pumped. Again the working muscles benefit.

How much running is necessary to acquire such benefits? Most authorities suggest 12 to 15 minutes every other day as an absolute minimum. I feel, as do most runners, that a workout of 20 to 30 minutes brings about significantly more benefits. Recent studies have also that this 20-30 minutes of exercise need not be non-stop. The workout regime may be broken down into as short as 10 minute periods, and nearly the same benefits will be derived. The longer duration our run, the more benefits will be derived (to a point). Despite all the cardiovascular benefits associated with running it is not an excuse to eat poorly, smoke, or consume alcohol. Runners are not immune to heart disease; but it does however significantly lower our chances of acquiring disease.

The Respiratory System

Running may help prevent many respirological diseases. The most common diseases are asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema. Under the advice of a physician, running may be part of a management system for all three of these. This however depends on the individual and the case. In some cases running may actually be detrimental to these individuals. Therefore anyone with a respiratory disease should consult a physician before beginning any exercise program. The respiratory system and its functions usually interest runners more for the effects that they have on their running performance than on how running can help with respiratory diseases.

Distance running develops tremendous respiratory muscle stamina and strength, which enables runners to carry on respiration during heavy exercise without over-taxing their respiratory musculature. Running increases the lungs vital capacity (the maximum amount of air the lungs exchange) and aids in establishing oxygen efficiency and lowers oxygen requirements within the working cells themselves. Running increases the strength of the diaphragm allowing for a deeper respiration per breath, which allows more oxygen to be consumed per breath. The trained runner is able to establish a steady state of oxygen consumption at higher rates because of mechanical efficiency in performing the required task. This permits more work with a lower expenditure of metabolic energy and oxygen consumption. “Since less oxygen is used for a given task, a greater margin of reserve and

The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 4 continued high-level performance for a longer period of time can be attained,” (Arnheim 1985, 94).

In addition running can improve your Vo 2 max. “Vo 2 max” simply stands for the volume of air taken in under maximum stress. Otherwise put, the maximum amount of air you can repeatedly inhale. It is often used to determine a runner's natural talent. It is no surprise that world class athletes have a Vo 2 max in the high seventies or low eighties, while the average 20 year old male lies around 45. The number itself stands for: milliliters of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute. Too much to commit to memory but it does give you an indicator to where some of your level of potential lies. It is important to note that a high Vo 2 max is only one indicator of a potential successful distance runner.

Your Vo 2 max may also tell you at what point you will incur oxygen debt. Oxygen debt, being the point at which your body burns oxygen at a faster rate than it can intake, radically slows the contracting muscles rate. Therefore, oxygen debt is something we distance runners like to hold off. Increasing your Vo 2 max, will delay oxygen debt since you will be able to supply your working muscles with greater volumes of oxygen.

A runner rarely uptakes his Vo 2 max; most distance runners intake 75-80% of their max at the marathon distance, while world class runners may inhale 90% of their max, according to Dr. Costill. The shorter the distance, the higher percentage of your Vo 2 max is utilized. Therefore, a naturally high Vo 2 max may help a middle distance runner more than a long distance runner, since the middle distance runner is using more of his potential. The long distance runner has more of an opportunity to benefit from efficiency in the uptake, transportation, and utilization of oxygen.

Armed with science and technology, exercise physiologists will attempt to predict your fastest race times, according to what they perceive genetically possible. They can compute your ideal training and racing paces. They can tell you if you have the genetic makeup to be the best. Science, however, is limited to what you believe you can achieve. If you are interested in gaining a rough idea of where your Vo 2 Max might lie, Dr. David Costill has devised a mathematical system that may give you an indicator. Simply take your 10K personal record and round it to the closest full minute. Multiply that time by 1.54, subtract that total from 120.8 and you have a rough estimate of your Vo 2 max. (Ex 32 X 1.54 = 49.28 subtracted from 120.8 = 71.5). This is only an indicator.

Running not only improves upon the components that transport our oxygen-rich blood; it improves the mechanisms of oxygen transportation and utilization at the cellular level too. Our blood is composed of fluid (plasma) in which is suspended red and white blood cells, platelets, fat globules, and other chemicals. As the blood passes by the lungs oxygen is diffused into the red blood cells. The oxygen is bound to the hemoglobin (iron

The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 5 containing) within the red blood cells. Here it is ready to be transported to the working cells. Obviously the more hemoglobin a runner has, the more oxygen he will be able to use, and the farther and faster he may run. Fortunately, running stimulates the body to make higher percentages of plasma and red blood cells. (Costill, 1986, 24). A runners' ratio of plasma to red blood cells is the same as a sedentary persons; though he will have more plasma and more red blood cells.

All the improvements in our respiratory systems ability to transport larger volumes of oxygen to the working muscle cells would be useless if the muscle cells could not use the increased flow of oxygen. Does the word mitochondrion bring back horrible memories of high school biology? I hope not, because mitochondria are your friends. They are the powerhouses of the cell, the engine, so to speak. Endurance training increases both the number and size of the mitochondria of the muscular cells (Costill, 1986, 80). That’s good news. The mitochondria break down sugars in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP. ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) is what the cells actually use as fuel. Distance running increases the enzymatic activities that create more ATP. This process is vital to energy production and is actually quite interesting. It is, however, extremely technical. If you are interested in this process you may find more information in a biology text. You are most likely to find it under the index as the Krebs cycle. If this talk sparks your interest in how and what we burn, why we fatigue, and how to delay fatigue, read chapter 19.

“Running is bad for your knees,” exclaims the fat man when presented with the concept of running. Running isn’t bad for your knees, ignorance is. I am not sure how running adopted such a stain. It is likely to have evolved out of creative avoidance of the ignorant. Cyclists are especially guilty of this fallacy. Why is it we never hear “falling off your bike at twenty-five miles per hour is bad for your knees”? Where does the truth lie? Is running, “bad for your knees”? The answer is a qualified, “no.”

If running is approached sensibly, and a running program is designed that utilizes sound principles of physical fitness (chapter two), running can be quite good for your knees, as well as the rest of your skeletal structure. The key to gaining strength in your bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments, is moderation and steady improvement. If a runner follows the guidelines set forth in this doctrine. He can develop many changes in his body’s tissues through running.

Over time, running produces density changes within the musculo-skeletal system. The muscles increase in strength and there is a reduction in the amount of adipose in the muscles, arteries, and under the skin. There is also an increase in the development of connective tissues. Still, there is an increase in the strength of the bones and a rearrangement of the growth plates of the bones in accordance to the gradually applied

The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 6 stresses of distance running. The cumulative effect is a decrease in susceptibility to running related injuries (Arnheim, 1985, 79).

In knowing that our bodies adapt to stresses placed upon them, if we perform an activity regularly and increase its duration slowly, your body will build accordingly to allow you to partake in such activity without incurring damage, or at least lowering susceptibility to it. Let's take a look at the knee joint and see how running related morphological changes allow it to endure the stress it must.

Running builds the strength of the quadriceps, which surrounds the knee and protects it. The stronger these muscles become, the more shock they absorb. The tendons and ligaments strengthen and hold the joint together. The synovial fluids (fluids in the knee joint) build up and allow for more shock absorption between the tibia and femur. The bones increase in their density and may actually evolve a shock-absorbing curve to them. All this equates to a stronger, endurance oriented joint.

It is feared by many, runners included, that running will lead to arthritis. Running, in itself will not lead to arthritis! Arthritis is an inflammation of a joint, usually accompanied by pain and swelling. There are many forms of arthritis, the one runners are concerned with is osteoarthritis. This is the most common form of arthritis. Osteoarthritis is caused by a degeneration of articular cartilage. It may seem logical to believe that running wears down your body's tissues, and therefore leads to arthritis, however, the fault in this statement lies in it's inability to reflect the bodies adapting to the stresses that caused the break down in the first place. It is therefore obvious that running is not responsible for arthritis and will help prevent its onset. This viewpoint is well expressed in a study by Dr. Roger Sohn and Lyle Micheli. They obtained names of former cross country runners and swim team athletes from seven eastern colleges; they then mailed arthritis questionnaires to the athletes and obtained the following results. The average age of respondents was 57. Among the runners, 2% reported severe hip or knee pain and 15.5% moderate pain. That compares with 2.4% and 19.5% respectively, of the swimmers. One of the arthritis preventing abilities derived from running is theorized to come from the increase in released synovial fluids into joints. This bathing is said to protect joints from arthritis. For joints have no pumps to bring in synovial fluids. Exercise brings these fluids in via pressure differences in the joint while exercising (Burfoot, 1986).

OK, armed with an arsenal of information you may now fight off those, “running is so bad for your knees” junior physicians. Now you can ask them, “oh yeah, and what does bad for your knees mean anyhow?” Watch them squirm! However, a greater challenge may await you. The, “running is bad for your back,” junior chiropractors. Unlike the uninformed knee people, the back people are usually a step above; they may have actually read an article somewhere. So now lets attack the back.

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The cause of most back pain is wear and tear on your spinal column. Your disks, joints and nerves degenerate as you use and abuse them in your day-to-day life according to Arthur White, M.D. (Burfoot, 1986). While it is true that running may aggravate an existing back problem, it normally will not be the causative agent in back pain. I say normally because conditions such as a leg length discrepancy, flat feet, or running on slanted surfaces may cause pain. Running uses many of the muscles that are required to keep the spine aligned. These muscles will help to take stress off the spine itself when you bend, twist, slouch, etc. Running certainly is not a cure for back pain. It can however be a part of a back maintenance program.

Running and the Immune System

There are many, myself included, that believe running can be somewhat of a magic bullet. Some runners will claim they never “get sick” because they are in such good shape. I don't claim, nor believe, that running will make you immune to disease. I do, however, believe that running may promote the immune system. Certainly the finer condition we are in the less effects certain diseases will have on us.

The immune system is complex. It primarily involves white blood cells and proteins that are responsible for the removal of foreign substances. Our immune system is actually the third and last defense against disease. The first consists of our skin, stomach acid, mucous membranes, and cilia in the lungs which function to remove or keep out foreign particles. The second line of defense the inflammatory response meets foreign bodies that make it past the first. This is an immediate cellular response, which most athletes are familiar with. It is known as swelling. The last line of defense is our immune system (Russell, 1990).

The immune process begins with the entry of an antigen (foreign substance) within the lymphatic or cardiovascular systems. These antigens (bad) are then recognized and gobbled up by monocytes (good). The major portion of the antigen (bad) is destroyed (good); however, the monocyte (good) preserves part of the antigen and transports them to other lymphocytes (good), these cells known as either B-lymphocytes or T-lymphocytes (good) and produce antibodies or lymphokines, respectively. Basically, these cells remember what the antigen (bad) looked like, and they are on constant patrol looking for them. If one of these antigens (bad) is found the immune system instantly mounts an attack and disease is prevented (Alcamo, 1987). The entire process is known as immunity. Now that we understand (hopefully) the immune system a little better we can get to the question of how running affects immunity.

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There are several theories as to how running may promote the immune system. One such theory is that running stimulates white blood cell production. We know that running stimulates red blood cell production and it follows that it may also increase the white blood cell count. Yet another theory suggests that when the core body temperature rises, during running, it mimics that of a fever. Fevers seem to make protective lymphocytes more responsive, making it difficult for certain types of bacteria to survive (Anderson, 1989, 54). Of course both of these theories are just that, theories.

Too much running, like most anything, may not be healthful to your immune system. One study has shown (as reported in Runner’s World, January 1989, p. 54) that two hours of strenuous exercise can decrease levels of the salivary immunoglobins (antibodies) for up to 24 hours (Anderson, 1989). Saliva antibodies are important when one considers that many viruses enter the body via the nose or mouth. In a study of runners preparing for the 1987 Los Angeles Marathon, Loma Linda University's David C. Nieman, Ph.D., and colleagues (as reported in the same article) found that individuals who were running more than 60 miles per week proved twice as likely to get sick as athletes training less than 20 miles per week. In addition 13% of those who completed the marathon became ill within 2 weeks after the marathon, while only 2% of those that did not complete the race became ill. Perhaps moderation is the key to reaping the physical effects of running. Surely too much running can lead to physical and emotional problems. With this in mind I do not encourage any runner to train more than 50 miles per week, unless training for a marathon. Accordingly, I also recommend a minimum mileage of 15 per week to gain most of the benefits of running.

Did Running Kill Jim Fixx?

After discussing the benefits that we have to gain from running, I find it necessary to dispel some of the myths. Myths that arose from the death of runner/author James Fixx. Jim Fixx was the author of a best seller The Complete Book of Running . To the vast majority he was known as a thin, energetically healthy runner. One day, while running, he had a fatal heart attack. People exclaimed that running gave him a heart attack! Running killed him! Unfortunately, due to the sensationalism of the media, people were largely uninformed as to the truth. The following is taken from Kenneth Cooper’s 1986 book entitled Running Without Fear .

Before Jim Fixx began running at age 35, he smoked two packs of cigarettes a day, weighed 220 pounds and exercised rarely. Jim Fixx's father died of heart disease at the age of 43, so heart disease was within his heredity. In addition, Jim had a congenital hypertrophy of the septum and chambers of the heart in 1964, however, after the Surgeon Generals report on smoking was released, Jim gave it up. Then at the age of 35, Jim began running. He lowered his weight to 170' and wrote his best selling book (published in

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1977). Although Jim had written weight and smoking out of his life, his stress level was still dangerously high. The pressures of talk shows, interviews, speeches, two divorces, four kids, and writing his second book may have contributed to his heart attack. Jim lived to be 52 before dying of a heart attack at the end of a hot, hilly, tiresome run in Vermont. The autopsy showed almost complete blockage of one artery, 70% of another, and 85% of yet another. This heart attack was not his first. Fixx had suffered at least three prior attacks, yet he never sought medical attention! Fixx did die of coronary obstruction, yet he lived 9 years longer than his father did; and probably would have lived many more if he had a stress test, and a simple bypass surgery. I, nor anyone else, can really know why he refused to have as much as a physical. Perhaps he feared what he might hear. Perhaps he wanted to die. Perhaps he feared the media might get a hold of him having a stress test and blow it out of proportion? Nobody will ever know.

Psychological Effects

“But what I found even more interesting were the changes that had begun to take place in my mind. I was calmer and less anxious. I could concentrate more easily and for longer periods. I felt more in control of my life. I was less easily rattled by unexpected frustrations. I had a sense of quiet power, and if at any time I felt this power slipping away I could instantly call it back by going out and running.” - Jim Fixx on the psychological changes he noted as he went from a 213 pound, 2 pack a day smoker, to a healthy runner.

Compared to the physiological aspects, which are more easily studied, the psychological effects of distance running are simply not as provable for they are difficult to measure. They are however, just as beneficial for our psychological and social well being as the physical attributes are. Psychological traits are often difficult to describe. Most of us are aware of the term “a runner's high”, yet what exactly is it? We know it’s there; it is just difficult to measure and prove.

Dr. George Sheehan, Jim Fixx, and Joe Henderson have done for the mental advantages of long distance running what Dr. David Costill, and Dr. Kenneth Cooper have done for the physiological. Simply pick up an issue of Runners' World and read the revered words of the late Dr. George Sheehan, or find a copy of The Complete Book of Running and read the celebrated words of Jim Fixx. For now, let us begin with the easily observed effects of running, and then work toward the mystical side.

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Running and Stress Reduction

We all have a concept of what stress is. It's the stuff that is associated with ulcers, worried mothers, and jobs. However, most are not aware that there are two types of stress. There is distress, and eustress. Distress is the familiar negative stress. Eustress, however, is a form of stress that allows us to excel. Eustress is the stress that allows a jumper to jump farther in a meet than in practice. Eustress allows us to run much faster in a race, than we can in a time trial. Eustress primarily comes from ourselves. Sure, a coach can add a little, but most of it comes from within the self, and is sparked by the situation. Too much eustress becomes distress! Too much pressure from ourselves, a coach, or a pushy parent (they exist as much in running as in little league) can lead to distress.

Distress also comes from relationships, jobs, traffic, bills, physical ailments, and change. Often we choose to make a situation a stressor, and sometimes we grow stressed by the stressor subconsciously. Although distress is a psychological characteristic, it affects our physical health. When a stressor excites the hypothalamus in the brain, a complex series of changes takes place in the body. The result is a change of functioning in almost every part of the body (Bronson & Merki, 1987). These Changes make us more susceptible to illness and accidents. We cannot think clearly, and want to flee the problem.

It gets worse! Long-term distress can lead to psychosomatic diseases, including heart disease, high blood pressure, asthma, ulcers, and migraine headaches. Of course, distress in itself is an unpleasant emotional state. The worst emotion, and the most distressful antecedent, is the feeling of hopelessness; also known as distress. Hopelessness comes when you are, or feel, powerless. In such a case we simply need to accept the emotion, and relieve the stress, if there is no actual resolution to the problem. In all cases distress must be relieved, we must clear our mind. Everybody has their own effective method of relieving stress. Unfortunately, people often choose unhealthy methods to relieve their stress. They choose to consume alcohol, take drugs, or smoke. Some eat junk food, some take their stress out on their family or friends, and some choose self- destructive behaviors.

It's wise to choose healthy stress relievers. Running is one of the finest. If I am mad, I go for a fast three miler, if I am sad, or feel helpless; I go for a distance run. Running allows us to sort through our problems, to sweat them out, to burn them off. Running may become an addiction, the kind of addiction noted Educational Psychologist William Glasser calls “a positive addiction.”

Glasser writes in Jim Fixx’s book The Complete Book of Running, “A positive addiction increases your mental strength and is the opposite of a negative addiction, which seems to sap the strength from every part of your life except in the area of the

The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 11 addiction...Negative addicts are totally involved with their addiction, having long since given up on finding love and worth. The positive addict enjoys his addiction, but it does not dominate his life.” Glasser thinks running is the surest route to positive addiction; an almost infallible way to shake yourself loose from habits that make life more difficult than you want it to be (page 29).

Distress may make us feel apathetic, tired, weak, or lazy. Rest is not the answer to this type of stress. We may sit or lie and dwell in the stress, making our bodies physically stressed even though we are supposed to be relaxing. Get up and do something, even if it is simply walking. Go! Running can help us balance the stresses in our lives. Running should be considered “my time” for me to enjoy. I often give myself a run as a reward for a long day. Or, when I need time to think about a problem, I go for a run and sort it out. Running should be considered a long term stress management technique.

Unfortunately running too may be a form of distress, from time to time. This is especially true with competitive runners. Every competitive runner knows the feeling of “I have got to train, but this muscle...” This type of running can become distress. Running should be eustress, not distress. Sometimes we get overly wrapped up in our training by following each day's prescribed workout to a key, despite our body’s feelings of fatigue. This is distress, not eustress. When feelings of burn-out are present, we have lost running as a stress reliever, and gained it as a distressor. Time off is in order until the itch to run is regained.

Running and Depression

Whether it is because running releases natural pain killers (endorphins) or it is because we feel a sense of accomplishment when we run, or because our physical physique is tied in with our emotional well-being, or all of these combined, something about running relieves depression!

As the late Dr. George Sheehan said, “Running will give you a new and truer image of yourself. It will also give you a fresh understanding of your strengths and weaknesses (Sheehan on Running, 1978). Or as Dr. Michael Mock says in The Complete Book of Running “In a society where, for many reasons, there is a tendency for a large majority of people to be depressed, exercise has been found to counter depress feelings by increasing one's feeling of self-esteem and independence.

In fact, running is now widely prescribed by psychologists as a therapeutic form of relieving depression. Psychiatrist, Dr. John Greist of the University of Wisconsin, assigned a group of abnormally depressed patients to either a ten-week running program or ten

The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 12 weeks of traditional psychotherapy, and found the running to be more effective than the psychotherapy. (Fixx, 1977, 16). If the only tool you have is a hammer, you tend to see every problem as a nail. -Abraham Maslow

Running on Creativity and Imagination

Philosophers since the time of Plato and Aristotle have recognized that the body can affect the mind. We now know that running relieves stress, lifts depression, and brings about a sense of accomplishment and self-pride. But, does running also raise our creativity and imagination? I suspect that a detailed, scientific study would show that runners tend to be more creative problem solvers, and more imaginative people than non-runners. I find that when I ask my student's in the health classes that I teach to brainstorm possible solutions for a problem, and ask my runners to do the same, the runners come up with more imaginative solutions. They are more proficient in the problem solving process; perhaps because of the time they have to think while running. Especially on our long runs, I find that my runners come up with creative and imaginative thoughts. Many believe that running increases our creativity, as is evidenced by a number of running and writing programs in the nation (see Runner’s World, August 1994, p. 66).

Fortunately, there have been some studies done in this area to enlighten us. In one study, college students in two health classes ran three times a week, while students in a third class only listened to lectures. At the end of the semester, the runners scored big gains on a standard creativity test, while the non-runners showed no improvement (Hinkle & Tuckman, 1988). Of course these results are not completely substantiated. It is not mentioned how well the subjects were monitored out of school.

Perhaps you're thinking that it is not running that escalates our creativity, but athletics in general. The same authors as the last study did another study in which they took a sample of fourth, fifth, and sixth-grade students, and a second sample of eighth- grade students. Half the youngsters in each sample ran for a semester as part of their physical education program, while the other half continued in their regular program of, primarily, volleyball and basketball. In both studies, the kids who ran showed much greater gains on end-of-the-semester creativity tests than those who didn't. Dr. Dorothy Hariss of Penn State University is one of many researchers studying the effects of exercise. She has found that exercise has a profound and beneficial impact on the psyche. She has found increased creativity in individuals as a result of increased mental and physical development

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OK, so why running? There are many theories, psychologically and biologically based. But the bottom line is that it occurs. It is there for the taking. Of course, if you are interested in theories as to why running makes us more creative, there exists literature. I highly recommend you read the article for which I found these studies in. “Chasing the Muse” Runner's World , November 1988. “Creativity is one percent inspiration, and ninety- nine percent perspiration.” -Thomas Edison

The Runner's High

There is a runners' high! It is unique, and special to each. It may come in the middle of a long run, or the end of a race. It occurs in times of solitude and at the beginning of a race with 20,000 people. It happens when you least expect it, and rarely when you search for it.

In their book Psychic Side of Sports Shane Michael Murphy and Rhea White explain that when we push against our physiological limits the brain records a remarkable range of pleasures. Feelings of: peace, stillness, calm, detachment, freedom, floating, ecstasy, power, control, immortality, unity, mystery and awe are all associated with running. Running can more than double the brains output of endorphins. This release can result from a high level effort. Endorphins are powerful chemical pain killers found naturally in our brains. They are anywhere from 50 to 200 times stronger than morphine. But unlike morphine, our own endorphins have no side effects.

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Chapter Two

PRINCIPLES OF ATHLETICS

efore we can establish a training program, it is essential to understand the principles B of athletics. For these principles not only play a major role in developing a sound training schedule. Physical fitness can easily be broken down into two components: health related fitness and skill related. The health related components are necessary to excel at running. The fitness related components play a meager role in distance running. The following definitions are taken from Concepts of Physical Fitness , by Charles Corbin, Ph.D., and Ruth Lindsey, Ph.D., 1988.

Health Related Components of Physical Fitness

Body Composition - Refers to the percentage of fat in the body compared to muscle, bone, and other tissue. Body composition is of great importance toward the success of distance running. For more information on desirable body fat percentages read “The Makings of a Distance Runner” in this chapter.

Cardiovascular Fitness - The ability to acquire, transport, and utilize oxygen. Cardiovascular fitness is perhaps the greatest single indicator of the talent, natural or earned, of a distance runner. For more information on cardiovascular fitness read “The cardiovascular system and its diseases” and “The respiratory system” both in chapter one.

Muscular Endurance - The ability of a muscle to repeatedly exert itself. A fit individual can repeat movements longer with less fatigue; for more on muscular endurance read “Running and the Skeletal Muscular System” in chapter one.

Flexibility - The range of motion a joint can achieve. Flexibility is necessary to be an efficient distance runner. For more information on flexibility read chapter nine on stretching.

Strength - The ability to exert an external force, including one's own body weight. Strength is necessary for successful distance running. For more information on strength read “Muscle Strength” in this chapter.

Skill Related Fitness Terms

Agility - The ability to change body movement in space. The only time agility is important in distance running is when transgressing rough terrain or jumping obstacles.

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Balance - The maintenance of equilibrium. The only time balance comes into play in distance running is when one runs on a narrow path, a ridgeline, or curb.

Coordination - The ability to use the senses, such as vision, with motor balance. The ability to hit a moving baseball is one example. Running requires inconsequential degrees of coordination. Thank God because I have none.

Power - The ability to transfer energy into force at a rapid rate. Power is really a misused word in distance running. When we refer to a long distance runner as being powerful, what we really mean is that he is strong. Power would apply to a shot putter or sprinter.

Reaction Time - The time it takes for our nervous system to initiate our musculature to a stimulus. Reaction time is not important in distance running.

Speed - The ability to perform a movement in a short period of time. A distance runner needs speed in shorter races and less as the distance increases. For more information on speed read “Speed Training” in chapter three.

The Overload Principle

The human body has an incredible ability to adapt to the stresses placed upon it. The overload principle holds that an activity must always be upgraded to a consistently higher level through maximum or near-maximum stimulation. In this way the metabolic level and the organic responses can be increased (Arnheim, 1988, 75).

Most athletes are familiar with the overload principle through weight lifting. The act of weight lifting breaks muscle fibers down. The body then rebuilds these fibers to be able to handle more weight for the next effort. There is a more up-to-date principle called the SAID principle. Developed by Logan and Wallis. The SAID principle is an acronym for specific adaptation to imposed demands. The SAID principle indicates that conditioning and training are directed toward the specific demands of a given sport. The SAID principle picks up where the overload principle leaves off. The overload principle implies that we need to overload ourselves to improve. In terms of muscular gains, this may be true, however, for other gains we may not have to overload.

Intensity

The intensity at which an activity is performed is probably the most critical factor in determining the sum of positive physical change. Relatively few individuals ever

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approach their maximum in terms of work capacity during training. The various physiological and psychological changes that must necessarily be effected for greater endurance will come about only through an intensive program of work based on the overload principle of progressively increasing the loads, the number of repetitions, and the rate and intensity of these repetitions (Arnheim, 1988, 96). There are no short-cuts in athletics.

Specificity

Physical training for a sport in no way guarantees that the level of fitness reached or the degree of neuromuscular skill achieved will be adequate for other sports. Repeated practice of a skill, in attempt to perfect that skill, involves a biological programming and reprogramming as the skill is constantly repeated and the movement/skill pattern is developed and eventually controlled by conditioned reflexes, thus gradually eliminating conscious control (Arnheim, 1988, 96). Any benefits gained while performing one task is not likely to be transferred to running. There is no assurance that a runner will be able to run faster or easier (Costill, 1986, 110). According to Dr. Arnheim proper training is a systematic process of repetitive, progressive exercise. This training will induce specific and identifiable physiological effects within the athlete's physical makeup. Distance running requires the establishment of proper neurological patterns, which may only be acquired by running or simulating the running motion (such as visualizing). Distance running also requires immunities to the stresses imposed on the musculo-skeletal system. Again, running is the only assured activity for these gains. Some components may transfer from one sport to another. Aerobic capabilities may be gained via other sports, though none are as effective as running. The most sport specific is specific exercise is best. If you want to be a better runner, run if you want to be a good cyclist, cycle. This principle is important to understand when we discuss cross training and weight lifting in chapter six.

Muscle Strength

Muscle strength has already been defined as the ability to exert an external force. In the case of the runner, strength is the muscles ability to do work against resistance. The most noticeable change that takes place in the muscle as the result of physical exercise is the increase in girth. However, the myth that the size of a muscle determines how much work it can do does not hold true. The less of adipose (fat) a muscle contains the stronger it will be. In essence, fat possesses an inhibiting quality with respect to muscle efficiency. It not only lacks contractile power but it also omits the speed and amount of contraction by acting as a friction brake between the contracting fibers (Arnheim, 1988, 80)

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Muscular strength can increase three times or more without showing an increase in size. The overload principle directly applies to muscle strength. An increase in strength will not occur without a maximal or nearly maximal contraction of the muscle. This contraction may occur in one attempt, such as “maxing out” in lifting, or it may occur by running at a maximum speed, such as in racing. In either case the muscle will adapt to handle more the next time. It is generally recognized that it takes muscle tissue 48-72 hours to recover from a maximal or near maximal effort. Therefore, rest is an important factor in any athletic program.

Types of Muscle Contractions

Isometric - There are four types of musculature contractions; two of which are important to the distance runner. The first contraction is known as an Isometric contraction. This involves musculature contraction but little or no movement of a body part. The muscle is contracted in a static position, like when pushing against a wall. There is no change in the length of the muscle or the angle of the joint. Strength gained through an isometric contraction is specific to the joint angle at which the contraction takes place (Arnheim, 1988, 81). Therefore, exercises such as the wall squat, or hanging leg lift are of little value to the distance runner. The distance runner needs strength that can be utilized throughout a full range of motion.

Isotonic - The second type of contraction is known as an isotonic contraction. This is the type of contraction utilized when running. It is the shortening or lengthening of the muscle through a range of motion. The fibers that work the hardest during the contraction are the ones that attempt to begin moving the object. Once the object (or appendage) is in motion, inertia has already been overcome and the weight is easier to move. This is why you may have noticed that weight machines often have two sets of numbers on them. The heavier set is the force it takes to overcome inertia, and the lighter one for when the weight is already in motion. The least gain of this type of contraction is during the middle of the contraction. Recovery from isotonic contractions is faster than in isometric contractions (Arnheim, 1988, 81).

Isokinetic - The third form of muscle contraction is known as an isokinetic contraction. This type of contraction offers a combination of the isotonic and isometric contractions. It may only be found on a specifically designed machine. Its primary benefit is that of lower muscle fatigue since the resistance lowers as does the muscles ability to contract. In other words the effort of a lift is the same throughout the entire event.

Plyometrics - The last type of strength building exercise is known as plyometrics. Plyometrics are of great value to the distance runner. They utilize an ecentric contraction

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(see below). In this movement the muscle acts much like a spring storing energy and returning it. For more information on this see “Bounding Exercises for Strength and Speed” under chapter three.

Concentric vs. Ecentric Contractions

When a muscle contracts under resistance it shortens; this is called a concentric muscular contraction. In contrast, an eccentric contraction sees the muscle lengthening under resistance. Eccentric muscle contractions use less oxygen and ATP and recruit fewer muscle fibers than do equivalent concentric contractions. Maximal power production is also greatest in eccentric contractions (Noakes, 1991, 12).

To illustrate an eccentric muscle contraction, consider what happens to your quadriceps as you run. The muscle is stretched in an eccentric contraction every time the foot lands. Muscles fatigue easily under repetitive eccentric contractions; thus downhill running is especially if the quads did not contract upon landing you would fall to the ground. Eccentric muscles contractions leave the muscles in a more fatigued state than their counterparts; they also take longer to recover from. The benefit of utilizing eccentric muscle contractions will be discussed in regards to an uphill technique known as bounding. For more information on bounding see chapter four under “Bounding for Strength and Speed” chapter eight under “Uphill Form and Hill Bounding, and chapter ten under hills.

The Makings of a Distance Runner

To be an Olympic distance runner, you must be born with an Olympic distance runner's body. Unfortunately, not all men are created equal; some are born as sprinters, some lineman, and others as distance runners. Despite our genetic makeup we can improve upon our bodies, thus allowing us to run farther and faster. Unfortunately, we will find that there are biological limits to our personal abilities. The following pages will discuss body composition and muscle twitch fiber types. Remember that just like your Vo2 max (discussed in chapter one under “Running and the Respiratory System) most of these factors are hereditary.

“I have arrived at the conclusion that the two primary factors in excelling are motivation and heredity.” -Bill Rodgers

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Body Composition

Over time, regular exercise produces density changes within the musculo-skeletal system. These physical changes are of definite, recognizable types indicative of the sport for which the training has been designed. The muscles change in girth, showing increases in cross section and in density. There is a reduction in the amount of adipose tissue and an increase in the development of connective tissues within the muscle bundles, which adds to the general toughness of the muscle and enables it to better withstand the strains and stresses it must undergo.

As a result of the muscle activity involved in training, additional stress is put on the bones. This results in an increase in the strength of the bones in accord with the stresses to which they have been subjected, thus decreasing the susceptibility to injury. Ligaments also become denser though proper exercise. A process of minimal stretch and release (such as in running) tends to strengthen connective tissue fibers, whereas constant stretch weakens fibers (Arnheim, 1988, 79). This is the case with the goalie in hockey or the catcher in baseball.

When most think of body density, or body composition, they are relating to the percentages of body fat that the individual possesses. In regards to this, the lower the body fat percentage, the better. The effect of carrying dead weight, such as fat, during distance running is an increased consumption of our metabolic energies. The same would apply to unusable muscle mass, such as an over-development of upper body strength. Increased fat reduces the efficiency of muscular contractions and increases hyperthermia. Measuring body fat percentages is not an exact science. The skin caliper test is the most common method, but it only yields a general reading. The most accurate measurement is the water-submerging method. In this measuring, you submerge your body into a tank of water, hold your breath, and the displaced water is weighed. Since all body tissues and fluids are as heavy or heavier than water; with the exception of fat, you simply need to weigh the displaced water and subtract that from your body weight. The sum is that of your body fat weight, in which a percentage is easily derived (taking into account a formula, which measures how much trapped air, is in your body).

The numbers vary but on average the 18-24 year old is 14% fat for men and 22% for women (Costill, 1986, 2). Under 12% for men and 18% for women is considered athletic. Elite distance runners too vary in their percentages, with some (like Frank Shorter and Alberto Salazar) dropping below 4%. Body fat percentages that drop below 5% often result in decreased immunity to disease.

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Do not be overly concerned in measuring your body fat percentages. Our bodies have what is called a set point. This set point is a weight, and a fat percentage, that your body is genetically geared toward (Costil, 1986, 2). It would be impossible for a 300 pound person to decide to lose 200 pounds. Additionally, too much emphasis on thinness can lead to Anorexia Nervosa or self-starvation. Anorexia Nervosa is a disease that arises from becoming overly concerned with one's body fat percentage. It is a psychological condition in which one's views of his body as distorted. It is usually found in females, but is not uncommon in males. Adolescents are the prime risk. An adolescent who has no control over anything in her life usually characterizes it, so she starves herself to have control of at least on thing in her life, her body. This disease affects 4 out of every 1000 adolescent females, and kills 5,000 girls a year.

It is probably useless to talk about body height since this is one factor upon which we have no control over. What is important to know is that elite distance runners' heights vary greatly. The world marathon record has been set by Carlos Lopez, who I believe to be around 5'4” to 6'2” Derek Clayton. It appears that success in distance running is unaffected by body height, but is greatly affected by body weight (Costill, 1986, 4).

Aerobic vs. Anaerobic

Understanding the difference between aerobic and anaerobic processes is crucial toward the development of successful training and racing methodologies. In order for muscles to continuously produce the force needed for distance running, they must have a steady supply of energy. The form of energy used for all of the muscles' operations is a special compound produced inside the fibers called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). There are three possible sources of ATP: 1) that stored in the muscles as ATP and creatine phosphate; 2) that produced from the oxidative or the aerobic breakdown of carbohydrates and fats, and (3) that produced anaerobically from muscle glycogen.

Each muscle fiber has a quantity of ATP stored for immediate use. This supply is very limited and can only provide enough energy for three to five seconds of all-out effort. The energy bound into the ATP molecule is derived from the breakdown of the foods we eat: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. When this process of disassembling fuels is conducted in the presence of oxygen, it is said to be aerobic. Although the muscle can produce ATP anaerobically, or without oxygen, this method is quite inefficient and alone is too limited for exercise lasting more than 20 to 60 seconds. Consequently, aerobic energy production (metabolism) is the primary method of energy production during distance running, which places great demand on the runner's capacity to deliver oxygen to the exercising muscles, according to Dr. Costill.

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There is no actual cross over period between aerobic and anaerobic exercise (see “Energy” Chapter 19). However, once we begin producing ATP anaerobically, we have entered a burning process that is inefficient. This anaerobic source of energy leaves behind waste products (one of which is lactic acids). These acids inhibit the muscle from contracting and eventually will force the muscle to stop. Chapter 19 will explain these processes more thoroughly.

For the reasons above it is crucial for a distance runner to avoid oxygen debt (the point at which the body burns oxygen at a faster rate than in which it can bring it in) during the early stages of a race. For anaerobic running early in a race will lead toward prematurely fatigued muscles. For a complete analysis of energy requirements for performance, see chapter nineteen. Below is an example of the percentages required for differing distance races. Taken from The Competitive Runner's Training Book by Bill Dellinger & Bill Freeman.

Distance Anaerobic Aerobic

800 67% 33% 1500 45% 55% 5 km 20% 80% 10 km 10% 90% Marathon 2% 98%

Appropriate pacing requires practice, experience, and sometimes patience. I will admit that in my first marathon I became overly zealous, and when the gun went off I proceeded to run my first mile in 5:03, I had anticipated running a 6:00 pace the whole way. This 5:03 seemed slow! I was simply too excited. As you might imagine this fast early pace cost me later in the race.

Muscle Twitch Fibers

We are born with a percentage of fast and slow twitch muscle types. Some runners' muscles are genetically more apt to perform faster than others, and some are designed to run farther. Current opinion favors classifying muscle fibers into three basic types: the slow twitch fiber, the fast twitch “A” fiber, and the fast twitch “B” fiber. Fast twitch fibers are basically anaerobic; they do not depend on oxygen for their energy supply. In contrast, slow twitch fibers are aerobic; they require oxygen for continued contraction (Arnheim, 1988, 79).

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“The preponderance of one fiber over another is related to inherited genetic factors that determine sports performance potential” (Pate, 1988). Fast twitch fibers are responsible for speed as in sprinting, and the slow twitch fibers come into play over long distances. The mile race lies in between the middle of the two. Fast twitch fiber reach full contraction in about 30 milliseconds opposed to the 80 milliseconds for slow twitch fibers (Coe & Martin, 1991, 27). During slow, easy running most of the muscle force is generated by slow twitch fibers. As the muscle tension requirements increase at faster speeds, the fast “A” fibers are added to the work force. Finally, at sprinting speeds, where maximal strength is needed, even the fast twitch “B” fibers are activated (Costill, 1986, 5).

During long distance events, we begin running at a sub-maximal (slow) pace; the nervous system recruits principally the muscle fibers best adapted to endurance activity. Those being slow twitch fibers and some fast twitch “A” fibers. Gradually, as they become fatigued, the nervous system calls upon other fibers to maintain muscle tension and running velocity. It recruits additional fast twitch “A” fibers. As more slow twitch and fast twitch “A” fibers become exhausted, the fast twitch “B” fibers are called upon in a final effort to maintain the speed. This may explain why fatigue seems to come in stages during the race, and why it takes great mental concentration to maintain a given pace near the end of a race (Costill, 1986, 7).

An average individual has roughly 50% slow twitch, 25% fast twitch “A”, and 25% fast twitch “B” fibers in his leg muscles. Studies of elite distance runners have revealed that some have calf muscle composed of more than 90% slow twitch fibers (Costill, Gollrick, Janson, Saltin & Stein, 1974). Alberto Salazar's calf muscle, for example, has 93% slow twitch fibers, 7% fast twitch “A”, and no fast twitch “B” fibers (Costill, 1986, 7).

The way in which a runner trains determines the type of fiber he conditions. Slow running will develop the slow twitch fibers abilities, strength training will develop both, and speed training will develop fast twitch fibers abilities. “There is little evidence to suggest that the percentage of slow twitch and fast twitch fibers changes with endurance training, says Dr. Costill. “This fractional composition of muscle appears fixed and unaffected by training, suggesting that this quality of the champion may be inherited.” It is logical to assume that if we are born with a set muscle fiber composition, we may be able to determine which distance our talent lies by taking a muscle biopsy.

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One exception to this rule is that sub-types of fast twitch fibers may show some modification with training. The fast twitch “A” fibers are generally described as being a bit more aerobic, and thus able to use oxygen for energy production, more so than the fast twitch “B” fibers. With endurance training the fast twitch “B” fibers begin to take on the characteristics of the fast twitch “A” fibers. This suggests that these fibers are used more heavily during training and gain greater endurance abilities.

Slow Twitch Fibers and Mitochondria

Our body's cells are fueled by ATP, which is produced from the breakdown of foods in the presence of oxygen. This process takes place in the mitochondria of the cell. To perform this burning process faster, the mitochondria employ enzymes to speed up the reaction. Slow muscle twitch fibers generally have more mitochondria and oxidative enzymes than do fast muscle twitch fibers. Additionally, endurance running increases the size and number of mitochondria found at the cellular level , thus allowing for greater aerobic capacities. Distance running will also enable us to enhance the oxidative powers of our fast twitch fibers, which naturally have few mitochondria and aerobic enzymes, in an untrained state add to that the muscles ability to learn to burn stored fat through adaptation to distance running, and we begin to see some of the marvel in how our bodies evolve to allow us to run long distances (Costill, 1986, 7-10).

You are now beginning to understand what is meant when I say champions are born not made. Our genetic make-up pre-determines as to what type of sport, we will excel in. If you weren't born with the natural talent to make it big, blame your parents. “I would have been a world class runner, but I lacked two things: the talent and the desire. ” To summarize what adaptations our bodies make to endure and promote distance running, we see the following physiological adaptations occurring in our body in response to the stresses associated with distance running.

• A change of fast twitch fibers “B” into “A”

• An increase in the number of mitochondria and oxidative enzymes.

• Increases in our body’s ability to process, transport, and utilize oxygen. (Chapter 1)

• An increase in the muscles ability to burn stored fats.

• A decrease in body fat, which reduces overall, weight and decreased the energy

required to propel it.

• Body density increases, allowing us to take the stress of long distance running.

• An improved efficiency and patter of our nervous system. The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 24

Chapter Three

TRAINING

The History of Training in America

raining has taken several differing models in past decades. In the 1920's training was T facile; insufficient scientific knowledge fostered an ineffective methodology. Below is an example of a training schedule for a two-miler. It is taken from Track and Field Athletics , by Harry Gill, in 1925.

Monday - one and one-half miles in about eight minutes Tuesday - One mile in about 5 minutes Wednesday - Two miles between 10:30 and 10:40 Thursday - One and one-half miles in about 10:40 Friday - Half mile in about 2:25 Saturday - Two mile race

There were strength runs but, no distance runs, hills, or intervals. It's difficult to believe, but this training schedule, as all training trends have, produced world record holders. Paavo Nurmi's (the greatest distance runner through his time) training consisted of walking for one hour with some spurts of running. Later he learned to run long, and slow; or at least what he considered long.

While training in the twenties would be considered easy by today's standards, training methods in the 1950's and 1960's were just the opposite. Speed was the name of the game. Fartlek (speed play) had been introduced to America, and a training schedule for the two- mile might look something like the following, taken from Modern Track and Field, by Kenneth Doherty, in 1963.

Monday - 12 x 400 in 64 Tuesday - 4 x 800 in 2:12 Wednesday - 3 x one mile in 4:35 Thursday - 12 x 400 in 64 Friday - Fartlek Saturday - 6 x 300 in 42 Sunday - Fartlek

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It is no wonder that this era produced so many quality runners; those runners who could adapt to handle the stress excelled, and the those who couldn't dropped out, or were forced out by injury. Today I call this the make or break system. These two decades saw the world record in the mile fall ten times, much more than any other two decades combined. The 20's, 30's, and 40's, combined only dropped the record 9 times; while the 70's, 80's, and what has passed of the 90's, has only dropped the record 8 times. Yes this was a cherished era for distance runners. It produced many of our sports richest moments. Certainly they worked for this image. I recall my high school cross country coach referring to his training days in the 1960's at Oklahoma Baptist University in which the “The daily workout was either 20 X 400 or 40 X 200, the race day was our recovery day.” Where was the distance? Hell, where was the RECOVERY?

Methodologies began to slowly change when football coach Arthur Lydiard found that long runs on the road kept his weight down and, surprisingly, made him one of New Zealand's top marathoner's. He tried his training approach on a group of neighborhood kids and produced three Olympic medallists in 1960. It took the rest of the world at least a decade to catch up (Galloway, 1986, 112). America’s first Olympic gold medal came with Frank Shorter's winning of the 1972 Munich Olympic marathon. This sparked the next phase of training in America; Shorter’s training was based on long slow mileage. He sparked the running boom that would change the face of the sport entirely. With this, came a new concept (to America) - long slow distance. The term was coined by Joe Henderson and was solidified. The number of entries for marathons and races began to sky (Galloway, 1986, 111).

Training schedules in this era were long, and slow. Mileage was the main ingredient of the training schedule. Breezing through How Road Runner's Train , a Track and Field News Publication, published in 1980, you can see the training schedules of many of the top road racers of that time. Their mileage was high. Frank Shorter was running 120-160 miles a week Interestingly enough, Frank Shorter is presently an advocate of shorter (no pun intended) mileage and cross training (Shorter, 1991, 50). At last the 1980’s and a blend of training. Long distance runs, hills, intervals, and rest, all comprised a quality training program. The concept of base, strength, and speed was adopted, largely through the writings of Jeff Galloway. We learned to run long enough for our cardiovascular endurance, fast enough to race fast, and with the appropriate amount of rest to facilitate recovery. A typical training schedule looked something like the following.

Monday - LSD Tuesday - Speed Wednesday - Easy Thursday - Tempo hills or Fartlek

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Friday - Easy Saturday - Race or LSD.

Mileage varied between 30 and 100 miles a week, depending on the length of the racing distances for which you were training. Again, this era has produced many fine world records. Names like, Coe, Cramm, Decker, Rono, Barios, and other fine runners. The training philosophies of the 80's took on scientific significance mostly through the workings of Kenneth Cooper, and David Costill. We entered a scientific era of training and racing.

So what has the 90's done for us. The early part of the decade emphasized cross training. Runners soon learned that cross training only made them better at cross training. The importance of rest began to be emphasized. While this may be appropriate for much of the serious running community, it is not for the society as a whole. Our nation is horribly out of shape as it is.

In fact, despite our increasing awareness of the need to lead active lives, we are growing increasingly lazier. Perhaps it begins in childhood; rather than coming home to play cops and robbers, football, or tag, they sit behind the television putrefying their corpulent bodies; the jostling of a joystick has been supplemented as their sole exercise.

As an adult population we are given more opportunities to exercise through the advent of all types of exercise machinery. While these devices may offer us more selection in terms of exercise choice, we have learned to exercise as a hobby - not a habit. That is we do them only when we have time for them. We say we are exercising, but only on the weekends, the “weekend warrior.”

All of this adds up to a lack of physical conditioning commitment. I watch our high school athletes grow increasingly lazier. A hard worker is difficult to come by. It used to be that an athlete would say, “Coach my calf hurts, but I will try to run my best.” Now it's, “Coach I won't be at the meet, my calf hurts.” It used to be, “Hey coach can I run the 2-mile after the mile?” Now it’s, “Double? No way!” “I was always very active when I was ten or twelve...I'd go out with my brother and the neighborhood kids and we'd put in a lot of miles, just walking. You read about the Kenyan school children running to and from school. That's the way we were, we were always moving (Rodgers, 1980).

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The Galloway Pyramid

Jeff Galloway, 1972 Olympic 10,000 meter runner, and author of Galloway's Book on Running developed a training philosophy that I will simply call the Galloway Pyramid (see diagram). The base of this pyramid includes long slow distance runs; the middle of the pyramid includes hills and other strength run, and the peak of the pyramid speed. I have taken this model and turned it over, and added a few things to it. My training pyramid serves as the skeleton for my training. Galloway gets the credit for developing the idea.

Speed

Strength

Base

Developing a Training Pyramid

Training without goals and objectives is less effective than when we train with them. Therefore, the first step in developing a training schedule is to develop appropriate goals and objectives. I recommend setting, and writing, a variety of them. For more information on goals and objectives read “Goal Setting” under chapter eight.

One thing I will not do in this doctrine is give training schedules! There are many fine training schedules available, however, it is most beneficial to develop your own, personalized training schedule. If you are going to take hours each day, and months on end to train for a goal, you might as well spend a little time developing your own schedule. Additionally, I can not adequately give a training schedule/pyramid to you, for there are a host of individual factors to take into consideration. Dr. David Costill sums it up by saying: “Assuming that one training program will work effectively for all runners is as logical as assuming that all runners are gifted with the same natural talents (Costill, 1986, 85).

“If you are like most runners, you probably find it difficult to plan your training around long range performance goals. When your workouts are going well, it's tough to hold back. You get swept along by desire and enter races as they come along, regardless of how they fit into your larger plans. You run some good races, but you probably also suffer small frustrations, performance letdowns and stagnant periods,” says Jeff Galloway. “A The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 28

season long training program, in contrast, may force you to forgo a race or two. But if it's a good program, you'll still get plenty of chances to compete, and you will ultimately run faster”.

The seasonal training philosophy I use; and will describe throughout the rest of this chapter, is known as a training pyramid. I have taken Jeff Galloway's pyramid, inverted it and added other portions. The entire process is to be thought of as a peaking process to one race, or one seasonal finale. The training pyramid I have developed consists of six parts: base, strength, speed, taper, trial run, and a seasonal finale.

The usefulness of the training pyramid can be described in comparing it to the writing of a research paper. The first thing you must do is collect information: linger on down to the library, and check out a variety of books and periodicals. All of this information may be thought of as the base building portion. The next step is to make a rough draft, compiling information from all the sources. This compares to the strength portion of the season. Next, you proofread and polish up the report. This compares to the speed portion of the season. Lastly, you turn the report in, and receive a grade; just as the race is run and you receive an outcome.

Pump up the Base: The Beginning of the Training Pyramid

How foolish it would be to attempt to write a research paper on a topic you know nothing about, without first researching the topic? You could proofread it all you want, it still would not perform. There would be little substance. Just as ridiculous would be attempting to race an important race, or season of races, without a base. Yet many runners attempt just that. There are no short-cuts to successful distance running, only hard appropriately, work planned. This hard work begins months before the big race- it begins with the base.

The basis of any training regime, for any distance event is a base. A base is the single greatest determiner toward the success of the distance runner. A runner without a base is like a sopped-up race car with only two gallons of gas. The base portion of the training pyramid should last for a minimum of three months. This is the minimum required to build the cardiovascular qualities required to be a successful distance runner. Five months or more is necessary for the marathon.

It is during the base building season that we perform long, slow distance runs. These runs increase the strength, endurance, and oxidative capabilities of our slow twitch muscle fibers, as well as the fast twitch fibers. These runs increases the strength of the diaphragm, the number of capillaries enervating a muscle, the size of the heart and blood

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vessels, as well as the oxygen efficiency of the body's cells. Additionally it increases the muscles' ability to burn stored fats, and lowers our over-all body fat percentages. The base building portion of the season allows our musculo-skeletal systems to increase in density, enabling us to take the shock and stress of distance running. Lastly, it is the portion of the pyramid in which we establish our neurological patterns for our form.

All of these factors place the base building portion of the pyramid as the most crucial toward the eventual success of the distance runner. For many, the base will start with shorter runs, and build up to a maximum distance run over a period of months, and then begin shortening as the strength season is entered. For runners who train year round, and have more experience, the beginning of the base will probably include a build up phase of just a week or two. Either way, the object is to develop 3-5 months of distance running. This is not to say that other runs are not important, they are, but the emphasis and priority is on distance runs. Just how much distance should be run? That depends on the desired distance to be raced as a seasonal goal. Read the types of training runs in chapter four on “Long Slow Distance”, it will outline how many long runs, and of what distance are required for each racing distance.

Strengthening our Resources in the Training Pyramid

Once we have developed a base of aerobic capabilities, we may begin to strengthen our abilities with strength runs. The strength portion of the pyramid continues with the long runs, but serves other purposes as well. The strength portion of the pyramid is my favorite; it offers a wondrous variety of workouts. You can take one of the distance runs, and make it faster, or take one of the distance runs and make it longer (advisable for the marathon) and reduce the length of the other weekly distance run(s), or take one of the distance runs and run it over hilly terrain, or shorten the length of all distance runs and make them more intense. This portion of the season usually lasts one to two months.

Physiologically, the purpose of the strength season is to stress our newly found cardiovascular and musculo-skeletal systems. It would be foolish to attempt a long run at a swift pace during the early portions of the base building pyramid; it would probably result in injury. By this portion of the pyramid your body has developed its' defense mechanisms. Now you can try them out! Run long and hard, pushing your muscles and your Vo 2 max!

This phase of the pyramid will see the long runs as medium to easy days (see Hard Days Easy Days in this chapter). If you plan on running a marathon than you should view a ten to fifteen mile slow run as an easy day. If you're training for shorter distances, like the 10K down, you may view these easy, long runs as medium to hard days. From this

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season on slow, long runs are called “maintenance distance runs” for they maintain (and improve) the aerobic capacities of your cardiovascular system and musculature without stressing the muscles.

You may find racing beneficial during the strength portion of the pyramid, and may even find that you run descent times. For more on racing during all parts of the season see “Racing During the Training Pyramid” in this chapter. The transition period between the base and strength seasons is a slow and progressive one.

Jeff Galloway calls this portion of the season Hill Training, because of the importance hill running plays in developing strength. This is true, yet there are other forms of training that fall into this season. A few examples are: tempo runs, Fartlek runs, hill loops, long hills, fast distance runs, tempo run repeats, and time trials. Still, hills can play the vital role in the strength phase of the seasonal training pyramid. The next stage is the speed stage.

Speed Play in the Training Pyramid

The final phase of the seasonal pyramid is that of speed training. Speed training is the icing on the cake. It teaches us to push hard and fast. It hones the muscles into a durable and swift machine. The base building portion of the season has built our cardiovascular and musculo-skeletal systems, the strength portion has improved upon the endurance and strength of these systems; the speed season now finishes the job by teaching the muscles to perform faster.

The speed phase of the seasonal pyramid includes a maintenance runs until 7-10 days before the scheduled seasonal peak race. These maintenance runs should be as long as they were during the base, but run slowly. They must be viewed as an easy day! Do not run long, hard, or hilly distance runs, when you are attempting to hone your speed for a seasonal peak. Why is it important to continue with the maintenance distance runs during this portion of the season? Because as your endurance abilities improve, so does your speed. The better your endurance, the longer you can run at a pace close to or at maximal effort (Dellinger & Freeman, 1984, 24).

The speed phase of the season includes fast, gut-wrenching, heart pounding, blurry-visioned, numbed-jaw, and leg-cementing workouts. The primary workouts are intervals or short hill repeats. They are done at break-neck speed. As the season hones down toward the final race, the speed becomes shorter and faster, with increasing rest (see Speed Training in chapter four).

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This phase of the season is also the most injurious of the pyramid. Runs are paced at top speeds, endangering the runners' leg muscles. The tendons, and ligaments may be stressed from a long season of training. These factors make rest, stretching, and adequate warm ups and warm downs a crucial part of this phase. This season should last four to eight weeks.

“It is true that speed kills. In distance running it kills anyone who does not have it.” -Brooks Johnson

Tapering at the end of the Training Pyramid

In the final ten days or so before the planned seasonal peak race, it is important to rest, allow the body to repair it's wounds, and for the mind to take a mental break. It is crucial to enter the “big race” fresh, loose, and, relaxed. However, it is also important to keep your muscles neurological patterns fast. You desire to keep your speed up, your competitive spirit high. Just how long you should taper depends on the distance you will be racing.

The longer the race, the longer the taper should be. It is important to recognize that aerobic capabilities are gained over considerable time, and it takes considerable time of inactivity to lose them. On the other hand speed is quickly built and consequently diminishes quickly. Thus, it is important for the competitor of short distance races (3 miles and less) to maintain the speed work until perhaps three to four days before the big race. Since the marathon is ninety-nine percent aerobic, the tapering period should last longer. The following tapering schedules may help; however, they are general guidelines only. It is recognized that teams often have preliminaries a few days before the season finals. It is also recognized that for races of 5,000 meters or above, there generally are no available races of that distance earlier than the week before. The following tapering schedules serve only as guidelines. Many other factors should come into play when developing a tapering schedule. These factors include: the individual's recover rate, injuries, weather, quality of competition, preliminaries, and the coaches' perceptions.

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Tapering for the 800 meters or half-mile Tapering for the 1500 meters or mile

5 days: 200's, 100's 5 days: 300’s, 200’s 4 days: 2 miles easy, stretch, stride 4 days: 3 miles easy, stretch and stride 3 days: race, preliminaries, or time trial that distance 3 days: race, preliminaries, or time trial 2 days: 2 miles, a few 100's 2 days: 3 miles and a few 200’s easy 1 day: 1 mile easy, stretch, stride 1 day: 2 miles easy, stretch and stride Seasonal Goal Race Seasonal Goal Race

Tapering for the 3,000 meters or two -miles Tapering for the 5,000 meters or three miles

5 days: 400’s, 300’s Schedule 1: when there is a preliminary race a 4 days: 4-5 miles easy few days before the finals. 3 days: preliminaries or time trial 2 days: 4 miles and a few 300’s 7 days: 400's 1 day: 3 miles easy 6 days: 300's Seasonal Goal Race 5 days: 2 miles easy 4 days: preliminaries or (trial run) 3 days: 5 miles easy 2 days: 4 miles easy Tapering for the 8,000 or 10,000 Meters 1 day: 3 miles easy Seasonal Goal Race 8 days: easy 7 days: race or time trial Schedule 2: when the last available race is a 6 days: 7 miles easy week before the seasonal goal race. 5 days: 400’s 4 days: 6 miles easy 8 days: easy 3 days: 5 miles easy w/ 5 x 1 min strides 7 days: race that distance (trial run) 2 days: 4 miles easy 6 days: 5 miles easy 1 day: 3 miles easy 5 days: 4 miles easy Seasonal Goal Race 4 days: 400's 3 days: 4 miles easy 2 days: 3 miles easy 1 day: 3 miles easy Seasonal Goal Race

Tapering 15,000 meters - half-marathon Tapering for the Marathon

10 days: off 10 days: off 9 days: a long run 9 days: 20-26 miles easy 8 days: easy 8 days: 5 miles easy 7 days: a 5 or 10 K race (trial run) 7 days: 5k or 10k race (trial run) 6 days: 5 miles easy 6 days: 5 miles easy 5 days: 8 miles easy 5 days: 10 miles easy 4 days: 6 miles easy with 5 X 2 min surges 4 days: 8 miles easy 3 days: 5 miles easy 3 days: 6 miles easy The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 33

2 days: 4 miles easy 2 days: 5 miles easy 1 day: 3 miles easy 1 day: 3 miles easy Seasonal Goal Race Seasonal Goal Race

The Trial Run of the Training Pyramid

You have done it! You have put in your 3-5 months of base, your 1-2 months of strength and your 1-2 months of speed. You are almost ready. It is now time to give you a trial run. If you are racing a short track distance, then this trial should be of the same length. If you are running a 10K as a seasonal goal than it should be a 8K or 5K. If your seasonal goal is a marathon, then run a 10K or 5K. This test should come no earlier than 7 days (as in the case of the marathon) and no later than three days (as in the case of the mile) days prior to the final race of the season. Why? This run gives you a psychological and physiological advantage.

The psychological advantage comes from running swift, with low pressure. Knowing that you are in great shape, yet this is not the race that counts. It allows you to run close to your desired PR or maybe even set a PR in a shorter race. Physiologically, an increase in blood volume has been reported to occur immediately following an intensive effort, such as racing (Sheehan, 1990). An increase in blood volume means we also have an increase in the number of red blood cells within that blood; which equals more oxygen transported to the working muscles.

In one study scientists at McMaster University in Hamilton Ontario, studied the effects of different tapering methods. Some study participants rested the week before a time trial, while others ran low mileage at a low intensity. A third group ran low mileage at high intensity, their workouts consisting of decreasing numbers of 500-meter intervals over a five day period. This group began with eight repeats the first day, cutting back to four the day before the time trial. The runners who rested or ran little mileage at a low intensity failed to improve in the time trial. The low mileage/high intensity subjects, however, improved the amount of time they could run before exhaustion by more than 27 percent. They also showed significant increases in blood volume and red cell mass (Sheehan, 1990). This physiological principle may explain why elite and non-elite distance runners alike often experience an improved performance in racing shortly after a prior race. This helps explain why world records are often set the day or two after a qualifying heat.

I am not claiming that the ideal way to P.R. in a marathon is to race 26.2 miles three days before, this certainly would not hold true. I am saying that in shorter races, where recovery takes considerably less time, like in the mile, it is advantageous to give a hard

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effort a few days before the big race. In longer races, like the marathon, it may be advantageous to race a short fast 5K 4-7 days before the race.

Hard Days and Easy Days During the Training Pyramid

The principle of hard day/easy day, is a long-standing, tried and true training philosophy. It was originally pioneered in the 1960's by University of Oregon coach Bill Bowerman (Higdon, 1991, 46). “Most distance runners of that era were skeptical of Bowerman's strategy. They were in the habit of training as much and as hard as they could every day. They found it difficult to believe that “losing” a day could actually improve their conditioning. But Bowerman's Oregon runners soon vindicated his methods”, says Galloway.

It is generally recognized that muscle fibers require 48 to 72 hours to recover from hard workouts for beginner runners, and from 24 to 72 hours for experienced runners (Dellinger & Freeman, 1984, 21). This being the case, it is important to allow the body time to recover from a hard days effort. This meets with the over-load principle discussed in chapter two. If we continually break the body down we will not allow time for it to recover and improve.

Just what constitutes a hard day varies significantly from one individual to another. Experience is the only indicator of how hard a particular workout is. The principle of hard day/easy day training allows the runner to break down, and build up. Many coaches, myself included, follow these basic principles. It is important to take into consideration just how hard a hard day is.

Still, it is acceptable and often advantageous to give a runner two hard days in a row. If the “hard” day is such that recovery is quick (as in running short fast repeats) it is OK to give three hard days in a row. Perhaps more important than the difficulty of the run while doing it, is the amount by which it leaves you fatigued or broken down after. More than three days in a row for any schedule should be discouraged, of course.. Medium days do exist. A ten miler may be considered easy for a two-miler, but medium for a half miler. Take these days into account.

Recovery During the Training Pyramid

Every run should have a purpose, even if it is only to recover from a harder workout, or to relax. Just as each run must have a purpose, rest days too, have a purpose - to rest. Overtraining, like undertraining, will result in slower race times, and increases the possibility of injury. A well-designed training program must provide ample rest.

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The concept of rest is a much over-looked concept. In a society where the phrase “no pain = no gain” is still hailed it is difficult to convince many runners that perhaps they are over-training. To make matters worse, often when our times aren’t dropping, and we feel tired and weak, we miss diagnose the problem as not having trained hard enough. Injury may be near.

“Staleness, overuse and burnout are terms used to describe that tired-all-over feeling associated with overtraining. It hovers over the shoulders of runners as they push themselves to improve performance. Training becomes like a tightrope act. Unless the runner stretches the limits of ability, he or she may not reach full potential. Yet, push too hard, and staleness, fatigue, failure, depression, and injury may hit”, says Hal Higdon in an October 1987 Runner’s World article entitled “Tightrope act”. For more on overtraining see chapter seven.

What causes overtraining? Not enough rest! Too much, too soon, too often, is how Bob Glover and Pete Schuder describe it in their book, The Competitive Runner's Handbook . The dreaded triple T's. Overtraining primarily targets the most highly motivated athletes as these athletes have to work hard in order to achieve their high goals. Jack Daniels says, “In my dictionary, the word overtrain falls just a page away from the word overkill, defined as to obliterate with more nuclear force than required. Consider the connection: If your target is top running performance then to overtrain means to apply more force than is required to hit that target. In fact, overtraining may literally obliterate your target, or at least leave you without the will to pursue it.”

One affect of overtraining is glycogen depletion. Glycogen debt occurs in two ways: the athlete fails to eat sufficient carbohydrates to match the amount of calories burned daily; or the athlete eats enough but fails to synthesize enough glycogen. Scientist don't fully understand why this occurs, but excessive training appears to inhibit the body's conversion of fuel into energy (Higdon, 1987, 77).

There is a paradox here, if the runner survives injury free in times of overtraining, there may be some benefits to be gained. Muscle glycogen depletion may occur selectively. The primary working muscles will be the first to be drained; thus the runner will feel slow, a classic sign of overtraining. However, the body will call upon non-depleted, but less efficient, connected muscles into action. As a result, the runner maintains his pace, but form suffers, and more energy must be expended. As athletes recruit all available muscle fibers in an attempt to maintain training pace, they invariably exhaust their slow twitch as well as their fast twitch fibers. The result is a training of the muscle's oxygen consumption systems that sometimes leads to personal records (following adequate recovery of course) in longer races not requiring speed (Higdon, 1987, 78).

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I am not advocating overtraining as the secret to successful marathon running. The muscles suffer too much damage in overtraining, and the probability of injury rises. Additionally, the brain's willingness to keep firing depleted and damaged muscles may decline. During overtraining testosterone levels drop, and the level of cortisol, a hormone that serves as an indicator of stress, raises. Norepinephrine, the pain killing drug secreted by the brain, declines during periods of overtraining (Higdon, 1987, 78). Symptoms of overtraining include: a loss of appetite or body weight, a higher resting pulse rate, general fatigue, a lack of interest in running, lowered sex drive, sleeping problems, and of course heavy legs and muscle soreness. To prevent overtraining it is crucial to incorporate easy days, and days off in the training pyramid. For a detailed analysis of overtraining see chapter seven under that heading.

Monday Tuesday Wednesda Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday y 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

REST 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

REST 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

REST

The day off not only gives your body a break, it also gives your mind one. I view one day a week off as a crucial element in a successful training program. Many runners take one particular day off a week, such as Sunday. If you value a rigid schedule that's fine. I leave my schedule somewhat flexible; that way if something happens that necessitates my time that day, it becomes my day off. The one day off a week need not be exactly every seven days. In fact, you may have noticed that in the tapering part of the pyramid, I often have eight or nine straight days slated without a break, that's fine; the quality of runs is such that they do not warrant a day off. Feel good about taking a day off.

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Racing During the Training Pyramid

Is it all right to race during the base phase? How much should I race during the strength phase? How about the speed? The answer to all of these questions is “yes”.... and “no”. Of course there are many factors to consider, lets begin with the base phase of the training pyramid.

Racing during the Base Phase of the Training Pyramid

Racing during the base phase of the training pyramid will not bring personal records. It will however, add experience to your racing. Any race during the base phase should be viewed solely as a learning experience. Pressure should be avoided entirely. View races in these distances as an opportunity to experiment with new strategies or tactics. Try to run precisely even splits, or see how many people you can pass, try to beat someone else, or beat a set time, but please don't strive for a PR! There is no sense in torturing yourself like that. Too many set one goal only for each race entered, despite the phase of season, a PR. Many leave races unsatisfied because of this. For more on this see PR-itis in Chapter Ten.

During this season I enjoy running both the 5K and the 10K, or trying to find some obscure distance that I can actually set a PR in, like the 8.237 mile. It is OK to race once a week during this season. Simply count that day as a hard day, and rest after it. Should something not feel right, or your just too tired, slow down, enjoy the run, there’s no pressure. If you have a choice, choose to race longer races than you plan on racing for your seasonal goal race.

Racing during the Strength Phase of the Training Pyramid

Races may be taken a bit more seriously in this phase. Our physical state is such that we may be able to approach some of the personal records that we have set the year before. However, races during this phase of the season should be low-pressure races. Once again should something go wrong, back off! None of these races count as they are for experience only.

Races during this part of the pyramid also provide the opportunity to get a good tempo run in. Instead of racing the local 5K maybe you can get a tempo run in while helping a slower friend set a PR. Racing weekly is acceptable, as long as there is no pressure to excel in these races.

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Toward the middle of the strength season, the frequency of racing should be declined, and the intensity increased. I recommend finding a key race every two or three weeks, and going for it. once again don't expect a PR, but do give it your best. This is the time of season when it is not advisable to give in when you feel bad. You must begin to teach yourself mental toughness.

For many, especially cross country runners, the first several races of a season may fall into the strength portion of the season. These may be practice meets, invitationals, or actual league meets. If this is the case, they need to be taken seriously, taking the day or two before the race as easy days and preparing to run the best you can for this part of the season is advisable. If you have the choice, choose races that are slightly longer than the race you have slated for your seasonal peak.

Racing during the Speed Phase of the Training Pyramid

This is what all of your training is geared for! Now is when you race hard! Be sure to take a day or two easy before the race and do an adequate warm up. The practice races from the base phase will add to our overall confidence that you can run and finish the race in a descent time. The races in the strength portion of the season have taught you mental toughness and given you experience in mental games and it is now time to apply these lessons.

I believe that it takes approximately eight to fifteen races to develop a peak performance for races of 3200 meters or less; six to ten for 5,000 meter races; and four to six for the 10,000. The races may be of varying distances. These races should come at least weekly, with a maximum of two per week. This fits nicely into high school and college schedules as the average number of meets seems to be around twelve. However, for the road racer, this means he must start racing weekly 2 to 3 months before the scheduled seasonal peak. This means that the first serious races need to be in the middle of the strength phase.

It is often difficult for runners to find a race every weekend, especially races of the same distance. Some traveling may be required. If you can not find a race within a reasonable distance, run a time trial. Do not expect as fast as a time as you would run in a race, it is too difficult to push when you are alone. If you can run to within thirty seconds per mile of your normal race pace, you have done an outstanding job of pushing yourself in a time trial!

The seasonal training pyramid comes to an end with the scheduled seasonal peak. However, it is possible to “hold your peak” for another two weeks if necessary. Such is the

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case with high school and college runners who qualify for higher levels of competition. For the road racer, if your goal is meet in your final scheduled race, I recommend you rejoice in your accomplishment, take a week or two off and begin building a new pyramid. However, if your scheduled peaking race is a blunder, you may attempt it again for the next two weekends, if upon faltering in both those attempts, take your loses and your rest, and begin a new pyramid.

I highly recommend the use of a progress chart to map your success during the last half of the strength phase, and during the speed phase. This chart, in conjunction with appropriate goals, serves as an excellent tool in motivation and training direction. For information on the progress chart, and goal setting read chapter 11.

Seasonal Improvements

Should all go well and you emerge through the seasons from year to year without injury; you can expect improvement. Obviously you improve throughout the course of one pyramid; that is the concept of the pyramid. You should also improve from one pyramid to the next. Just how much you improve depends on your age, talents, number of seasons running, and how much harder you train from one pyramid to the next. Below you will find a chart that demonstrates the concept of improving from one pyramid to the next. You will notice that immediately following the seasonal peak there is a drop in performance. Do not be mislead into thinking that you can continue to improve. Your training has brought you to your optimal level for this pyramid; you need to begin again. Should you continue to race, the most likely result would be injury.

16:40

17:00

17:20

November May November

I have found, as a high school coach, that I can expect my runner's seasonal personal records to improve around forty seconds from one year to the next. This of course is an average, and is also significant of the fact that most of these kids have not run before they joined high school. Improvement comes most easily for the beginner and The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 40

grows increasingly difficult the longer you have been running. I wish I could improve by forty seconds in my three mile each year!

Building a Training Pyramid

Step 1: Read Chapter 11 on goals, set yourself three seasonal goals and write them in the space provided.

Step 2: Pick your seasonal race and list it.

Step 3: Read the next chapter and list the types of runs you will use in your pyramid. Don't write down exact workouts, just types of workouts. This is the part that will take you some time. That's fine, spend an hour to re-read this chapter, and read the next, use the knowledge to design your own program. It will be one that works for you, and you will understand why you are doing it.

Step 4: You have now completed the training pyramid. Now take each phase one at a time.

Step 5: Use the calendar, or make one on a computer or sheet of paper, write down all the days in that training phase. So if your base is going to be three months, then find 3 months worth of calendar. First block out the days that you know you won’t be able to run (traveling, holidays, etc.).

Step 6: Begin by designing your own schedule to build up. Use the hard day easy day principle, and the overload principle. Be sure to slot rest. Also include races (if your seasonal goal race is 10K or shorter, schedule longer races during the base, and strength seasons).

Step 7: Continue to develop your workouts for another week or two. Then stop. See how it goes. Fill in your weeks one or two weeks in advance. Once you near the end of the base phase, pull out a calendar and begin writing your workouts for the next phase. By the end of your first 4-9 month training pyramid you will be an expert at designing workouts!

Step 8: Follow it, not religiously, but roughly!

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Seasonal Training Pyramid .

Concentration Runs Long Slow Distance Short Distance Runs Fartlek

Marathon Hills Buildup Distance Runs Tempo Runs

Mile Repeats 30 Minute Recovery Runs Longer Races

Base Phase: 12 - 16 Weeks

Long Slow Distance Mile Repeats Tempo Runs

Concentration Runs 30 Minute Recovery Runs Hill Repeats

Marathon Hills Fartlek Races Hill Loops

1200, 800, 600, 400 Meter Repeats

Strength Phase: 6 - 10 Weeks

Long Slow Distance / Middle Distance

Hill Loops Short Tempo Hill Repeats

Races 400 Meter Repeats Rest

300, 200, 100 Meter Repeats

Speed Phase: 3-6 Weeks

See tapering schedules Realistic Goal: 4:30 Taper Challenging : 4:26

Dream Goal : 4:22 Peak

______Final Race

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Seasonal Training Pyramid .

Base Phase: 12 - 16 Weeks

Strength Phase: 6 - 10 Weeks

Speed Phase: 3-6 Weeks

Realistic Goal______Taper Challenging ______

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Dream Goal ______Peak ______Final Race

Training Schedule

Monday Tuesday Wednesda Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

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Chapter Four Types of Training Runs

efore a runner can learn how to effectively develop a training pyramid to meet his Bindividual goals, he must understand the principles of training and the purpose of the differing types of training runs. Chapter two discussed the principles of training, and chapter three taught you how to organize a training pyramid. This chapter will discuss the differing training runs, and their purposes so that you may place them into your schedule accordingly.

The Warm-Up and Cool Down

The sport specific warm up is an essential part of almost every workout. The physiological purpose of the warm up is to raise both the general body and the deep muscle temperature and to stretch collagenous tissues to permit greater flexibility. This reduces the possibility of muscle tears and ligamentous sprains and helps prevent muscle soreness (Arnheim, 1985, 116). The harder the anticipated workout, the longer the warm- up should be. It takes at least 15-30 minutes of gradual warm-up to bring the body to a state of readiness. On cool days the warm-up should be increased in duration and lessened in intensity. For a hard workout, two miles of easy jogging followed by ten or more minutes of stretching is ideal.

When it's cold keep your sweats on, even if they cause profuse sweating during the warm-up. Once you are done jogging, immediately begin to stretch. If your body begins to cool down, jog again until you are warm. It is important to remain warm from the beginning of the warm-up until the beginning of the workout. Cold muscles are easily injured. No more than fifteen minutes should elapse between the end of the warm-up and the start of the workout under mild conditions. In the cold it should be immediate.

In the heat, a shorter warm up is in order. Studies have shown that warming up raises the body temperature by 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit above the resting level. This could lead to a risk of over-heating on a hot day (Costill, 1986, 149). Additionally, utilizing heat packs or a Jacuzzi will not substitute for running a warm up. These heating devices pull blood toward the skin (away from the muscles) to release excess body heat to the environment; the blood does not saturate the muscles. Jogging saturates the working muscles. The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 45

The only workout that does not necessitate a warm up is long slow distance; henceforth known as LSD, or other slow runs. The LSD pace is simply too easy to cause injury; in fact, the pace is the same as the warm up pace anyhow. Stretching should never be attempted before jogging; the result could be injury. An analogy can be drawn between a muscle and a sponge: the sponge is stiff and difficult to stretch until it is wet, the same holds true for the muscle before it is saturated with blood. Therefore, always warm up before stretching.

A warm-up is something to be taken especially serious before a race. Not only does the warm-up decrease the chance of injury but it boosts performance as well. Studies show that a proper, event-specific, warm-up will bring performance improvements from 0.5 to 0.6 seconds in the 100-meter dash to as much as 4 to 6 seconds in the 800 meter run. The percentage of improvement, from 2% to 5%, is approximately the same for the various distances studied, according to Dr. Daniel Arnheim.

Cooling down applies to running of gradually diminishing intensity following a strenuous workout or race. This permits the return of both the circulation and various body functions to pre-exercise levels. From 30 seconds to 1 min. of jogging followed by 3-5 minutes of walking will permit the body to readjust. Running for longer periods, will reduce blood lactate levels by flushing the lactate from the muscles to the liver where it goes through gluconeogenesis and is reconverted back to glucose. This facilitates less post- workout/race soreness. It is this later reason that a 20 minute warm down is recommended (Arnheim, 1985, 119).

Long Steady Distance

Long steady distance is the most common training run. It is the basis of most all running programs, and is valuable in terms of the aerobic benefits it produces. The word “steady” in long steady distance has been modified by many coaches and runners to stand for “slow” or long slow distance. Of course one runners distance pace is anther’s race pace. The idea is to run within your working heart rate, for long periods of time, without incurring oxygen debt. In doing this you will increase the amount of oxygen your respiratory system can obtain, transport, and utilize; thus as a distance runner you will prosper.

Just how fast should a distance run be? Jeff Galloway has come up with a useful formula. Your distance pace should be 1:30 -2:30 slower than your 10K race pace. Perhaps an ideal pace is 2:30 slower during the base phase, 2:00 slower during the strength, and up to 1:30 slower for a hard day during the speed. Other methods use the working heart rate

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(60-80% of max) or the talk/sweat test (in which you should be sweating but still able to talk comfortably). Any of the above methods will work fine.

One of the factors responsible for exhaustion during distance running is the rapid depletion of the muscle's carbohydrate stores (glycogen). Long distance running trains muscles to store more glycogen. Another advantage of the long run is that it improves the muscles capability to burn fat, thereby reducing the demands placed on the body's limited carbohydrate supplies. This is known as glucose sparing.

Long steady distance (LSD) is the most valuable type of training run. No long distance training program should be without LSD. LSD is the easiest, least dangerous (in terms of muscular injury) and one of the most enjoyable runs. To obtain minimal cardiovascular and respiratory benefits, it is necessary to run for an absolute minimum of 15 minutes (Brennan, 1988). This however, will not likely be enough to build a base for a race of any distance. Though 15 minutes will bring about improvement in one's cardiovascular and respiratory systems; it will not permit a runner to race at any distance with quality.

How long one should run for depends on how far he is training to race. If a runner is training for nothing in particular; perhaps just running for health, then he is best off to run for no less than 20 minutes, and no more than an hour. Running for anything less than 20 minutes doesn't accomplish enough, especially for trained runners. Running more than an hour brings about increased possibilities of skeletal muscular injury.

Since LSD is the basis for distance running, the following paragraphs will discuss LSD runs in detail for most races from the 800 meters to the marathon. In designing a schedule it would be best to look at these guidelines and then fill in other workouts around them; however according to Amby Burfoot in a April 1987 Runner’s World article entitled “Go Long” the long run should probably not exceed 30 percent of total weekly mileage. It is perfectly acceptable, and maybe even advantageous to use a water run of the same duration instead of a long road run. See “Running in the Pool” under chapter six for more information. “The long run is what puts the tiger in the cat” -Bill Squires

L.S.D. for the 800 Meters

As an 800 runner, or half-miler, you will find LSD plays a key role in the base building portion of your season, in which you should run for a minimum of 45 minutes and a maximum of 75. Anything less than 45 minutes will not produce the desirable aerobic benefits. More than 75 minutes may convert too many fast twitch “B” fibers, to “A”. The 800 is predominantly a speed race, and we must be cautious as to avoid too

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much distance. However, the 800 does require a good deal of aerobic capacity as well and, therefore, requires LSD of at least 45 minutes.

One method of determining how much endurance work to do for the 800 meter runner is to fist determine if he is a 400 meter runner moved up, or a 1500 meter runner moved down. The coach is usually best to then train the athlete from his strengths. Either way, as the strength phase of the season is incorporated, the LSD runs should be shortened so that they are not longer than 60 minutes. At the same time, it is still important to run at least one 45 minute run a week. By now, this LSD run should be considered an easy day run.

The Speed phase of the season necessitates mainly speed work, LSD runs may be utilized as recovery runs, and should probably be for 45 minutes or less. It is important to recognize that a coach may be able to better detect what the individual runner needs. If a coach feels that a runner is incurring oxygen debt too early in the race (like before the first lap) he may advise his athlete to run longer LSD workouts.

L.S.D. For the 1500 Meters or Mile

The mile requires a beautiful combination of speed and distance. In fact, it requires 50% slow twitch and 50% fast twitch muscle fibers; as far as the muscle twitch fibers are concerned (Costill, 1981, 30). Too much of either a speed or distance orientation will hinder a milers performance. In fact, the mile is one of the most complicated distances to design a training program for. Milers themselves are perhaps the most versatile of all runners. A true miler is also capable of performing well in the 800 and 3200.

Since the mile requires approximately 50% endurance, it is crucial to build a solid base during the base building phase of the pyramid. At least one LSD run per week should be conducted from 60 minutes to two hours. It is recommended to do at least two LSD runs a week, during this phase.

The strength phase of the pyramid should bring with it LSD runs of 60 minutes to 90 minutes. Since the miler is such a fit distance runner, these distances may also serve as recovery runs, or they can be dun at a faster pace. A fifty minute run should not be perceived as difficult for a miler during this phase. Such perception would necessitate more LSD running and less speed.

The speed phase of the milers pyramid should bring about a reduction in the LSD run to a minimum of 45 minutes and a maximum of 90. These easy runs will not only increase the respiratory systems' abilities, it will also help to prevent a premature peak in

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seasonal performance, and aid in recovery from speed workouts. During the speed phase of the pyramid you may feel the urge to run an excessive number of speed workouts. The Distance run is often under-valued. It is vital to include a LSD run from seven to ten days before the planned seasonal peak, which will be your last LSD run until after your planned seasonal peaking race. For more information on tapering see chapter three under “tapering schedules”.

L.S.D. For the 3000 Meters or Two-mile

Much like the mile, the two-mile, requires a critical mix of speed and distance. The two-mile does require more endurance than speed, but the difference is marginal. Thus, training for the two-mile is almost identical until the speed phase of the pyramid. This fact makes it easy for a coach to train an athletes when he does not yet know just what runners will specialize in what race. In fact, many coaches (myself included) train the milers and two milers identically through the base and strength phases of the pyramid.

For those runners who actually desire to specialize in the two-mile it is advisable to run one LSD run of 60 minutes to 90 minutes up until seven to ten days before the planned seasonal peak. Other than that, the two-miler usually just does the same workouts as a miler.

L.S.D. For the 5000m or 3 Mile

The 5000m is the first distance that is considered a middle distance race. The three mile is the most commonly raced distance in high school cross country; and the 5K is one of the most commonly raced distances for the road racer. These distances require a high level of aerobic conditioning, yet still require a great deal of strength. Training for these distances provides ample opportunity for fun and diversity as a variety of workouts can be utilized.

The base building season should contain a minimum of three LSD runs a week, with one to two of them reaching 70-90 minutes a week; and again possibly going as high as 2 hours.. The other LSD runs may vary between 45 minutes and sixty minutes. Keep Galloway's principle in mind and run the pace slowly, 2:30 slower per mile than your planned seasonal peak race pace, or use the talk/sweat test. These runs are optimal for working on form and relaxation.

In the strength portion of the season the one long LSD run of 70-120 minutes should be maintained, and at least one medium LSD run of 45-60 minutes. The strength

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portion may require that the one long run be done at a slightly faster pace than in the base phase, perhaps 2:00 slower than race pace.

The speed phase of the 5K training schedule is somewhat of a gray area in running. Many runners and coaches opt to remove the 70-90 minute run, and replace it with a strength workout. Most all coaches and runners will agree that the LSD run needs to be kept to a minimum of 60 minutes until ten days prior to the planned seasonal peak. Still, many believe in keeping the long run of 70-120 minutes up until the week of the big race. I see value in both of these schedules. Your own body will be the best indicator of when, how long, and how fast, your last distance run should be.

Coaches may have to make the decision for the whole team. He then must decide which is best for the team. For example: if a team displays poor speed in the final half mile of the previous race, it may be best to eliminate the long run and replace it with intervals or hills. On the other hand, if the runner or team seems to be tired in the middle of the race, it may be best to opt for the long run, rather than a hard one. Other factors too may be taken into consideration. Factors such as: am I pushing an injury by doing...? Can I use the stress relieving benefits of a LSD run? Will I feel better going into the big race off a hard workout week or an easy one? All these factors should be considered. Remember this: if you have done your homework all season long, the workouts you choose the final week won't make or brake you.

L.S.D. For the 8,000 and 10.000 Meters

These distances represent the middle distance runs. You should consider that these are the first distances in which you will likely be burning fat, taking in fluids, and counting on your pre-race spaghetti dinner to aid you. They require a well conditioned, and efficient cardiovascular and respiratory system. The 10K runner will be racing from 27:08 (the current world record held by Arturio Barrios) to well over an hour. The runner must be able to supply his working muscles with the oxygen and carbohydrates for this entire time.

It is unfortunate that runners often do not plan a seasonal schedule for races of these distances. Many runners simply train, with out goals and schedules, and then go out to a 10K hoping to run a PR. Sorry, it normally doesn't work that way, you must plan to run a PR by preparing for it. The way to prepare for it is to plan a seasonal pyramid. To train for these distances, a minimum of two 70-120 minute runs a week are needed, with three being optimal. During this base building phase, another two to three medium distance runs should be incorporated a week; runs of 45-60 minutes. You will notice that

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the duration of these long runs is not different from the 3 mile, the frequency is where they vary.

The strength phase of this pyramid does not differ in the duration of the long runs, just the frequency and pace. The frequency of your 70-120 minute run should be once or twice a week, with one or two shorter distance runs as well. The long run can be done at a faster pace than the base phase long runs. For example: a 31:00 minute 10K runner may elect to run his base long runs at a 7:30-8:00 pace, and then may run his strength phase long runs at a 6:30-7:00 pace. The medium long runs should remain a part of the program as well.

The speed phase may see the removal of one weekly long run. Still, you need to maintain one long run of at least 70 and nor more than 120 minutes a week, and one medium distance run of 45-60 minutes a week as well. Continue with the long run until 7- 10 days before your peak.

L.S.D. For the Marathon

The marathon itself is long steady distance; therefore the primary workout for the marathon is the long run. Marathoners have been incorporating a weekly trek of double- digit miles into their training schedules for generations; and this is done so with good reason. Trained marathon muscles are seven times more capable of burning fat than untrained muscles (Costill, 1981, 11-12). But just how far, or long should this long run be, how often? One of the primary factors to consider is whether you plan on running the marathon or racing it?

One of the leading theories of marathon training is that you should run for at least as long (time wise) as you plan on racing . If you plan on racing a four hour marathon, then you should do at least one training run for four hours. However, if you simply plan on running the marathon, at a training pace, then it would be pointless to run a marathon to prepare for the marathon. The race might even be anti-climatic so if the goal is 26.2, especially the first time, then save the 26.2 for the actual race.

For the marathon racer , it is probably advantageous to train for at least as long as you plan on racing. If you plan on running a 2:45 marathon, then run for at least 2:45 in your training. The reason for this long run is both physical as well as psychological. You want to know what it is like to be on your feet for that period of time. You desire to visualize the race, concentrate on relaxation, form, and tactics (yes even in the marathon). Make these long runs as close to the real thing as possible. Run the actual race route if you can. Visualize the race, the crowds, and the other competitors. See yourself achieving your

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goals - your watch is the finish line clock. Drink the same fluids as will be available during the actual race, eat, dump water over your head. Wear the same clothes you will race in (except for racing flats). Run everything just like the actual marathon - just not the pace. You see the long run should be as much a trial run (not time trial) as anything. It gives you a chance to try out your stuff, to see if your clothes prevent chaffing, your fluids tolerable, and your calves from faltering. Let the long run be a workout for the brain. Try out everything but the actual pace.

Still another marathon training philosophy is to train far as or further than the marathon -perhaps up to 30 miles. This will serve to greatly improve the body's ability to handle these distances, and will make the actual marathon distance seem easier. There is something uplifting about knowing that you have gone farther than the marathon. The disadvantage to this longer distance run is the increased possibility of injury.

Since 20 miles seems to be the magic mark the “wall” so to speak, it is most important to run at least this far in training. Physiologists have noted that the body will eventually run very low on stored glycogen; for many this occurs around the 20 mile mark of the marathon (Costill, 1986, 38). This being the case it is important to give practice to this - a sampling of what it will be like to run in this state. This allows the body to better learn to metabolize fats as fuel, and gives the brain experience in dealing with the exhaustion that accompanies a glycogen depletion. OK, so you’re convinced of the importance of the long run to prepare to race or run the marathon. How far should you go, how often, and how about in the final weeks preceding the marathon?

The base building phase of the marathon should start off with a gradual building up of distance. If you are a seasoned or veteran marathon runner (in this case one race makes you a veteran) then you should be able to improve to runs of 10 miles within two to three weeks. If your not a seasoned marathon runner, you should still be able to run 10 miles within two weeks of your base training pyramid. If you can't you have no right trying to run the marathon! Wait a few years until you view a ten miler as an easy day!

I have a rule of fours for running the marathon. 1) You should have at least four years running experience. 2) You should run at least forty mile weeks for four months prior to the marathon. 3) You should have raced at least four half-marathons in your running history. 4) If not four paramedics may carry you off.

Training for the marathon really is not a traditional sharpening down, like for cross country or track. It is a building up process. When you start the base, you should be able to run 10 miles at least twice a week within a few weeks. Other training days should fall into the order of 10K training, because strength is still an essential part of marathon racing .

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As the base building season progresses, your weekly long run should increase by a mile or two per week. Once you reach 20 miles you should begin doing your long run every ten days, and you should increase the distance by 1-2 miles per long run. Other workouts should include one or two 10-15 milers, and strength runs. An advanced base schedule may look something like table 1.

The strength portion of the season should hold the weekly long run in place and you may decide to either increase the pace or run it in a hilly location. Many of my favorite workouts come during this time of the season as I enjoy making my long run on a hilly trail. I enjoy hitting the trails, and taking on miles long hills; I call it “trailage”. Other ideas for the strength phase of the season include shortening the distance, perhaps to 15 miles, and running mile repeats, or 3 x 3 mile tempo runs. A schedule may look like table 2.

The speed stage of the marathon seasons may include repeats of as short as 400 meters (though most elect to do farther ones), but it should continue with the long run as the primary concern. Just how long should you keep the long run up until? That depends on how quick you recover. If a 20 miler takes nothing out of you, I recommend continuing with the long run up until a week before the marathon, and then drastically tapering off the rest of the week. It is most important to enter the marathon fresh. If it takes you a few days to repair from a long run, then you should do your last long run 10-14 days before the actual race. A schedule may look like table 3.

Base (table 1) Strength (table 2) Speed (table 3)

Sunday: 24 miles Sunday: 26 miles Sunday: 28 miles Monday: 5 miles Monday: 5 miles Monday: off Tuesday: 15 miles Tuesday: 5 x 1 m Tuesday: 5 miles Wednesday: 5 miles Wednesday: 5 miles Wednesday: 12 x 400 Thursday: 8 miles Thursday: 15 miles Thursday: 5 miles Friday: 10-15 m Friday: 5 miles Friday: hill loops Saturday: 3 miles Saturday: off Saturday: off Sunday: off Sunday: 10 miles Sunday: 15 miles Monday: 8 miles Monday: 5 miles Monday: 5 miles Tuesday: 25 miles Tuesday: 27 miles Tuesday: 29 miles

I probably have some seasoned marathoners questioning the sanity of doing a long run 7 days before the race. That's fine- it’s not for all. Personally, I believe it gives you the mental advantage, of running it, feeling good, visualizing the race, etc... If you’re a veteran runner, there should be plenty of time to recover. Physiologically too there may be an advantage to running a hard effort the week before a race; for more information see The Runner’s Doctrine EricAndersonPhD.com 53

“The Trial Run” in chapter three. “I don't wear a watch during my long runs. That way I am not tempted to compare my time from week to week. - Lynn Jennings Intervals and Speed Play

Long slow distance running will place most of the improvement on the slow muscle twitch fibers; incorporating more speed into a training program taxes both fiber types, increasing their aerobic capacities (Costill, 1986, 89). While it is true that long distance runs will incorporate fast twitch fibers to “keep the pace” after great fatigue, this type of training builds only the aerobic powers of the fast twitch fibers; in order to train the /anaerobic qualities of these fibers, we must train anaerobically, according to Dr. Costill. To race fast, we must train fast. Long slow distance training alone fails to develop the neurological patterns of muscle fiber recruitment that will be needed during races that require a faster pace. Since the selective use of muscle fibers differs according to running speed, runners who only train at speeds slower than race pace will not train all of the muscle fibers needed for competition (Costill, 1986, 89).

At very slow speeds, you can run for quite a long time because your body is able to clear lactic acid as quickly as it is produced (Daniels, 1990, 83). As you pick up the pace, such as in a race, to one in which your muscles require more oxygen than you can supply to them - or the muscles are working faster than they can burn the oxygen, the working muscles begin dumping more lactic acid into your blood as they utilize the lactate system of energy production (chapter 18). Lactic acid has an inhibiting muscle contracting quality to it. If the runner continues to dump more lactic acid into his muscles than he is able to remove, his muscles will slow, his pain increase, and eventually his muscles will cease to contract. Through the process of gluconeogenesis the liver will convert lactic acid back into glucose. So you can actually run in a lactate producing state, without feeling the negative consequences if your liver can convert the lactate back to glucose at the same rate in which lactate is being introduced into the blood. To the point in which the liver can not keep up with the increasing amounts of lactate, you will have entered oxygen debt, or you will have pushed past the anaerobic threshold.

The anaerobic threshold is the point in which we begin to produce more lactic acids than we can rid. When we race, if we push hard enough, we will eventually enter an anaerobic state, hopefully this does not occur during the early stages of the race. We must, therefore, train our bodies to deal with this anaerobic state. By doing intervals we may train our muscles to push back the distance and intensity required to enter our anaerobic threshold. Practice in the anaerobic state teaches us to more effectively maintain pace, for longer periods of time. For more information on lactic acids read chapter nineteen on the lactate system, you will find valuable information on the effects of speed training and how

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it allows us to run our fastest. Lastly, anaerobic running is a lesson for our minds, as much as our muscles.

The pain associated with tight, fatigued, lactic acid-ridden muscles is intense. It is important to learn to run in such a state and not give in. This is especially crucial in track races, where the victor often edges out his competitor in the final meters. Strength and speed training may both be accomplished by a workout known as intervals. Traditionally, intervals are run from 100 meters to 1 mile. Whether an interval workout counts as strength or speed workout largely depends on the length of the interval, the number of repetitions, the speed, and rest incorporated. Extreme ends of this type of workout would see 5 X 1 mile with a one mile jog, as a strength workout, and 5 X 200 meters with three minutes of rest as a shear speed workout. Some interval sessions may fall in the middle, such as 10 X 400 meters. Traditionally intervals have been done at race pace or faster.

There is a type of interval that allows us to increase the speed of our muscles, establish a neurological pattern, and gain experience at running race speed, without all out anaerobic efforts. Dr. David Costill calls these intervals “aerobic intervals” while Dr. Jack Daniels calls these intervals “cruise intervals”, the principle is the same as the object it to run intervals at, or slower, than race pace, with very short periods of rest. For example, a miler might run 8 X 200 with a 15 second rest, at race pace. Or a 10K runner might run 10 X 400 with a 30 second jog. Lastly, the marathon runner might run 10 X 1 mile at race pace, with a 1 min. jog in between. The concept of these types of intervals is to learn to run at race pace, without incurring as much oxygen debt as running the distance uninterrupted. There are several different philosophies a runner can follow in his interval training. They are:

• Do set distances, at a set speed, and decrease the amount of jogging time between each repeat as the season progresses.

• Do longer distances, at slower speeds, with long rest periods, at the beginning of the season, and shorten the distances, quicken the speed, and take less jogging time between each.

• Do set distances, with the same amount of rest in between each, and increase the speed, as the season progresses.

• Do shorter distances at goal race speed, and increase the length of the distances as the season progresses.

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I probably have you totally confused. I hope so, because the truth is, intervals can be confusing. There are so many different formulas, types of intervals, and training philosophies. It's normal to be confused. Here is what you really need to know. The shorter the race, the more speed is required; therefore, the more anaerobic intervals you should do. The longer the distance the more strength is required and therefore the intervals are longer. Below is a chart taken from The Competitive Runner’s Training Book , it shows approximately how much speed is required per event.

Distance Aerobic Anaerobic

800 33% 67% 1 mile 50% 50% 5K 80% 20% 10K 90% 10% Marathon 98% 2%

The object of intervals is to run at current race pace or faster from 100 meters to 1 mile, the longer the desired race, the longer the interval. With each interval you do you encounter oxygen debt sooner and sooner. If the same pace is maintained throughout the workout, each interval should become progressively harder.

It is almost impossible for me to give enough information on interval training for runners of all abilities and distances to develop an effective interval-training schedule. Therefore, I have decided not to include such information. I will; however, give some basic guidelines and recommended resources for schedules on intervals. The best method is to seek the advice of a qualified coach.

• The longer the desired race distance, the longer the intervals should be.

• The longer the interval, the fewer you do.

• Enter oxygen debt sooner and sooner into each interval.

• Always jog in between them, never stop, or walk. This could result in muscle injuries.

• Each session should become progressively more difficult. To accomplish this follow one of the aforementioned guidelines.

• Your interval sessions need to somehow sharpen you, either by getting faster and faster, or by utilizing less rest.

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• It's OK to mix up distances, make it fun!

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Tempo Runs

Tempo running, also known as steady-state pace, demands that the runner work at a pace considerably faster than a distance pace, yet not as fast as an interval pace. This pace should be one that just passes the anaerobic threshold. (Caulfield, 1988, 45) but does not generate so much lactate as to slow or stop the runner. It is usually maintained from 10 minutes to 40; but can be done for distances up to 10 miles. This workout is best utilized in the base and strength phases of the pyramid.

The temp run helps bridge the gap between aerobic workouts and anaerobic intervals. It allows the runner to train over longer distances at efforts that simulate the intensity of the race.. The pace is tough, it requires a good deal of mental effort, and the result is an increase in confidence. Just how fast should a tempo run be? I recommend running about 30 seconds per mile slower than your race pace for that distance. So if you plan on doing a 3 mile tempo run, and your PR for the three mile is 18:00 you should run 19:30. And if you are a thirty minute 5 miler, than you would run 32:30.

I believe tempo runs are best at the distances of 3-5 miles. Tempo runs shorter than 3 miles should include more than one within the same workout. An example of this would be doing 2 or 3 times 15 minute tempo runs with 5 minutes of rest between each. Conversely, anything longer than 5 miles can become difficult to maintain, and may result in a loss of confidence in your abilities. Should you decide to run a tempo run of more than 5 miles it would be advisable to slow the pace down to perhaps a minute per mile slower than your race pace for that distance. So if you are a 60:00 ten-miler, then you would run 7:00 per mile for ten miles. This effort is certainly harder than a distance run, but not too demanding, as to force the pace to slow. If you find yourself slowing considerably at some point, that means your lactate level is rising too quickly and you need to adjust your pace the next time out. If you maintain the pace and have plenty left at the end, you may not have raised your lactate level enough.

It is crucial to hold proper form and relaxation during these workouts. The intensity is such that our bodies may begin to deplete the main driving muscles and begin using the minor connecting muscles. This often results in a loss of form due to the lack of a properly established neurological pattern for these muscles. This workout should be as much a workout for form, as for anything. It is easy to hold good form when running distances, or short intervals, but a tempo runs puts our form to the test. Tempo runs allow the perfect opportunity for the runner to visualize racing. The pace is swift enough to allow us to easily day-dream about being in a race.

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Hill Training - for the base phase

The beauty of hill training is its ability to adapt perfectly to each and every stage of the training pyramid. Hill training plays a vital roll in all of the stages of training. For me the most enjoyable form of hill training, is that of running long hills in the base phase of the pyramid. Hills in the base phase need not, and should not be fast - only long. If you are fortunate enough to live in a locale that offers non-stop rolling hills, or a long non-stop up- hill, consider yourself fortunate. For not only are these training runs exciting, their some of the most beneficial for long distance running. Arthur Lydiard, pioneer of the long run in the 1950’s maintains, “hills are the only beneficial type of resistance training for runners” (Galloway, 1984, 16). With the exception of pool running, I agree. Hills strengthen muscles, for the act of running. Unlike weight lifting which strengthens muscles for the act of weight lifting. Hills meet with the principle of specificity (see Specificity in chapter two). For more on weight lifting and running see “Weight Training” in chapter 6.

“Hills strengthen the main driving muscles, the quadriceps, hamstrings, and especially the calves. As the calves grow in strength, you can support your body weight farther forward on your feet and use the mechanical advantage of the ankle” (Galloway, 1984, 57). This leads to more efficient and faster running. During the base phase, hills are slow, so we do not experience significant levels of anaerobic running, yet we gain the strength from the forcing our bodies up against gravity. A final advantage comes in that there is considerably less pounding when running up hill.

I recommend finding a hill range or set of rolling hills and running up to 120 minutes, depending on what race distance you are actually training for. Where I live, there is a run I enjoy called Carbon Canyon. It features a 4 mile uphill, with very few downs. At the end of this four mile uphill, is a one mile steep downhill, which I walk down, and then a 5 mile run back along the side of the hills. I recommend you explore new territory, find new trails, try to get to the top of “that” mountain, follow the goats, follow the wind! Do something unusual, exciting, and adventurous, go where no runner has gone before, and have a hill of a good time!

Transition from flat distance runs, to hilly ones slowly. Don't take on “Death Hill” for your first hilly distance run. If parts of the hill become steep, where you feel your calves beginning to burn, go ahead and walk. Chances are the grade is steep enough to keep your heart pounding anyway.

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Hill Training - for the strength phase

After developing a solid aerobic base, and gaining some hill strength from your long hill runs, you are ready for the hard stuff. The advantages of running hill-loops during this phase of the season are great. Hill loops should be from 400 meters to 1.5 miles. They are run at a strong pace, certainly not a sprinting pace, and decidedly faster than a distance pace. They are the tempo runs of the hills. The words hill-loop implies that there will be some uphill and obviously there must be some downhill as well. This being the case, run the downhills as you would in a race, lean forward and run on your toes. However, do not run the uphills, like a race, run them faster! For more on racing hills see “Hills” in chapter 16. The benefits of hill-loops include mental and physical strength, improved form, and excellent hill-racing experience.

“Running uphill forces you to improve your form. The very nature of the act will require you to find a rhythm, lift your knees, and drive the arms. This increased leg drive, knee and arm driving will directly result in faster racing on the flats, as well as the hills. The uphills should be run on your toes, this results in stronger calves, and better sprinting abilities at the end of the race. The stride should shorten and quicken as the hill grows steeper; similar to putting a car into first gear. Once you reach the top of the hill, pick up the pace - make it hurt. Your legs will be in oxygen debt and your breathing labored; this is where the improvement comes. You may want to put a line in the trail, or pick a bush or fence post that you will run to. Often, runners get to the top of the hill, and then slow, thinking that the benefits to be gained have already come. Wrong! The benefits lie 50 meters past the top of the hill.

When you approach the downhill, race down it. Let your body go, fly, just on the edge of being out of control. This teaches you proper racing form for downhill racing. Furthermore, it takes less out of your legs than does holding back. For more information on downhill running and eccentric muscle contractions read chapter two under “Concentric vs. Eccentric Muscle Contractions”. Running fast downhill allows you to open your stride length, and practice a fast turn-over rate in conjunction with a lengthened stride, which will also benefit your sprinting. The drawback of the downhill is the pounding. You must run them to learn to race them, but do them sparingly for they can be injurious.

As you approach the bottom, shorten the stride, lean forward, and let the speed cruise down back to pace - as opposed to putting the breaks on. Recovery, will be much sooner than expected, because little muscular effort is used down the hill. Again, let the momentum of the downhill carry you rather than using muscular effort to slow you down! This makes sense, why would you want to use muscular effort to slow yourself

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down? The recovery period for hill loops should last as long as the time required to run the loop. Thus a 5 minute hill loop necessitates 5 minutes of easy jogging before the next loop. Keep moving in between loops, jog easily and stretch.

During the beginning of the strength phase do more hill-loops at a slower pace, as the strength season progresses, lessen the quantity, and increase the speed. Like intervals, you can also continue with the same time, and shorten the recovery period. You will find that a good hill-loop workout can rival any other form of workout. You will also find that it results in faster racing times, strong mental abilities, and a strong sense of accomplishment and pride upon completion of the workout.

Hill Training - for the speed phase

Like the two other phases of the season hill training during the speed phase of the season has tremendous value. Short, quick, hill-repeats provides for an excellent anaerobic workout. Choose a hill with a good grade, up to 15% and preferably on dirt. Run fast, on your toes, driving the arms, lifting the knees, let your feet fall under your hip, shorten and quicken the stride. Run hard for 100-150 meters. Then run 25-50 meters hard on the top of the hill. Turn around and walk back down to start again.

6-15 repeats will usually provide for a quality speed workout. Recovery time is only as long as needed to walk back down the hill but you can certainly take more.. Do not attempt to run down the hill. The pounding is unnecessary, and this will not provide you with enough time to rid your muscles of much of the accumulated lactic acids. Additionally, recall that the eccentric contractions of running downhill leaves you sorer than the concentric contractions of running uphill..

The benefits gained during hill-repeats are especially advantageous toward building your kick. Even more so than hilltops, hill repeats builds the strength of your driving muscles, teaches you to run with a forward lean, to sprint on your toes, to lift the knees allowing a greater stride, and to keep an efficient stride. During the early stages of the speed phase do more repeats at a slower pace, as the season comes winding down, cut the number of repeats and drastically pick up the pace. With a few weeks before the scheduled seasonal peak the hill repeats should be explosive hill-sprints. At this pace it is absolutely crucial to ensure your legs are thoroughly warmed up, and stretched. For more on the warm up and cool down see “Warming up/Cooling down” in this chapter.

I discourage runners from attempting to gain the same benefits from hills by doing stairs. Stair running does not utilize the same form as hills and places excessive stress on the tendon attachment sights just below the knee cap. Furthermore, they may result in an

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over-development of the hamstrings and an underdevelopment of the quads. Further, stairs are extremely dangerous. One missed step, and you could put a pre-mature end to your season. Even if you live in Florida you should be able to find something comparable to a hill. How about a freeway over-ramp, bridge, or up the side of a drainage ditch?

Fartlek Runs

In the early part of this century speed work consisted of running time trials and races. Runners ran races without training between them. Fartlek training was developed in Sweden in about 1920, and is Swedish for “speed play”. They are the intervals of the trails. Originally run through trails, and challenging terrain, it provided an exciting speed workout. Modern day runners have adopted it more toward the roads now, but the same benefits are derived. The primary difference between a Fartlek workout and a speed workout is the Fartlek’s disregard for exact distances or times. Should you lack a challenging trail, or wooded area, you can of course do city Fartlek, run from telephone poll to telephone poll, or from building to building, or mugger to mugger.

A Fartlek workout is a low mental stress workout, there is no sense in timing the repeat. One unique advantage to this type of workout is that you can pick an object in the distance, focus on it and run hard until you reach it. You can turn this practice into practical experience in a race. Often in a race it’s advantageous to say to yourself, “Run hard to that pole”, and then when you get there to say “OK run hard to that corner”. By doing this you break the distance up in your head, making it seem easier.

The main rule of the Fartlek workout is to know what you want to do before you start. You may want to run a number of fast bursts for a certain distance or time. Or you may want to just run a number of fast, unspecified bursts. Perhaps, you want to run 3 miles of Fartlek or 30 minutes worth. When you start without a plan, you often get little accomplished other than what the Oregon State distance team calls “American Fartlek”: a medium-length run at a slow pace with a maximum of two short bursts as a gesture of good intentions” (Dellinger & Freeman, 1984, 26). If you are in the base building phase of the season run longer and slower bursts. If you are in the strength phase run harder and faster than race pace. If you are in the speed phase, practice your jump kick (see “The Finishing Kick” chapter 16). Once your burst is over let the momentum carry you until you slowly resume a jogging pace.

Easier Fartlek workouts can serve just to spruce up a long distance run. It makes the run go by faster and more enjoyable. Coaches would benefit by telling your athletes to have a certain number done by the half-way point, otherwise the end up throwing all of them in at the end. Or if they are like my runners, they run slow, until they see me

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approaching after the turn around point, then they blaze past me, much too fast to make me believe that they have actually done half of them! “T he beauty of the Fartlek is that the name alone is gross enough to make your heart pound”

Time Trials

Time trials serve several functions in the training pyramid. First, they give you a gauge of progress. They allow you to see your improvement. The actual time of the trial, however, should not be compared to your personal record. Attempting to race as fast during a time trial as during a race is nearly impossible. There simply is not enough pressure to run you’re fastest; the time, however, serves as a good indicator of progress compared to your other time trial runs. In order to see this progress, it is recommended that you run your time trial on the same course.

If you can maintain a pace of :30 seconds slower than your actual race pace you’re doing a fantastic job of pushing yourself in a time trial. Furthermore, attempting to place pressure on yourself to do well, generally fails to make you run faster. The best method to approach a time trial is simply to say to yourself, “Just a time trial, no stress, just see what I can do.” This sets no real expectations, and thereby does not allow for failure. Another approach is to tell yourself that it is just a faster paced tempo run. Many coaches opt to avoid using the label “time trial” all together. They simply say, “OK guys lets do a fast tempo run.”

The time trial is as much, or more, a lesson for the mind as well as the muscles. Learning to push thorough pain is a difficult skill for many to learn. Learning to push when there is no other runner around to push you is perhaps the most difficult thing to do in racing. Yet, we often find ourselves in the middle of a race with no one in front of us and no one behind us. It is up to us, to push ourselves. Time trials allow for practice at this. Additionally, time trials provide the perfect opportunity to experiment with new pacing strategies, with no loss if the strategy proves ineffective.

For teams, there is a unique method of adding pressure to a time trial, to allow us to run a little faster. The coach simply writes down each runner's personal record, orders them from slowest to fastest, and starts the slowest runner first. Allowing for the time difference in personal records, he then lets the second slowest go. The top runner, will start last. Theoretically, if everybody pushes hard, they should all finish at the same time. This type of time trial gives the slower runner a chance to win, something they may not experience often. To prevent the embarrassment of “who is the slowest runner” the coach could instead start the runners in small groups rather than as individuals. Either way the only one who will know who goes last are the last and the second to last place guys.

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Time trials provide the perfect opportunity to try your racing stuff out. You can run in your racing flats, and uniform, set up water cups on a bench or wall ahead of time to practice drinking at race pace (for it's not as easy as it sounds). Visualize an actual race scenario; see yourself running the race of your life, see the competitors, the spectators, the mile marks. Feel yourself running effortlessly, cutting the wind, and leaving competitors in the dust. Practice an all-out finishing kick. Maybe try a new type of kick (see Chapter 16).

Muscle Soreness, Stiffness and the Role of Recovery Runs

Muscle soreness after a difficult workout or race is commonplace. As most experienced runners will tell you (especially marathon runners) the worst soreness comes 24 to 48 hours after the run (Arnheim, 1985, 147). Acute muscle soreness (soreness during, and immediately following the run) is considered to be related to an impedance of circulation, causing muscular ischemia (lack of blood). Lactic acid and potassium collect in the muscle and stimulate pain receptors (Arnheim, 1985, 148). This explains the pain during and shortly after a run, but why do our muscles feel worse the next day?

Contrary to belief, lactic acid build up is not the cause of soreness the day after the race (Costill, 1986, 50). Lactic acid production and accumulation may be related to acute soreness, but not to delayed soreness (Armstrong & Schwane, 1981). So why do our muscles grow sore and stiff? The answer is multi-faceted. The actual muscle soreness may be caused by glycogen depletion, muscle damage, and inflammation within the muscle, according to Dr. Costill. The fluids that collect in the muscle during and after exercise may cause muscle stiffness. These fluids, lactic acid included, are absorbed into the bloodstream, at a slow rate (Arnheim, 1985, 148).

The next question becomes; with soreness and stiffness being caused by different factors, what is the quickest way to recover from both? The first step in preventing stiffness it to keep moving at the end of the race, this helps flush some of the fluids out of the muscles. Once you are no longer moving, it is a good idea to prop your legs up above the heart, preventing blood from pulling in them which only adds to the problem. Eat plenty of carbohydrates immediately following the race, especially after a marathon. There is a recognized window period of about thirty minutes in which the muscles are extra- permeable to sugar - thus a good dose of simple sugars (such as in a beverage) is a good idea immediately following a hard run.

To reduce the soreness anti-inflammatories may help (Ibuprofen, Aspirin, or Naprosyn) as well as message, and light jogging or walking. Muscle soreness really

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should not bother you. If you can take the pain of an intense 5K or an agonizing marathon, you can stand a little soreness. I once heard a nurse tell a runner in the medical ward following the L.A. Marathon, “This is going to hurt a little” as she prepared her needle. The runner replied “I just ran a 2:45 marathon, do you think I care about a needle?” A good point I thought.

Most coaches recommend jogging lightly or even walking the day after a race. Studies have shown that this will have no effect on the recovery rate of the battered muscles, and no effect on restoring glycogen supplies. Too much may even lead to further muscular breakdown (Costill, 1986, 42 & 50). It will, however, reduce stiffness. By helping to flush the waste products out of the muscles, light exercise, massage, and elevation, do assist in reducing stiffness (Arnheim, 1985, 148). This is where the concept of recovery runs comes in.

The concept of a recovery run is simple - to aid recovery. It is not intended to increase aerobic abilities, gain strength, or speed. It is to aid recovery only. This run is slow and short. It is not run up or down hills, it is not run into a strong wind, or on the sand. Flat, smooth grass is probably the best surface. The pace should be slower than your distance pace. Extreme stiffness may necessitate walking opposed to running. The only time a recovery jog, isn’t a jog, and is a run comes when the muscles are so tight the bouncing of a jog is impossible.

After running a marathon I do a warm-down, my legs actually feel relatively good. Sure I gimp a bit from a strained calf, hamstring, or heel bruise, but my speed is somewhat up to par. Later in the day, after I have walked and cleaned up from the pre-race spaghetti dinner, I begin to feel pretty well. The next morning is a different story though.. Extreme stiffness sets in. I have to crawl out of bed and make my way to a hot-bath. Taking a shower would be impossible, for it requires standing. My workout that day consists of gimping. You could hardly call it walking. I gimp along for as long as I can, the farther I go the better I begin to feel. Usually two days after, I am able to actually walk for a couple of miles. This may take me a long time, but I do it. I count this walk as a reward for pushing hard in the race. On the third day I begin walking, and then pick up into a run. Not a jog, a run. My muscles are generally too stiff to take the incredible bouncing action of a jog. Running, allows me to move along with little jarring, and less bending of the stiff quads. The more I run, the more I loosen up; the more I loosen up; the more I can jog. By the fourth day I am usually able to run 2-3 miles.

Recovery runs are a crucial part of any training program. The longer the race, the more recovery days are in order. After a mile race perhaps only one recovery day is required before you can run hard, or race again. After the marathon 7 or more days (an

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absolute minimum) should be devoted toward recovery runs. The old rule of thumb is to take one day of recovery for each mile raced; although all do not need this volume of recovery. Still, it is a good guideline. It is important to schedule these runs into your training pyramid ahead of time.

Recovery runs of 2-5 miles should be used after difficult workouts as well. They are to be implemented either as an easy day(s) after a hard workout, or may be implemented as an easy second workout for the day. Either way, they are to be slow. The purpose is to recover, not to break down more tissue.

Two-A-Day Runs

The object of a second a day workout is identical to that of a recovery run; to aid in recovery. Two-a-day workouts should be slow and easy. 2-5 miles is good. The only time a runner needs to run two hard workouts a day is when he is preparing to race under the same circumstances. Such as when he has preliminaries in the morning and finals in the afternoon. In this case running two hard workouts a day will help train the racer to better deal with this. A warm-up/down is mandatory before each workout.

Concentration Runs

“I quickened my stride, trying at the same time to keep relaxed. I won back the first yard, then each succeeding yard, until his lead was halved by the time we reached the back straight on the third lap. How I wished I had never allowed him to establish such a lead! I had now connected myself to Landy again, though he was still five yards ahead... I tried to imagine myself attached to him by some invisible cord. With each stride I drew the cord tighter and reduced his lead... I fixed myself to Landy like a shadow.” - Roger Bannister

As you are probably aware the ability to concentrate is essential in racing. (See “Concentration” under chapters 10 and 17). One method of improving our abilities to concentrate is the concentration run. This run is ideally done with at least one other runner. It simulates the type of concentration required in an actual race. This workout may be done at any pace, but the faster the better. The object is to shadow the runner in front of you and to stare at his neck, perhaps where the tag would be. Keep your head parallel to the ground, any deviation will cause a narrowing of the trachea and allows for less oxygen uptake. Stare at his back, and envision a rope tying you to him, or a hook latching you to him. You couldn't slow if you wanted to, for you are connected to him.

Concentrate on this for as long as you can. The faster the pace, the more it simulates actual racing situations. Periodically bring your attention to your form and pace just as

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you would in a race. If there is a wind, search out and hold the ideal windbreak. While this run can be done at a slower pace, it is harder, for too many distractions enter your head. The faster the pace, the less good looking the guy on the beach is. Whole teams too can do this run by simply running in single file.

Another method of the concentration run is to practice catching up and passing another runner. Give your training partner a 40 meter lead, and slowly catch him. First focus at his feet, as to keep the head parallel to the ground, and draw those feet closer and closer to you. As you close the gap, you will need to focus your attentions onto his waist, to prevent your head from dipping; draw him into you. As the gap is almost closed, focus your attention onto the shirt tag. Pull in right behind and concentrate on keeping the pace. Later, throw in four to eight quick steps past him, and let your opponent drop back and then switch roles.

A modified version of the concentration run is possible while running alone. Either visualize a runner directly in front of you or concentrate on an object (like a mountain) far off into the distance. The ability to concentrate is the ability to block out extraneous inputs, like the runner who blocks out the sounds of the spectators cheering during competition. To learn to concentrate, we must concentrate. The ideal way to learn concentration while running is to concentrate while running! “During a race what do you think about?” asked Peter Elliot of middle distance star Doug Padilla. “I concentrate on the runners ahead of me and think about keeping contact”, he replied.

Dogs are Smarter than Man

As a lady jogging with her dog passes me, it hits me. Dogs are smarter than man. The dog chooses to run on the grass, while the runner is on the cement path. Although the pounding of running does build up defenses against pounding, maybe we could learn from our best friends and take to the dirt and grass where available; just watch out for the remains of his spaghetti dinner.

Bounding Exercises for Strength and Speed

To help increase the type of speed and explosiveness required in middle and short distance races, their exists a type of exercise known as bounding. Bounding exercises are a form of a plyometric muscle contraction, which is actually a combination of a muscle shortening contraction (concentric) and a muscle lengthening contraction (eccentric). “They are drills that combine speed and strength to produce an explosive-reactive movement, or increased power,” says Dr. Donald Chu, professor of biomechanics and kineseology at California State University at Hayward. “They are a resistance-training

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activity that involves an interaction between muscles and the central nervous system that decreases the time between the eccentric and the concentric contraction of the muscles, providing a more forceful movement of the body” (Duvillard, Et. al, 1990). An analogy can be drawn to dropping a rubber ball, as the ball hits the ground the rubber “muscles” contract, then they quickly expand, and the ball returns into the air. In a sense, the legs act much like the rubber ball, contracting as they hit the ground then expanding.

Bounding exercises are especially important for the track runner. They helps build a strong, fast kick, and will help the runner to simulate kicking form under high duress. The result is a faster finishing kick. Bounding exercises may be done on a daily basis, but it is best to do them as part of a hard day only. It is best to do them after a speed workout, when the legs are already fatigued; this best simulates a finishing kick. Due to the considerable strain on the muscles and connective tissues, bounding should be avoided if you are injured, or recently recovering from an injury. Bounding should always be done on smooth grass. It is best to avoid bounding exercises the day before and of a race. I have seen tremendous improvements in my runners' finishing kicks after incorporating bounding into their training pyramid. These exercises also have value for sprinters, jumpers, hurdlers, and vaulters. Track coaches may therefore elect to have the entire track team perform them together.

Of the many types of bounding exercises, there are three that seem to work best in developing speed in the distance runner. All three simulate some portion of sprinting form. Strict detail to bounding form is necessary to prevent from building improper sprinting form. These three are listed below.

1. “Butt Kickers” - As quickly as possible kick your feet up behind you until the heel touches your butt - or as high as possible. This is a simple bending of the leg at the knee. Not a full extension of the entire leg. After your foot “slaps” the butt, you should land on your toes, never letting the heel touch. You should maintain a slight forward lean. The object is to slap the butt as fast as possible. The object is not to move forward quickly. In fact, your forward speed should be just slightly faster than a walking pace. Your arms should maintain loose, relaxed upper body form. It is important to drive the arms in a full range of motion. This exercise teaches you to extend the legs in the kick, to lean forward, land on the toes, and to pump the arms.

2. “High Knees” - For this exercise you should thrust your knees up in front of your body, to the chest, or as far to the chest as possible. Land on your toes, and maintain a forward body lean. The object is to thrust the knees into the air as high as possible, with as fast a turnover rate as possible. Your forward progress again should be just slightly faster than a walking pace. There is a strong tendency to want to lean backward with the upper body; it

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is crucial to maintain a forward lean, even if it means not being able to raise the knees into the air quite as high. The exercise simulates the knee lift, forward lean, arm drive, and toe running of the kick. Make sure the foot lands under the hip and relax.

3. “Tippee Toes” - This exercise is the most difficult to master, it most certainly will not come in the first few attempts. This exercise may be the most beneficial of the three. The object is to get your body into the air as high as possible. Push your body into the air with your right leg, keeping that leg locked and bringing your left knee to your chest. As you come back down to the ground, land on the locked right leg. Let your left leg come down, switch to the left leg and push off with the left leg, reaching for your chest with the right knee. The object of this exercise is to get your driving leg off the ground as high as possible and to get the knee of the other leg into the air as high as possible. Use the arms to “drive” your body into the air. Land on your toes only, never let the heel touch. Forward progress, once again, will be slow. The object is to get the body into the air, not to progress forward rapidly. This exercise teaches you to sprint on your toes, to pump the arms, to lift the knees, and to forcefully extend with the driving leg. Once again work on upper body relaxation. This exercise is not a smooth action; the arms pump strong and fast then stop. Turnover rate is not important.

I recommend learning or developing several other bounding exercises and then having a team do them in a circle. I do something called “bound-a-round” in which the athletes bound down a straight 30 meter stretch of long jump runway, and then walk a large half circle to the start again. The advantage to this is that the leader determines the forward progress. For more information on this see page 21 of my book Training Games a 1996 Track and Field News Publication.”

Types of Kicks and How to Develop One

We frequently see the outcome of track races determined by a finishing kick. But we don't need a kick for middle and long distance races, do we? Consider, this: the 1990 Chicago Marathon winner Martin Pitayo out-kicked competitor Antonio Niemczak by a fraction of a second in the closest finish ever in a sub 2:10 marathon. Or in a 3,665 mile race from New York City to Los Angeles, Johnny Salo of Finland won in 525 hours 57 minutes and 20 seconds, second place was 2 minutes and 47 seconds behind!

So having a kick is to your advantage from the 800 meter through the transcontinental race. So how do you develop this kick? The first answer is to remember that not all men are born with equal kicks. Your percentages of fast muscle twitch fibers will largely determine what type of finishing speed you will be able to achieve and

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maintain (see “Muscle Twitch Fiber Types” in chapter 2). However, we can all improve upon our given abilities.

There are two types of kicks: the extended kick and the jump kick. The extended kick is where the runner slowly picks up the pace until he is at an all out sprint through the finish line. A jump kick is one in which the runner takes off suddenly, switching gears and hits maximum speed in a matter of a few strides. Both types of kicks have situational advantages. You may even utilize a combination of the two by jump-kicking into a less than 100% effort and then jumping again into a full sprint later.

It is crucial to understand that the kick is not a lengthening of the stride, rather a quickening of the stride. Once the turnover rate has been increased it may be acceptable to lengthen the stride; however, under no circumstance should the foot land in front of the hip (see chapter eight on “Stride Length”). Runners often attempt to kick by lengthening their stride, and end up over-striding and slowing themselves down.

It is imperative to remember to relax! Clenching of the jaw, tightening of the neck, shoulders and fist, may look good, but the direct result is a slower turn-over rate. If your neck, shoulders, or hands are clenched, it slows down the muscular action of the arms, since our bodies run in sync (right arm forward, left leg forward) the result is a slower turn-over rate. Don't believe me? Try to run out of sync. Go ahead try it right now. Run in place, and try to drive your left arm at the same time as your left leg. Can't do it ha?

Moreover, every muscle has an opposing muscle, like the biceps and triceps, when one muscle is working, the other should be relaxing. Tensing during the kick will cause the relaxing muscle to tense, and prevent the driving muscle from contracting as fast. Furthermore, you should always rise high onto your toes, with a good body lean. This lean should originate from the feet, much like leaning forward into a strong wind. Runners often only lean forward from the waist; this is incorrect sprinting style.

When you find your legs growing fatigued, drive your arms! Remember, that our arms and legs run in sync. If your legs feel weak, driving your arms forces the legs to mover faster too. I yell “Arms, arms, drive the arms” to my runners in the last 200 meters of a race. Reach forward with the arms, and pull, all while remaining relaxed.

So now you are aware of the advantages of the kick, and you know proper kicking technique. So how do you develop one? Practice! There is much to developing and maintaining a proper kick, practice is the only way to insure that when you need it you will have it. Here are some suggestions on how to develop a kick:

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1. Bounding Exercises - These develop speed, neuromuscular coordination, range of motion, turnover rate, relaxation, and proper sprinting form. (See “Bounding Exercises” this chapter).

2. Hill Running - Hill running develops speed, stamina, ankle flexibility, arm drive, toe running, a forward lean, and an increased stride length. (See “Hill Running” this chapter).

3. Speed Training - Intervals, especially speed intervals, develop the necessary speed, form, and muscular effort required in the kick. It is a good idea to kick the last 200 meters of your last interval. (See “Intervals” this chapter).

4. Simulated Racing in Training - This is especially valuable when training on the track. If you move into a kick at the same point on a track during the workout, as during the race, and you do this over the last few intervals of each session, then you can train your mind to kick automatically at that particular point on the track during a race. By doing this you are not only practicing your kick, but teaching yourself that when you get to that certain point on the track you will kick, despite how tired you are. In a sense, you only have to run the race up to that point on the track, from there on out it is automatic.

5. Visualization - By visualizing yourself kicking with perfect form you will establish the neurological pattern to allow you to have the perfect kick. Visualization also programs your subconscious that you are a kicker, and you will be confident in your ability to perform a blistering kick.

I often see runners kicking only to the line. They kick over the last 150 meters or so, and then slow down to a dead stop at the line. Run through the line, not to it. To insure this, always run through the line in practice. Additionally, learn to stop your watch once you have crossed the line. Then take a second off your time. I have seen runners lose sprints because they either ran only to the line, or they were going for their watch to stop it as they crossed the line. Finish the race, or interval, before you worry about such things as your time.

I have also witnessed on many occasions a runner giving in once another runner has passed him. Perhaps he would be cruising in with a nice kick, and some Cheetah flies past him, he then vies in just to find that either another runner then passes him as well, or the Cheetah died before the line. The idea is to give it your all until you pass the line. You never know what might happen. I have also seen runners give in after being outkicked, dropping farther back, figuring the race was lost; to find out later the winner was disqualified, and he would have won - had he stuck it out.

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Additionally, remember that the winner of a dead heat is the one whose chest crosses the line first. Not the feet, head or arms. Therefore, a forward lean while sprinting is necessary. For the judges will give the tie to the runner leaning forward. Be cautious not to lean too far forward though. I had a friend whom was in a dead sprint for the qualifying meet in our divisional section for the last qualifying place in the half mile. He was on a 3 second personal record pace of 1:56, he began his finishing lean a little too soon, as he was in a dead heat. John just kept leaning forward, and forward, and forward, until he fell forward a meter before the finish line. Needless to say, he did not qualify, or even receive a PR.

Breathing for Maximal Oxygen Uptake

Breathing as a form of training? The way we breathe can make a difference in our running times. There are two ways to breathe. The first is when the stomach sucks in and the shoulders rise as you inhale. The second, and most efficient method is when the stomach expands upon inhalation. This method is known as belly breathing. Unfortunately, most of us use the lesser efficient method. Belly breathing uses a more efficient pull of the diaphragm, and allows for greater oxygen up-take, explains the late Dr. George Sheehan, “Faulty breathing is almost universal. Most of us breathe backward. Instead of pulling in air with our belly, we pull it in with our chest. When we breathe in, our bellies should go out. If, however, I had you stand up and take a deep breathe, your belly probably would go in.” With belly breathing the diaphragm moves up and down, instead of sideways as with chest breathing. The result of sideways or chest breathing is less oxygen uptake and the possibility of a stitch due to a spasm of the diaphragm. To learn belly breathing, you can lie or sleep on your back and place a book on your stomach. This will build the strength of your diaphragm, improving your maximal oxygen uptake, and it will teach you to breathe correctly. In a sense it is weight lifting for the diaphragm.

It is also important for runners to breathe in with their mouths and noses simultaneously; and to exhale in the same manner. There is a bogus myth about breathing in your nose to avoid cramps. The truth is that you cannot uptake enough air breathing solely through your nose. Make no attempt to breathe in stride either, just breathe as it comes naturally. The only modification you may choose to make with your breathing is to take maximum inhalations under times of strain.

It is important to recognize that all breathing should be deep and realize that the air from your nose to the bronchioles is dead space. The air in your trachea is not absorbed. The first air exchanged with the outside air is the air that comes from the trachea and nasal passages. Rapid, shallow breathing will exchange air from the trachea primarily. You

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won't move air into the lungs where it is required. So when you run uphills or pick up the pace, concentrate on breathing deeply.

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Chapter Five TRAINING GAMES

his chapter has been extensively dealt with in my book Training Games - A Track & T Field News Publication. For the sake of saving space in this Doctrine I have omitted all of the games. Please refer to Training Games for a compilation of training games and runs.

Training Games is available through my website at www.CoachGumby.com

This chapter is devoted toward making runs fun. Make runs fun? "Running can't be fun". "How can running be fun?" For running has been used as punishment by naively punitive physical education teachers and coaches. The concept of "taking a lap" has made society believe that running is something to be dreaded - rather than revered. Do you think the school children in Kenya think it punishment to run to school? Psychologically speaking when something is used on an individual as punishment, we internalize it as such. It becomes unenjoyable. Using running as punishment makes about as much sense as using reading for punishment.

Truth be it, the act of running is inherently fun. Simply watch children play. What comprises 90% of their play? Running. Running is part of most all other "enjoyable" physical activities. Why? Well, without diving too deep into philosophy - running is freedom. I recommend that runners make the decision to esteem running as something they do to reward themselves. Rather than saying, "I'm running to lose weight." Or, "I'm running because it’s good for me." Try, "I am running to reward myself for working hard." Or, "I run for fun." View running as "your" time. Rank it high in developing your daily schedule. When you do something well, or endure something difficult reward yourself with a run. This in itself is the most valuable asset to allowing you to truly enjoy the art of running. This attitude will go a long way in keeping training fun.

Yet, even with such a mindset, I'll admit it, sometimes running can grow dull. All fun things can if you repeat them too many times in a row or without variety. Even your favorite amusement park can grow tiresome after too many visits. Why? Because there is nothing new; it's always the same. In the sport of running: nothing new equals the runner’s blues. Fortunately, running need not be all that dull; with a little variety we can maintain our enthusiasm and find new challenges to enjoy.

The first rule for enhancing training motivation is the rule of numbers, the more that run the more fun. Though there are advantages of a solo jaunt - fun occurs more

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readily in numbers. This is chiefly due to conversation. As diverse as it flows it can serve as the staple entertainment of most long distance runs. Just as we enjoy a conversation over dinner or on a drive, we enjoy conversation during a run. For the team, this form of entertainment is the most valuable as conversation builds communication between athletes and coach.

The second rule toward enhancing motivation is the rule of exploration - to boldly go where no runner has gone before. Exploring new terrain or a new city via a run always proves enjoyable. Perhaps the views of an unexplored countryside or the thrill of running through a city for the first suit you. I bet that if you try you will even be able to find new areas of your old stomping ground that have not fully explored.

The third rule is that of dirt, the more the better. Get rough and get dirty. Don't be afraid to run through the hills, fields, ditches, and mud. What the hell, it's nothing a shower can't fix. I like to say that the difference between the runner and the jogger is in the cleanliness of his shoes. If, after following these suggestions, you still can't seem to shake the blues, become creative in your workout designs. Dare to imagine, to dream. Develop creative workouts, or daydream adventurers and fantasies. Break off the chains that bind you to the same route, the same pace, and just go.

For coaches, the most difficult job a coach faces is trying to maintain the motivation of his athletes from one workout to the next. In general we are a nation of dull coaches. Distance on Monday, speed on Wednesday, and race on Saturday.... The same workouts season after season.. However, there are some creative coaches, many of them have contributed to my book Training Games . This chapter is devoted to making training more exciting, to finding new areas to scout out, or new workouts to run.

Often runners make runs fun spontaneously - teams especially. My cross country team has come up with spontaneous activities during the middle of a run to not only entertain me, but to make me laugh so hard I could no longer run. For example, one day I was trying hard to catch my sophomore team; and when I caught them, one of them said, "Look coach we have been practicing". I had no idea what they were talking about since we were just on a slow distance run. They proceeded to do drill team style maneuvers. Holding their hands above their heads like when you dive into a pool. They lined up single file and peeled off into different formations - sort of a drill team distance team. Perhaps you had to have been there, but I assure you it was hysterical.

I enjoy finding puddles, and stomping through them to get as many fellow runners as possible, or picking up a light stick, and chasing and swatting them, or rolling up a newspaper and whacking them over the head. Runners often find a tennis ball to kick or

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throw while they run. Or they play "whose form is this?" or practice their pick up lines, as we run down the beach. Occasionally the LSD pace will pick up to keep up with the good- looking girl/guy that passed us on a bike. During certain times of the year, we will pick oranges off the trees that hang over fences, eat them and of course play "peg the coach with oranges." Or perhaps we will take a spontaneous swim in the ocean, or stop to buy a non-fat ice cream. These types of spontaneous games make running and coaching much more enjoyable.

Different Types of Runs

Mud Runs

After a good rain, find a muddy hill and try to run up it. This workout proves to be great, mud-slinging fun. Ever throw mud at someone? It's fun. The whole point of this run is quite simply to get as muddy as possible. Slide down hills, jump in deep puddles. Sling some mud, why not politicians do it?

Rain Runs

Find the puddles and splash through them. "Singing in the rain." The purpose of this run is quite simply to get as wet as you can. Perhaps to have the team join in a few rounds of poorly orchestrated, Frank Sinatra style singing too.

Get Lost Runs

Perhaps while vacationing or simply driving to an unfamiliar part of town, get lost. Take twenty cents with you and get lost. Sure, run off yonder and care not where you go. Explore new territory. Then when your total time has elapsed to that of 1/3 or so of your desired run find your way back. Another version to this is to have a friend drop you off far from home and find your way back. Bring money for a phone call and lunch in case things get out of hand.

Shopping Center Run

Have the team run through a shopping center. Tell each team member that as they run passed the windows they must pick something out that they would get the Coach for Christmas, or his birthday, or any other day. I’ve acquired more pink negligee this way.

Ramboo Run

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The purpose of this run is to get as adventurous as possible. This run finds the team conquering as treacherous terrain possible that still allows you to run. Over gates, through thick foliage, whatever. I took my team on one of these runs the other day through fields of sticker bushes, the sticker gathered to our shoes and socks like crazy. Sure it hurts, but were Ramboo. Jump over ditches, climb small hills, through puddles of water, and down the train tracks. Hell, finish it off by climbing a tree or something.

Orange Run

Really any fruit will do. Where my team frequents a common ten mile summer distance run there happens to be a bunch of orange trees hanging over the wall. We run by these trees about two miles into the run. It's hot, and those oranges look oh so good. So as we pass by the trees we grab as many as we can run with. The rules are that you can't throw the orange at a teammate until you have actually peeled the orange. So what happens is people eat a few at first and then they begin the assault of orange launching; god what fun. You finish the run sticky - but satisfied.

There is another advantage to this run. The strong citrus acid in oranges can make some runners experience stomach cramps. If a runner learns this in practice (during this run) the coach would be wise to say, "well this workout probably tells you that you should avoid oranges before a race, don't you think?"

Yogurt Runs

Simply tell the team the day before to bring money, and then run to a frozen yogurt shop and back. The fun part is watching the freshman, who ordered a large with everything on it, trying to run back. The coach should be prepared to buy for anybody who can't afford it, or lend to those who forgot money. Otherwise they are likely to rebel against the workout. Just as with the orange run, some runners will experience abdominal cramps from the lactose in the yogurt. This is an excellent learning opportunity for the coach to mention to the runner that perhaps he should avoid eating dairy products before races.

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Things to do While Running

Add Music

Any time you can and add music to the workouts. I play the radio while my team stretches and bounds daily. I also take three or four radios and put them around the track when we are doing intervals on the track, or up the length of a hill repeat. Music releases endorphins, kills pain, and makes the run more enjoyable. For more information on music see chapter 11.

Form Game

This is a silly concept in which (while running) someone mocks the form of another runner. The team must then guess who the runner is imitating. There is some value to this in that it enables each runner to realize just to what minor variations of the same movement they are able to detect. It also clues some runners in to the fact that there form needs help.

Card Games

On slowly paced runs the coach can bring a deck of cards. Deal out a card to each runner and have them bet with pushups. After receiving their first card they can raise their ante. The dealer must cover all losses. Perhaps you can make a limit as to the maximum bet. At the end of the run everybody does their push-ups. You will find shuffling and dealing while running rather easy. It is recommended to where shorts with pockets in them as to place the cards from those who have busted. Watch out for cheaters they love to make big bets after they have switched cards with a friend. You can actually play any number of card games while running.

There are other unique things you can do with the deck of cards. You can shuffle the cards and deal them out; assigning the number of repeats you have to do, or the number of lightpoles you have to run by the value of the card. You can also divide teams into halves or quarters this way too.

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Driving Games

License plate games, 20 questions, etc..

Run About

This is a conversational game in which the coach can start off. The coach begins a story, usually only one line. Say, "It was a dark and stormy night." The next runner must then fill in a line, and the next a line and so on. The stories generally turn out to be most creative, and often need censoring.

Singing

OK this is probably my runners least favorite activity. Like it or not, I enjoy singing while running. I like to change the words though. Perhaps something like, "Over the hill and through the town the L.A. Marathon I go, the pace car knows the way to make my day, watch out for the wall oh no. "Hit the wall, I'm going to die, to the paramedics tent I go...." Or do you recognize this Christmas classic? "I'm dreaming of a PR, just like the ones I used to know...."

Jokes

Some runners say my singing is the joke.

Stories

Hopefully funny ones.

Shadow Jumping

Occasionally when the sun is in the right position it casts shadows of the approaching cars onto the side of the road. Shadow jumping is simply trying to jump the car shadows without landing in one. It proves challenging both when there is a series of cars, and little time for you to remain on the ground, or when a big truck passes.

Train Track Run

Running on train tracks can provide for a unique running experience. It can be challenging and teaches the runner to rely on his motor cortex for the proper foot placement. But, basically, it's just fun. Every time I run with my team on our local train

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tracks, I feel like where in a movie. You know, the kids walking on the train tracks, and the song "Stand By Me" playing. Again I sing the words.

Squirt Gun Wars

Divide the team into two then create boundaries, and go at it. The more refills you allow each team the faster paced the running. If you don't allow them refills they will take their time and run slower - stalking - their enemy. If you allow unlimited refills they will sprint into action and then back to more ammo. The coach should have the biggest squirt gun - of course.

Concentration Runs

As you are probably aware the ability to concentrate is essential in racing. One method of improving our abilities to concentrate is the concentration run. This run is ideally done with at least one other runner. It simulates the type of concentration required in an actual race. It may be done at any pace, but the faster the better. The object is to shadow the runner in front of you, and to stare at his neck, perhaps where the tag would be. Wherever you stare, make sure your head is parallel to the ground, any deviation will cause a narrowing of the trachea and allows for less oxygen uptake. Stare at his back and envision a rope tying you to him, or a hook latching you to him. You couldn't slow if you wanted to, for you are connected to him.

Concentrate on this for as long as you can. The faster the pace the more it simulates actual racing situations. Periodically bring your attention to your form and pace. Just as you would in a race. If there is a wind, search out and hold the ideal wind break. While this run can be done at a slower pace it may be harder as too many distractions enter your head. Whole teams too can do this run, by simply running in single file. A modified version of the concentration run is possible while running alone. Either visualize a runner directly in front of you or concentrate on an object (like a mountain) far off into the distance. The ability to concentrate is the ability to block out extraneous inputs, like the runner who blocks out the sounds of the spectators cheering during competition. To learn to concentrate, we must concentrate. The ideal way to learn concentration while running, is to concentrate while running!

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Chapter Six

OTHER FORMS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING

irst and foremost there is no substitute for running! For a runner to excel at running F he must run! One may decide to cross train or add additional forms of training to supplement his training schedule; but when these activities are used in place of running the runner will suffer. All training must meet with the principle of specificity in order to make you a better runner. As discussed in chapter two; physical training for a sport in no way guarantees that the level of fitness reached or the degree of neuromuscular skill achieved will be adequate for other sports (Arnheim, 1985, 78).

The rule of training specificity requires the act of running to develop the necessary physiological, neurological and psychological attributes that allow us to run farther and faster. If you want to be a great runner, run. If you want to be a great cyclist, cycle. What is the value of cross training then? To the point at which any one specific activity, or an overuse of that activity, causes injury cross training may have value. However, the addition of cross training into an otherwise sound program may also increase your susceptibility to musculo-skeletal injury. Developing muscle girth and neurological patterns not congruent with that of the demands of running may hinder form, decrease performance and leave you more prone to injury.

With the boom of the triathlon in the early 1980’s came the concept of adding “cross training” to running programs. For the triathlon this makes sense - as the triathlete needs to run, swim, and cycle. However, don't think your going to be as good a runner as you used to be if you take up the triathlon. When you replace running with cross training you will hinder your running performance. This is why decathlon athletes are not great at any event. Adding cross training to supplement (not substitute) your training may have merit though. For example, a runner who trains only 12 miles a week will likely find an increase in his running performance if he adds to that 200 miles a week of cycling. This is obvious in that his level of aerobic conditioning would be far less than possible off of only 12 miles a week. However, a trained marathon runner will find no benefit in adding cycling to his program. Also, many runners add cross training to their running programs as a supplement and then find that in time they tend to replace their run with the cross training.

Still, there are advantages to cross training. First, the benefit of maintaining cardiovascular fitness to the injured runner is indisputable. When you can't run, you need to aid the recovery of the injury, maintain cardiovascular fitness, and reduce some of the psychological stress related to the injury. Cross training can accomplish all of these. Secondly, cross training can give you a nice break from running; perhaps it will increase

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your love for running. Cross training one day a week might help take off some of the stress from running and at this level it might be acceptable. Cross training for the sole purpose of enhancing your running abilities is best done in the base portion of the training pyramid. Seeing the objectives of the base as: 1) Adapting the body to take the stress of running; 2) Promoting aerobic conditioning; and 3) Developing proper neurological form. Cross training may help with only one of the above three - increasing our aerobic capabilities. Should your replace running with it, too often, you will neglect numbers one and three. Endmost, the prime concern in regards to cross training is this: add it to your training only to the point to where it neither hinders your run, nor replaces it. Exceptions do apply. Injury prone runners, for example, may benefit from reducing their road mileage through cross training.

Roy Benson on Cross Training

“This diatribe on the questionable value of cross training comes to you courtesy of someone who's been a runner for 36 years, a coach for 28 years and an exercise physiologist for 21 years. Most of what follows will have to come from the exercise physiologist, because he is the only one you should trust in a discussion of cross training. Runners and coaches unschooled in the science part of our sport usually don't know what the hell they're talking about when it comes to the reasons for doing workouts. They seem to think that “doing it” is all that's needed.

If you're ready to disagree with me, wait until you consider this: No one in this fine country who calls himself or herself a coach, a fitness instructor, an exercise physiologist, an aerobics teacher, a personal trainer, or sports scientist is required by any level of government to be licensed, certified or registered in order to practice their profession. Funny, isn't it then, that your hairdresser or barber, your physician, you cab driver and your household pest exterminator need to pass tests proving they know what they're doing before they can separate you from your money? You, through, the good offices of your government, have demanded that they be licensed before taking your health and well being into their hands. but you'll allow an ex-jock with a whistle around his neck or a boom box in her hand to take your heart and flagellate it as they please. The are no laws requiring any of us experts to prove we know what we're talking about before we try to talk you into some kind of workout.

In short, you better take much of what you hear on the subject of cross training for distance runners with many grains of salt. At least ask your “expert” if he or she has an appropriate college degree or, more importantly, has earned some sort of certification from their profession's state or national association. This will at least prove they did more than just guzzle beer while they went to college.

With that dire caveat, what should distance runners know about the hot subject of cross training? Just this: If you want to race faster, you should run more, or run faster, or both. In the

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lingo of us physiologists, this is called “specificity of training” (See chapter 2) which will get you into better shape as a runner and result in faster racing times. In fact, specificity is the second law of exercise physiology...When training too much, or training too fast causes you to miss a lot of training because your hurt or sick too often, then consistency becomes a more important training variable than mode, intensity, duration, and frequency.

Now this creates problems, because most exercise physiologists count only the latter four variables as those that determine tolerance to exercise stress. However, in my other role as a coach, I often have to rely on the art of coaching, and thus am allowed to ignore some of the laws of physiology. That's why tired, old broken down runners often find that by substituting some other aerobic activity for some of the miles or intervals that we'd prefer to do, we can race faster than usual...Please note that I wrote “faster than usual” not “faster than ever”. Cross trainers will never run career PRs, because their training is simply not specific enough. Consider this: If cross trainers made the best distance runners, the Ironman Triathlon winner would win the Boston or New York or Los Angeles Marathon. The incentive is certainly there, because there is a whole lot more prize and appearance money in major marathons than in triathlons. So how come they can't run as fast as plain old vanilla runners” (Benson, 1991)?

Running in the Pool

Pool running is not cross training; it is running. From reading chapter two on the specificity of training, and the above pages of this chapter, we know that the best way to improve upon our running is simply to run. Pool running, meets with the principle of specificity yet is a non-weight bearing activity. Therefore making it ideal to replace road runs with, or to manage an injury.

I know of no other exercise, with the exception of running, to be more beneficial in terms of providing the runner with the necessary tools to be a better runner than that of running in the pool. Its value has been proven time and time again. Mary Decker set a 2,000 meter world record after running in the pool for three weeks in 1984 (Bloom, 1991). Joan Benoit trained in the pool for months before she won the first Olympic Medal (McWaters, 1991). Ibraham Hussein, Suzy-Favor Hamilton, Joe Falcon, and scores of other elite runners have made pool-running part of their training.

The way to approach this type of running is to find yourself a wetsuit top or other floatation device that will allow you to maintain your form. There are commercially available floatation devices that work and other forms that may work too. Personally, I use my SCUBA-diving wet suit top. This is a 7mm wet-suit, which provides me with enough floatation that I can remain motionless and have my lip just above the water line. When I begin to simulate the running action, my body raises out of the water even more. Stay in

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the deep water so you won't stub your toes. When I refer to pool running I refer to deep- water running - in which the feet never touch the ground.

The concept of water running is basic, just run. Maintain the precise form in the water that you would on land. This action is congruent with the principle of specificity. You are running! The only difference is that water is your resistance rather than gravity. This resistance is 12-45 times greater than on land, depending on your speed (Bloom, 1991). By maintaining proper form, you are helping to maintain the neurological patterns that are required for loose and relaxed running form on land. This; however, is where our first problem is introduced.

It may not be as easy to maintain form as it sounds. The problem arises with the floatation device that we choose. If it is too thick in the armpits, it prevents the arms from tracking in the proper pattern, thus we could learn improper form. Some of the commercially bought floatation devices too may be detrimental to form. One of my runner's bought a device that looks some what like a back brace, it attaches around the waist with the bulk of the floatation device riding on the small of the back. Unfortunately, it forces you to lean excessively forward. It is important that all aspects of form remain the same as on land, including the lean. Once you find a floatation device that suits (pun intended) these purposes, the best way to work on form is to simply visualize yourself running. Constantly check your form, visualize and listen to a radio. Undoubtedly I relish running more than pool running. For running in the pool can be boring. A radio or conversation with a coach or friend will help, but ultimately it is not as stimulating.

Water running, done properly, will help build cardiovascular fitness, form, muscular strength and endurance. It may also help in the preservation of sanity when injured. The duration of the water run can be the same as a regular run. Two miles of running in the pool appears to equate to three miles of running on land, according to a 1991 Runner’s World article (Bloom, 1991). Each and every type of land run can be mimicked in the water. In addition to improving endurance, deep water running may help with your sprint form and speed. Roger Kingdom, 110 Meter High Hurdle World Record Holder, used it before his 1989 world record. He believes water running increased his turnover rate and stride (McWaters, 1991).

To simulate intervals, simply run hard for the same amount of time as you would on the land. If you would normally run 10 x 400 in 70, then run 10 x 70 seconds hard. To simulate tempo runs, find a good rhythm, and hold it for the same amount of time you would on a land tempo run. OK, how about hills? Simple, put some extra resistance on your feet. Extra resistance? Yeah! Shoes! Lace up an old pair of running shoes because this provides extra resistance, add that to an extra lift of the knees and you nicely simulate hill running. Better yet, you can tie yourself to the outside of the pool and pool against the

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string. This also works with bungee cords. If all is done correctly you will find that your form is that of running; not of trying to remain afloat. Your forward progress will be slow. There should, however, be forward progress. Remaining stationary would be indicative of attempting to remain afloat. There is a natural instinct to tread water, instead of running - be cautious of this.

Consider adding water workouts to your training schedule when injured or healthy. Each individual runner has a certain mileage limit before incurring injury. Attempting to exceed this mileage can and will eventually result in injury. With the addition of deep water running you can reduce your road mileage and increase your total mileage while lessening your chances of injury. Many runners have reduced their road mileage by 50% while improving racing performance, according to McWaters. It is important to have an adequate warm-up, and stretch first. You may consider running easy in the pool for ten minutes, then stretching; for we lose body heat 20 times faster to water than we do to air. Therefore, it is easier to cramp in the water than it is in the air. If you do cramp during a run, do not attempt to stretch it out, this will activate the myotatic stretch reflex resulting in prolonged cramping. The best method is to squeeze the muscle and concentrate on relaxing it. You will then need to warm the muscle up.

Weight Training

I can sum up the affects of weight training on distance runners in two words: “old school.” Yes, I can see how (at one time) weight lifting was believed to be beneficial to the runner. I once read something along the lines of the following, “All I know is if the race comes down to two runners being equal the one with the more strength is going to win.” Statements like this sound logical, but only confound the issue. Before we get into the scientific arguments of weight lifting let me show you a common discourse that will demonstrate a different logic.

I commonly ask of those who lift: Why do you lift? They reply, “I need the upper body strength for my racing?” Again I ask why? “My arms get tired in the race”. I then ask when during the race it is that your arms get tired? They reply, “During the hills and at the end of the race.” I next ask: What makes going up hills harder on the arms than on the flat or down hills? They reply, “Well your going up against resistance.” I then ask, what resistance are your arms driving against? This is where their logic breaks down. The arms, you see, drive against nothing but the sparse air molecules in their way. It makes no difference going up, flat, or downhill, the air molecules are in the same percentages. Why then, do your arms burn going up hill? Perhaps we need not look at what the arms are doing; rather what the legs are. The legs are driving against incredible gains in resistance - the force of gravity. The arms are still only swinging against the air molecules. The legs then, in this much-increased effort require enormous amounts of blood - which is taken

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from the rest of the body. Without blood, yes, your arms will burn, as they will be forced to produce energy anaerobically. I then ask, “How will bigger muscles in your arms get you more blood to them under times of duress?” The answer is simple. It won’t.

I am against weightlifting then, because I postulate that weight lifting, regardless of whether its heavy or not, will decrease performance. Any extra upper body mass beyond what is required to counteract the forward thrust of the legs is nothing more than dead weight. In a sport in which efficiency is trademark for success, extra baggage (be it fat or muscle) is still nothing more than extra. This may bring to mind the question of circuit training. After all, it has been touted as being “aerobic”. Perhaps it is because it is non- stop, but the muscles are still contracting anaerobically, in a non-specific pattern and it certainly is no where as near aerobic as a ten mile run. Furthermore, any weights done before a run will likely hinder your normal running pattern as the muscles have been pre- fatigued before the run. This may both result in form loss and slower running workouts. I am not alone in my views. Joe McDonald Coach of he Santa Monica Track Club calls weight lifting “high school.”

Here is what Exercise Physiologist David Costill has to say, “Running creates muscular adaptations that are unique to the speed and distances employed by the runner. Free weight lifting and isokinetic strength training tend to isolate specific leg and arm actions in an effort to strengthen the muscles used during distance running. The major fault with these approaches is that any strength gained while working against a given piece of strength equipment is not transferred to the task of running. The runner may be able to exert greater force, but there is no assurance that he will be able to run faster or easier. The problem is specificity. Unless the strength training is done while the runner is running, it is not likely to be to beneficial” (Costill, 1989).

Dr. Costill also says that based on this principle of specificity some runners elect to add resistance to their muscles by wearing weights on their ankles or wrists. An addition of a pound of weight to the ankle, for example, is equivalent to adding four pounds to the trunk. In theory, these methods would seem to offer a more specific approach to improve strength and speed, but the benefits are undocumented. The major disadvantage is that these practices change one's running style, and they will be forced to run slower while working at the same relative effort (Costill, 1989, 110). To race fast you must train fast. Additionally, the effect of adding weights to the ankles will bring the obvious affect of increased pounding to the lower legs.

So it seems that the best way to develop the musculature for running is to run. Still, many runners turn to weight lifting for strength. There is little reason to do so, other than aesthetic appeal. Many of us concaved cheated runners desire to have a more Herculean upper body. This may be beneficial when lying on the beach, but is in direct hindrance to

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optimal distance running. My view, however, is not the only one. Dr. Tim Noakes suggests an arm that has undergone weight training is able to remove lactic acids more efficiently from the blood. Perhaps a greater body mass allows lactate to be diluted better. In other words the lactate doesn’t add up as quick because there is a larger mass in which it is spread out. This theory neglects to examine the effects of having to work harder to propel that extra mass. Still, Dr. Noakes believes increased girth may store more glycogen, which may help the overall carbohydrate balance during prolonged exercise (Noakes, 1989, 103). The question then becomes is the use of the stored carbohydrates specific to those muscles in which it is stored, or can it be freed for use by all muscles? W

Most authorities suggest that the distance runner does not benefit from upper body strength training. They see little value except in short distance races. It is generally recognized that as the race distance increases, the need for strength training decreases. What the runner does require is upper body endurance, much the same as we need lower body endurance. The runner desires his upper body to be endurance oriented so that his arms do not fatigue before his legs. This is seldom a problem for the marathon runner, yet may be a factor for the miler or half miler. Any extra upper body bulk, other than what is required to prevent the upper body from fatiguing before the legs, is simply dead weight. There is little advantage in carrying muscle around that is not used.

The issue is complicated further when you consider that distance running primarily utilizes the legs of the muscles, gluts, and stomach. Thus, these working muscles demand great quantities of blood to supply them with enough oxygen to continue at an optimal level. Blood is channeled to these muscles, and other areas of the body are neglected. The essence is this: just because you have the muscle fibers, there is no guarantee that your body will supply them with the fuel they need.

The muscle composition in your upper body follows the same rules as those for your lower body. The percentages of muscle twitch fibers are the same, and the principles of specificity certainly apply. The motions chosen need simulate those of running. Additionally, the type of contractions performed will dictate the type of muscle fibers gained. If running long, slow distance builds our oxidative abilities of our slow twitch fibers, and our fast twitch B fibers take on characteristics of fast twitch A fibers ( Costill, 1986, 6); then it follows that lifting light amounts, in the same neurological pattern, for 20 minutes or more will build our upper body endurance. And if we run short bursts of speed, we will develop the ability to enhance our fast twitch A fibers, and do little for our slow twitch fibers, according to Costill. Again it follows that heavy weights, and low repetitions will aid our fast twitch fibers. To a half miler this is valuable; for a distance runner it is not. Therefore, performing weight lifting in the traditional style will increase our muscle strength and girth, doing little for distance running while adding extra weight

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to the runner. Circuit type training would be better than weight lifting, but the value is still questioned.

What is ideal for the distance runner then? Largely I ignore weights. I say largely, because they do have value for biomechanical inefficiencies. I.E. a doctor prescribes a weight lifting regime to keep the patella tracking properly. For performance enhancing, the best I can recommend is finding light weights, standing and mimicking running form for aerobic periods of time. Doing this while actually running would be counterproductive, as it would lengthen your stride due to the increased forward thrust. Water running may too be used to increase specific muscle contraction patterning under higher resistance.

For those who either require weight lifting to rectify a structural problem, or those who are willing to sacrifice some performance for a better physique, there are some rules to follow. Weight training is similar to running in that there are different types of exercises, to build different types of muscles. Like running, lifting with light weights, over many repetitions and sets, will build endurance. Heavy weights, with short repetitions are the intervals of the weight lifting world, they will build bulk, but do little for endurance.

It is generally useless to lift for the legs as our legs get plenty of lifting as they propel our body against the forces of gravity step-after-step. Additionally, weight lifting may fatigue the muscles, especially the calves, and cause injury when you run. Runners have a tendency to go to the gym and use their strong, endurance oriented quadriceps and hamstrings to lift heavy weights for long periods of time in an attempt to impress others in the gym. This may make you look good, but it could result in a muscle strength imbalance and possible injury.

The normal ratio of strength from the quadriceps in the front of the leg, to the hamstrings in the back is 60/40. Building either too much can result in the injury of the other (Sheehan, 1978, 125). A sprinter gets power from the quadriceps and a distance runner derives most of his power from the hamstrings. Over development of the quads will result in a possible hamstring pull, and over development of the hamstrings, a quad pull. Long distance running places most of the stress on the hamstrings, and therefore they fatigue less, consequently pulls of the quadriceps often occur during a marathon (Mangi, Joki, Dayton, & William, 1979, 139). By the same token, the under-developed hamstrings of the sprinter often result in a hamstring pull. The shorter the distance a runner races, the more hamstring strength he will require. This strength can be built via uphill running.

Lifting of free weights provides for the use of the fine balancing muscles that support the main muscles. Where machine weights lose in that spectrum, they gain in the fact that they are safer, and will not allow you to hyperextend a joint, or become trapped

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under a bar after exhaustion. For these reasons, I recommend that the novice weight lifting runner do machine weights for most all of their weight lifting exercises, and some light free weights to build the balancing muscles.

There are many safety precautions for lifting. Perhaps the most important is to breathe. “A person pressing a heavy weight has a distinct tendency to hold his breath. The weight compresses the chest, and a high intrathoracic pressure is produced. There is a sudden rise in blood pressure that prevents the return of the venous blood to the heart. This causes an equally sudden drop in blood pressure, and the lifter may become dizzy and feel faint. This is known to exercise physiologists as the valsalva Phenomenon” (Rasch, 1990, 19). It could cause you to drop the bar on yourself. Other safety precautions include: using a partner when attempting to lift a heavy free weight; warming up well; use a weight belt for free weight lifting; and a wrist wrap or knee wrap if you have had problems with them. Lastly, the power of the ego, has caused many injuries. A friend of mine felt a bit of pain in his head while lifting and ignored it, and shortly after popped a small vessel in the head, his ego landed him in the hospital.

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Chapter Seven

TRAINING AND RACING FACTORS

cclimatization is the term applied to the physiological mechanisms that allows us to A adapt to run in adverse conditions. Acclimatization may be thought of as the overload principle of the body’s thermoregulatory system. Our bodies strive to maintain homeostasis - which is a state of equilibrium of the internal environment of the body. Sweating and goose bumps are obvious examples of some of the mechanisms our bodies use to maintain it's internal environment to as close to 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit as possible. In order to effectively acclimate the body to perform in hot weather running is to follow a course of slow and gradual training in the heat. Such a program lessens the chance that your training and racing will be hindered or, your health compromised by hot weather.

Training in and for the Heat

The removal of excess heat from the body is the job of the hypothalamus. Functioning as a thermostat, the brain's hypothalamus triggers the sweating mechanism and directs blood flow to the skin, which releases its heat to the outside environment. Although effective, this system of cooling is not without limitations, and often it is no match for the high rate of heat production during distance running (Costill, 1986, 51). The thermoregulatory process works in the following manner. As a muscle exercises, it creates internal heat; reaching temperatures of 106 to 108 degrees Fahrenheit. In order to cool the muscles the internal heat is transferred to the passing blood, which is cooler. This raises the temperature of the blood and removes the heat from the muscles. The blood then passes under the skin layers as close to the outside environment as it can get and distributes heat to the external environment. This is why we look red when hot. The heat is then transferred to the cooler outside air. The process of sweating also aids the cooling process. The evaporation of sweat cools the skin and allows for cooler blood to enter back into the body. Roughly 80% of the heat loss during exercise is accomplished through sweat evaporation. In fact with as little as one one-hundredth of a degree change in the blood temperature the hypothalamus stimulates sweat production (Costill, 1986, 52).

Sweating itself does not cool the body, the sweat must evaporate for this to happen. It is the evaporation process that brings the cooling. The three killer H’s of distance running are heat, hills, and humidity. We call the amount of water in the air the humidity. Anytime the humidity rises above 30% performance is hindered, and above 75% the amount of sweat that can be evaporated is dramatically reduced, according to a July 1990 Runners World Article quoting Lawrence E. Armstrong, Ph.D. higher humidity levels the air is nearly saturated with water and thus cannot absorb the water of sweat. The body temperature then begins to store this heat, which will prove dangerous.

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The process by which the body cools itself seems simple enough, but exercise poses a unique problem to dealing with heat compared to just being hot. The circulatory system must both direct blood to the skin to release heat, and to the working muscles to supply energy. Since the volume of blood is limited, the two must share the blood supply. “Any factor that tends to overload the cardiovascular system or interfere with the transfer of heat from the body to the environment will drastically impair the distance runner's performance and increase the risk of overheating, says Dr. Costill. “Elite and well- trained runners are at somewhat of an advantage when it comes to heat loss, and energy supply. If you're a runner with a highly developed aerobic capacity, you work at higher percentages of your Vo 2 max during training and you raise your body temperature allowing acclimation to occur” according to Owen Anderson, Ph.D. Well-trained runners also require less blood supply to the working muscles to maintain the same speed than do the muscles of a lesser-trained runner; thereby allowing more blood to be used to transfer the heat generated.

Growing acclimated to the heat may be accomplished in many ways. In locales where the seasonal change is slow or nonexistent acclimation may occur naturally. I live in Southern California where it is most always warm to hot. Acclimation to the hot summer months takes place gradually over the months of April, May, and June. So acclimation training is of little concern to runners in warm environments. However, if you plan on leaving a cool environment to race in a warmer environment, you must acclimate yourself for an optimal race performance.

The acclimation process may begin by either increasing the duration or intensity of your run(s). By working at harder rates, you will create more internal heat, and the circulatory system will adapt to these increased stresses by increasing the sweating mechanism. Changing your workout time to the hottest point of the day, and wearing sweats will help increase your sweat production as well. An acclimation process will take between 4 and 14 days depending on many variables including sex. Men sweat more than women, and therefore are more heat tolerant.

Fluid Balance

As your body becomes acclimated to the heat, by increasing the amount of and onset of sweating, you lose greater quantity of fluids in the process. Sweat is 98-99% water. With the remaining percentages being a mixture of sodium chloride, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. As you recall, the loss of water through sweating and evaporation allows for the cooling of the skin and blood. Running in warm environments may evoke sweat loses of up to two quarts per hour, or 64 fluid ounces, according to Dr.

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Costill. It is therefore important to replace this lost fluid to insure continued sweat production. Thus it is recommended to drink before, during, and after running or racing.

“The impact of dehydration on the cardiovascular system is quite predictable. Plasma volume is lost and the ability to provide adequate blood flow to the skin and muscles is reduced. Distance runners are forced to slow their pace by more than two percent for each percentage of loss in body weight due to dehydration, says Dr. Costill. Excessive fluid loss will result in potentially dangerous to fatal problems. If we run out of water to sweat, we cease to lose 80% of our internal body temperature to the outside environment, and our body begins to store this heat. This could lead to collapse, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and possible death.

Water is the most essential nutrient to consume, since 98-99% of sweat is water. However, under stressing heat or endurance runs of over an hour, replacing some of the lost minerals too is important. This is where, and only where, sports replacement drinks are required. At high rates of sweating during distance running, we lose high levels of sodium and chloride, and some potassium, calcium, and magnesium as well (Costill, 1986, 54). Sodium is the most critical of these as it holds water. When you lose sodium you lose more water from your body's fluid compartments.

Electrolytes in the blood are sodium, potassium, chlorine, calcium, and magnesium. An electrolyte drink generally means it contains some or all of these substances. Electrolyte drinks, can help replace the water and sodium required to uphold the thermoregulatory mechanisms of the body during extreme endurance activities, such as the marathon. These drinks also provide a source of glucose to help fuel the working muscles. Under normal circumstances it is not required to drink a sports replacement drink. Though the advertisers will go to great extremes to convince you that you need to drink them after every workout. All of these nutrients are easily obtained in a normal diet excess. For more information on these vitamins and minerals see Chapter 20.

Drinking during hot weather runs will minimize dehydration, lessen the rise in internal body temperature and reduce the stress placed on the circulatory system. Warm fluids near body temperature provide some protection against overheating, but cold fluids seem to enhance body cooling. Dr. Costill says it takes some of the deep body heat to warm a cold drink to the temperature of the stomach.

The next note of concern is how much fluid should be absorbed and which types of fluids will be most easily absorbed. First, cold drinks have been found to empty from the stomach into the small intestine where they are absorbed, faster than warm drinks (Costill, 1986, 75). Cold water will be absorbed faster than any other drink. Dissolved matters in the water, such as sugars or electrolytes, will slow the absorption rate down. It then seems

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obvious that the drink of choice is cold water, with some electrolyte replacement drinks having value in races of half marathon or more. Yet even at these longer distances it is not the replacement of the electrolytes that helps so much as it is the sugar. Therefore, most any solution of water and the proper percentage of sugar will prove to be as effective as sports drinks at considerably less the cost.

The reason I say proper percentage of sugar is the more sugar in a solution the longer it will take to empty from the stomach to the small intestine. The trade off is this: the more sugar in a drink, the more fuel you receive, and the less water. The less sugar in a drink the more water you get but less fuel. Some sports drinks have created a solution, which gives you the best of both worlds. With the addition of glucose polymers to their drinks, you can consume large amounts of sugars to help you maintain pace, without slowing down the absorption rate of the required water. The draw-back, some people can not stomach this type of drink during a race. I find that during a hot marathon I consume one cup of water, and one cup of Exceed per mile. Of course, half of each never makes it into my mouth. Finally, no sugar drink will be absorbed faster than plain water, no matter what the claim. In fact one popular sport drink has advertised, “works 20% faster than water” this is true - if you pipe the fluid directly to the small intestine bypassing the stomach. Since most of us prefer to just drink our beverages the claim has little value.

It is necessary to consume 50 grams of carbohydrate per hour to help maintain a sustained performance in a long distance race, according to Dr. Costill. At this rate it would require around 24 ounces per hour of most sports drinks to absorb enough sugar to maintain a blood glucose level sufficient to maintain pace. This comes to about four paper cups per hour. If you consider that half of each cup is lost to spillage you must take 8 cups per hour, which is roughly equivalent to taking one cup per mile, at an 8 minute pace. Most marathon runners do not drink this much, most do not drink enough! Most runners take in only drink 9-15 ounces per hour according to Dr. Costill.

The maximum absorption rate is 1.5 quarts per hour, or 96 oz per hour. When you consider that you can lose up to 128 oz per hour you can see why it is important to drink as much as you can handle during an endurance event of an hour or more, this takes practice. It is important to practice drinking, and drinking large volumes of fluids during training runs. When I prepare for a marathon, I often have one of my runners accompany me on my long runs with a bike and water bottles. I practice drinking two cups per mile, as I will during the actual race. It is important to begin drinking long before you feel thirsty. Our thirst is a poor gauge of how much fluids are required. When we do need fluids cold ones are best (as they absorb faster).

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Dress for the Heat

It is important to where loose clothes that do not interfere with the transfer of heat to the outside air. The fewer clothes, the better off you are. Light color clothes will absorb less heat than black. The color black appears to us when no light waves are reflected from it. White is just the opposite. The less solar energy absorbed the better. Wearing a light, white cap with slits cut in the top, will allow heat to escape and will also help reduce the amount of heat that your head absorbs from the sunlight. It will also help shade your face, and provides a handy place to load up ice cubes into which will help dissipate heat. Finally, wiping the salt from your body with a wet sponge or T shirt, will help increase the evaporation rate of your sweat, helping to keep your temperature regulated.

Eye Protection

Light sunglasses that hold on to your face well, help keep you feeling comfortable. They help reduce squinting, which in turn reduces facial tension. This tension is often the cause of upper arm and shoulder tension, which can slow your arm drive, and ultimately slow your leg turnover rate. So glasses can actually help you run faster. There are health benefits derived from protecting you eyes as well. Research conducted at Johns Hopkins University showed that fishermen who had been exposed to a lot of ultraviolet-B light in their lifetimes were more likely to develop cataracts, a clouding of the lenses of the eyes, as reported in a July 1990 Runner’s World article. In addition to protecting the eyes from sun damage, UV-B blocking glasses may help reduce the incidence of cancer around the eyes. Exposure to the sun also directly damages the skin, which can cause wrinkles

Sunglasses are as vital to me as my racing flats; despite the weather. That's right, I even wear them on cloudy, or rainy days. Why? They help prevent the eyes from drying out, protect them from particles blowing into them, and help me perceive the effort as being “cooler”. I wear them in the rain for good reason. Often racing in the rain forces you to lower your head to prevent the rain from stinging your eyes. Lowering your head decreases the diameter of the thorax, and allows for less oxygen uptake. Wearing glasses prevents the rain from hitting your eyes, thus you are not forced to lower your head. The foreseeable problem is a reduction in vision due to fogging, but it is nothing a little spit rubbed around won't handle.

Training in and for the Cold and Rain

Opposite the heat coolness is one of the distance runners best friends. A cool race helps one's body heat diffuse into the surrounding air at a more rapid pace, and allows for more complete and further cooling of the body. It is usually over-heating, not over-cooling

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of the body that causes problems. In fact a cool marathon of perhaps 55 degrees is considered ideal.

The major factor about gearing toward the cold is what not to wear rather than what to wear. Most runners tend to overdress for the cold, and then find themselves roasting in their plethora of clothing. The idea is to wear just enough to keep you comfortable throughout the duration of your run, and not just the first 10-15 minutes of the warm up. The first area to cover in the cold is your hands. Gloves, or mittens prove valuable, even in mildly cold weather. Mittens will help keep your fingers warm and loose, and when you warm up, you can either discard them or tuck them in your shorts. I don't recommend this with $15 polypropylene gloves. Another cheap option is to use socks as gloves. Putting cotton in your ears will help keep your ears warmer. Often the cold weather causes earaches in prone individuals. As the temperature drops further, perhaps below 50 degrees Fahrenheit, it will become necessary to protect other areas of your body. The next most important area for the male is to keep his genitals warm. Penile frostbite can be well, painful. Wearing extra underwear, or a running suit will help. Since something like 40% of your body heat is lost through your head it's advisable to wear a hat to hold some of that heat in too.

For colder weather tights or a sweat suit will be a necessity. One of the advantages of Goretex or similar fabric is that the pores are small enough to keep water droplets out, yet big enough to allow sweat vapor to escape. This lessons the chances of over-heating and helps keep you drier. Despite low environmental temperatures there usually is still an accumulation of sweat in the clothing and on the skin, which provides for a rapid mechanism for heat loss, but it can also get too cold.

Just when is it too cold to run? Dr. David Costill suggests that running should generally not be attempted when the temperature, or wind chill factor, drops below 12 degrees Fahrenheit. However, there is no danger of your lungs freezing in the cold - that’s an old myth.. As the surface tissues in your lungs cool (not freeze) the pain becomes excruciating. The pain will cause you to stop long before the lungs are near the freezing point.

Many suggest beginning your run with the wind in your face and returning with the wind at your back so as to insure you do not fatigue before arriving home. This suggestion holds value in that if we begin to fatigue we will slow and as we slow we will produce less body heat; in this the possibility of hypothermia becomes real. However, I have a different theory. Any runner, who is going to brave sub-freezing weather, is one who is experienced to know that he can run for however long planned without incurring fatigue. In other words, a beginner is not going to run in 20-degree weather. This being the case, it makes more sense to begin your run with the wind at your back as to allow you to

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warm up adequately, and maybe even grow hot. That way when you turn around into the chilling wind you will be cooled off. Warming up into a cold wind is a difficult, uncomfortable, and possibly an injurious thing to attempt.

Running in the snow provides for another challenge. Not only do you have to protect your body, especially the feet, from the cold, you must protect your eyes from the glare, and take precautions to ensure you do not slip. If you live in snowy areas, it is recommended to take a few hex screws and insert them into the outsoles of your shoes (not over the pressure points), this will aid traction on slippery surfaces. Otherwise, you are best to stay on the snowplowed roads. It is important to remember that running shoes are not waterproof. Therefore, taking precautions to keep your feet warm and dry are important. Wearing waterproof socks may be one answer. Yet another is to wrap waterproof tape around your shoes or Scotchguard them.

Running in the rain is one of the most enjoyable types of runs I know of. I love the sound of the rain beating at my hood on a stormy day. I enjoy the wind howling through my hood, and the sound of approaching cars in the wet streets. If the weather is warmer, yet still raining, I love to feel “free” to romp in puddles, scramble up muddy hills, to get dirty, and feel the rain in my face.

Racing in the rain may provide you with the opportunity for a personal record, and perhaps to do better overall as well. The rain will help keep you cool, this is especially vital in long races like the marathon. It will help reduce the amount of water loss, possibly allowing you to run faster. In addition, many runners do not turn out for a rainy race, making your possibilities of receiving a medal greater. It is important to warm up well in the cold. The danger of pulling a muscle in the cold is increased, and when the gun goes off it is especially easy to pull a cold muscle. Be careful of those painted lines on the road. They are slippery when wet and may cause you to slip. It is recommended to warm up in your training shoes, and then slip your dry racing flats on just before the race goes off, this will allow you to run some of the race in dry shoes.

To help keep your shoes as dry as possible, stomp through puddles flat-footed. This action forces the water out from under your foot. In order to stomp, it is necessary to raise the knee high, and to bring your foot down directly underneath the hip. This action forces water out from underneath your landing foot and requires your other foot to raise high in the air, clearing the blast area from your landing foot. In this manner it is quit possible to run through a puddle and have your foot remain totally dry.

There are some other, not so obvious, precautions to take when running in the cold, snow, or rain. First, watch out for cars, their windows may be fogged up and the last thing they are looking for in a storm is a runner. Secondly, take a hot shower upon your

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immediate return, and put on warm clothes. Though it is not the act of being cold that makes you sick the cold may lower your immunity to a virus. We are usually warm enough while running; it is when we stop that we begin to grow cold.

Running in the Sand

Sand running can provide an excellent workout for the runner, but it can also provide for a lasting injury.. The thicker the sand the more difficult it is for you to pull your heels out. The action of having to pull your heels out can result in Achilles tendonitis, or an Achilles strain. This pulling action also necessitates that you change your running form, which has limited advantages. Short sprints through the sand may help you learn to lift your knees and drive your arms; however, long runs through the thick sand also teach you to take excessively short strides, and may strain not only the Achilles, but other ligaments due to the instability of the landing.

Hard packed sand may allow for optimal cushioning without impeding your stride or form. This type of sand is an ideal type of training surface; it is similar to running on a rubber track. I have found that the absolute best landing surface is along the ocean’s edge, when the tide is low. This sand is slightly wet - though not enough to get your shoes wet. It provides for a soft landing yet is firm enough to allow for a quick push off. If it sound too good to be true, it is. The problem lies in the slant that leads to the water, this slant places an unequal stress on the two sides of your body. Therefore, it is recommended to run both ways on the beach, and only if there is a minimal slant. If part of your race is through thick sand you can increase your speed through it by landing on your toes. The less area that sinks into the soft sand, the less you have to pull out. It is not advisable to try to sprint through this sand, it simply requires too much energy and returns little in terms of distance gained.

Altitude Training

The theory of altitude training is simple: as you go further up into the atmosphere the amount of oxygen in the air becomes more scarce, therefore the human body must make adoptions to maintain the runner's pace, utilizing less oxygen. The theory is simple, but is it true? It is true that the air becomes thinner as we rise in altitude, and it is true that training at altitude will help us learn to race at altitude; but will it help us race faster at sea level? Not much, according to Dr. David Costill the leading Sports Physiologist.

Vo 2 max decreases roughly 3.2 percent for each 1,000 foot increase in altitude above 5,000 feet. Below 5,000 feet it is difficult to detect any decrease in performance or Vo 2 max, according to Dr. Costill. This would tell us that for training purposes we desire to train at altitudes above 5,000 feet, and generally the higher the better. While this is ideal for

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distance training, it is not so for distance racing. In-fact at the 1968 Mexico Olympics held at 7,500 feet the average time for a three mile run was 8.5 percent slower due to the elevation. The sprinters produced many world records as there is less oxygen to act as resistance in their anaerobic efforts.

In addition to the fewer number of oxygen molecules in the air, high altitude offers several other conditions which differ from sea-level. Gas molecules in the air are further apart, so they offer less resistance as they move in and out of the lungs. Consequently, the runner's maximal breathing capacity is greater at altitude than at sea-level. Lastly, for every 1,000 feet we climb into the atmosphere above sea-level, the temperature drops 3.5 degrees Fahrenheit and becomes drier. The reduction in temperature helps facilitate heat exchange, but also causes increased water loss due to relatively lower humidity (Costill, 1986, 116).

With all these adaptations, why doesn't altitude training help us run faster at sea level? Furthermore, why do so many world class athletes live in altitude? These questions are answered in Dr. Costill's book Inside Running the Basics of Sports Physiology , Benchmark, 1986. “The adaptations which result from endurance training at altitude are confined to: (1) an increase in breathing (2) an increase in blood hemoglobin concentration, and (3) some small changes in muscle energy systems such as increased oxidative enzymes, myoglobin content, and capillarization. During the first few days at high altitudes runners will be less able to tolerate lactate production, limiting their abilities to perform repeated bouts of maximal anaerobic exercise. Physiological adaptations to altitude are related to the duration of exposure. Since the rate of adaptation is not uniform for all physiological systems, full acclimatization to altitude may require several months.

Training at altitude does not seem to improve the distance runner's performance at sea level. Studies have shown that their in no difference in the effects of hard endurance training at 7,500 feet and sea level training on Vo2 max values or two-mile performance times among runners who were already well-conditioned. Training at altitude only improves performance at altitude. After 20 weeks of training at altitude the runners showed marked improvements in their performance at altitude . Furthermore, there is no evidence to support the concept that breathing gases low in oxygen content while exercising for 1 to 2 hours per day will induce even a partial adaptation to altitude. It has, however, been demonstrated that this procedure may enhance the maximal exercise breathing capacity.” So while it appears that training at altitude will only help the runner as far as his maximal exercise breathing capacity is concerned, there is still one unmentioned advantage to living and training in altitude. That is the beauty and serenity of the location. Training in the mountains offers an inspiring run every day. There are more trails, better scenery, and bigger HILLS!

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Overtraining

All runners are subject to overtraining, especially those with high goals, overly strong work ethics, or overly competitive personalities. Athletes who have missed training time are likely to attempt to “make up” for this by working extra hard, or by running a second difficult workout a day. They are prone to overtraining; especially if they have missed their base training. Experienced coaches know that the race is most likely lost by overtraining, opposed to undertraining. “In training it is a difficult but essential task to find the athlete's optimum training thresholds and not to transgress the limits of their stress and adaptation capacities”, says Edmund Burke. “Although most coaches employ a set of intuitive standards to judge the volume and intensity of each training session, few are able to assess the relative impact of the workout on the runner. By the time most coaches realize that they have overstressed an athlete, it is too late. The damage done by repeated days of excessive training can only be repaired by days and, in some cases, weeks of reduced training or complete rest”, says David Costill.

There are many physical factors that may suggest overtraining, learning to recognize the factors in each athlete is valuable to the coach. Perhaps the most obvious indicator is the inability for a runner to recover from the previous hard workout or race.. Feelings of heaviness and the inability to perform well during training or competition too are strong indicators. The runner who attempts to run every workout and every race at maximum is perhaps the most likely to suffer from overtraining. It is likely that the athlete will view the decrease in performance as a lack of training, not overtraining. Thus, the overtrained athlete works even harder.

What overtraining is exactly is not fully understood. We know that overtraining reduces the stored supplies of glycogen in the muscles, and also doesn’t leave enough time for the musculature to adapt to the stresses placed upon it. Overtraining too may be caused by dehydration. It is likely that the syndrome of overtraining involves many physiological and psychological factors. There are a few, simple indicators that may help identify an overtrained athlete though.. The morning pulse rate is one method that has been employed. This monitoring technique requires the athlete to take his pulse immediately upon waking every morning. A 10% increase in the heart rate is said to be a possible sign of overtraining (Burke, 1990, 65). The problem associated with this monitoring technique is that many other factors influence the morning heart rate: the stage of sleep you were in when you woke, your body temperature, and what you were dreaming about.

Another indicator is staleness and burnout. “I just don't enjoy it as much, coach” “I'm so tired” “I don't care”. Unfortunately, these are also symptoms of simple mental burnout. Add these feelings with decreased running performances, sleeping problems,

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prolonged heaviness of the legs, and you are looking at a case of physical overtraining. What do you do? Back off. Take some time off. Take the day off. Take two. Whatever, you do, slow down. Since speed, hills, and races are the primary workouts that lead to overtraining, substitute some of those workouts for slow middle distance runs. Change the location of your run. Go somewhere you never have before. Especially, if the runner has a coach; go for a run together, talk about life, not just the upcoming races.

There is a paradox to overtraining in that there may be some benefits to be gained (as long as you survive injury free). Muscle glycogen depletion may occur selectively, draining the muscles in use first. Fast twitch fibers in the working muscles will be the first to be drained; thus the runner will feel slow, a classic sign of overtraining. However, the body will call upon non-depleted, but less efficient, connected muscles into action. As a result, the runner maintains his pace, but form suffers expended. As athletes recruit all available muscle fibers in an attempt to maintain pace, they invariably exhaust their slow twitch as well as their fast twitch fibers. The result is a training of the muscle's oxygen consumption systems that sometimes leads to personal records in longer races not requiring speed. In other words, overtraining simulates what will happen during glycogen depletion in a marathon.

I am not advocating overtraining as the secret to successful marathon running. The muscles suffer too much damage in overtraining, and the probability of injury rises. Additionally, the brain's willingness to keep firing depleted and damaged muscles may decline. During overtraining testosterone levels drop, and the level of cortisol, a hormone that serves as an indicator of stress, raises. Norepinephrine, the pain-killing drug secreted by the brain, declines during periods of overtraining, according to Costill. To avoid overtraining: make sure you allow the body to adapt to the stresses placed upon it with easy days, eat plenty of carbohydrates 7 days a week, stay hydrated, increase mileage by no more than 5-10% per week, and keep it fun.

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Chapter Eight

FORM ANALYSIS

t is truly unfortunate that so many pay little attention to their running form. I In other sports it is recognized that proper form and technique are valuable aspects to optimal performance. In distance running though; good form is much overlooked and bad form left to be. Ultimately the runner is the one who suffers - in terms of slower times. For, it costs some runners more metabolic energy to run at a given speed than it does others with better technique (Costill, 1986, 54). “To use the argument that our natural style is unchangeable represents a defeatist attitude. It ignores the nervous system's great adaptive capability.” - Peter Coe and David Martin, Ph.D.

There is considerable variability in the running mechanics of different athletes. It is of interest to know how this variation is related to the performance of the runner. There are aspects of running mechanics that will give a runner an advantage in performance; and, conversely, patterns of movement that will adversely affect performance (Cavanagh, 1990, 271). Running economy can be logically linked to performance. A large variation in running economy is usually found within a group of runners with similar performance abilities. It is typical to find a range in Vo 2 submax (metabolic energy costs) between 15% and 30%. “Many studies have shown a strong relationship between maximal oxygen consumption (Vo 2 max) and running performance (see chapter one), but there are also clear indications that running economy can be an important factor. From the biomechanical standpoint we are interested to know how much of this variability between individuals can be accounted for by differences in running mechanics”, says Dr. Peter Cavanagh. “Like VO 2 max running economy is an important factor in a runner's potential. In fact, many top flight marathon runners have a relatively low Vo 2 max, but benefit greatly from biomechanical economy.”

“If an individual's running mechanics were altered, and this resulted in reduced energy costs throughout a range of sub maximal speeds of running, it is logical to assume that the individual's maximal running performance would improve”, says Cavanagh. “We might rationalize that a 2% decrease in Vo 2 submax could lead to a 2% improvement in performance time. Though a 2% change at first glance seems small, when put into the context of a distance running time it can (at world record pace) be approximately 32 seconds in the 10K, and over two minutes in the marathon pace.” The improvement for you is even greater. Since all aerobic biomechanical movement drains glucose from our limited reserves, efficient form is of utmost importance to the distance

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runner. Additionally, all anaerobic biomechanical movements contribute to the production of blood lactate; thus, efficient form produces smaller levels of lactate, which prematurely fatigue a runner. These concerns solidify the need for economical running form.

According to Dr. Cavanagh, it is possible that the overall economy associated with an individual runner depends on the influences of a large number of mechanical variables: hip extension, stride length, strike index, arm action, vertical force, knee extension, trunk lean, pronation, vertical oscillation, plantar flexation, and stride frequency. For a given individual some variables might represent economical movement patterns whereas, in others the same patters are uneconomical. It would then be a weighted sum of the various influences that determines overall economy. Second, even though individuals might show mechanical characteristics that seem to be uneconomical, there may be reasons why those patterns are, in fact, economical for him. There may be structural reasons why a particular person's running motion is best for them, even though is in a non-traditional running style (Cavanagh, 1990, 278). Such is the example of Bill Rodger's characteristic right arm flail in an attempt to make up for a deficiency in the length of his left leg (Glover & Schuder, 1983, 315).

Proper biomechanics will enable a runner to run smoother, faster, and with less possibility of injury. It is therefore recommended that the runner pay great detail to establishing proper form during the start up phase of the training pyramid. The abilities of a skilled coach are of great value when improving form too. The coach's discerning eyes can detect diminutive oddities in form, and he can provide you with an example of efficient form to emulate. Often runners have quirks in their form that appear to need correction, yet actually should be left alone; the coach should know the difference.

This chapter will discuss all aspects of form. The analysis will discuss details of form that are conducive to speed yet are not efficient; and vice-versa. The need for differing running forms for varied terrain, grades, and distances will be addressed. For just as the golfer selects the proper club for the shot, the distance runner must select the proper form for the conditions. To the inexperienced and ill informed, the clubs look alike; this is also true concerning runners and their running form. It is difficult to discuss form in each of its particular aspects, without understanding how each contributes to total body form. Therefore, I recommend that you read this chapter twice. Upon the second reading you will have an enhanced understanding of the effects that each variable plays in the total running mechanism and efficiency of the body.

Footstrike

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The foot lands and pushes off far too fast for our eyes to accurately detect the precise landing pattern and biomechanics of that landing. In fact, until Eadweard Muybridge began photographing runners with cameras capable of shooting multiple frames per second in the 1880's it was virtually impossible to tell what was occurring. Muybridge’s photographic techniques were put to test to win a beat that horses always were in contact with the ground during a run. The motion was simply to quick to detect with the human eye and a running horse looks like it’s always in contact. Muybridge won the beat with photographic evidence of the horse in mid-stride with all four legs off the ground. Muybridge than began studying human subjects. Muybridge’s photographic technology was the first to allow us to study the various forms of foot landings and their mechanics - today we have camera apparatus that will take photographs of 100 frames per second. We may not be able to see exactly what occurs with our eyes, but we do know what is happening

It is generally recognized that there are three types of footstrikes: The heel, flat footed, and toe landing. Sometimes they are called by different names - Bill Bowerman calls them the heel-ball, flat footed, and ball heel footstrikes (Glover, 1983, 317). You are advised to utilize all three techniques at one time or another, as each possesses its own particular situational advantages and each has to it disadvantages as well. The Heel Strike

To most runners the heel strike is the most natural form of foot landing; it comes without thinking. This is for good reason. In its favor the heel strike landing allows for the greatest shock absorption of the three landings. It’s disadvantage is that it is the slowest landing of the three. - as it takes time for the foot to make the complete motion. The landing sees impact on the heel and then a gentle rolling of the foot from the heel to toes. Visualize this typical, and beneficial landing by removing your right shoe. Hold the shoe in front of you, so that you are looking at the heel. The heel strike should begin with the outside back striking the ground, proceeded by a rolling on the outside edge of the sole; it begins to role medially (in) about 1/3 the way down its length. At this junction the foot is flat, like a shoe placed on the ground. Next, it rolls inward (pronation) and then rolls back to a neutral position. Its motion is concluded by a pushing off at the toes; with most of the weight being distributed over the big toe. This complicated process allows for maximum shock absorption and you can see why it is so much slower than the other types of landings.

The heel strike usually occurs naturally, but often not without error. Several problems may occur throughout this heel-strike phase. If the foot lands on the lateral (outside) edge, and travels along this same axis, without transferring in, it is known as supination. This action may lead to ankle, knee,

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and hip problems. If, however, it crosses too soon, or too far, it may be a pronator, which also may cause injury (Weisenfield, 1980, 54).

Runners benefit from the heel landing during their distance runs, and other slowly paced runs. It allows maximum shock absorption for these long distances that helps to prevent injury. Since LSD is the basis of most training pyramids and since faster-paced efforts are often performed in different shoes, it is possible to look at the wear pattern on your shoe, to determine your heel- strike pattern. A shoe with a normal wear pattern shows the wear following the same landing pattern earlier described. If the wear pattern is abnormal, consult a knowledgeable coach, podiatrist or knowledgeable running shoe store worker.

Flat Footed Strike

The flat footed strike should be employed for faster-paced training, racing, and running through water. This foot strike sees the complete bottom surface of the foot striking the ground simultaneously. Forward momentum then causes a rolling off at the toes. This strike permits much faster running because it allows your stride to lengthen without overstriding, and requires less contact time with the ground. Some believe that there exists no true flat footed strike. They claim it to be either a modification of the heel-ball strike or an actual ball-heel strike. Either way, its function is the same. As you learn to run flat footed, and flex the foot upon take-off, you will both increase your speed and take excessive pressure off of your hamstrings (Galloway, 1984, 151). Observations of a marathon show the majority of runners to be heel strikers, while the faster runners included a greater proportion of midfoot strikers, according to Cavanagh. Most elite runners exercise this foot strike in all distances, including the marathon. When this strike is performed correctly it will be fast and light. For the inexperienced athlete, you may hear a loud clap, as the foot strikes the ground. The experienced runner will produce no such noise, his feet will touch down with grace and push off with power. This caliber runner will also exhibit a strong ankle flex serving to push him quickly into his next stride. Whether the heel strike is more efficient than the flat footed strike is still up to debate. Some studies have shown the heel strike to be more efficient and some have found no difference (Cavanagh, 1990, 282).

The flat footed strike is best when running through puddles. It provides the best possible traction and will serve to force the water out from around the shoe. The result will be as little water absorption into the shoe as possible. This technique proves quite useful in racing, for not only does it allow the racer to run through puddles without soaking, but it also provides for a nice splash to soak the shoes of the runners to the sides. Remember to lift your knees well into

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the air so that the splash from one shoe will not soak the other. For more information on running through puddles refer to chapter 16 on racing tactics. Toe strike

The toe strike is used for swiftly paced racing such as sprinting, running up and down hills, and running through the sand. The toe strike refers to a landing on the forefoot only. A toe strike never sees any other part of the foot striking the ground. Some do strike with the forefoot first then touch down with the rest of the foot, this however, decreases the power of the subsequent take- off. The toe strike, or toe running is most often found in the sprinter. This landing is by far the fastest of the three since it provides the shortest possible contact time with the ground and promotes a forward body lean and ankle flexion. The toe landing is ill-advised for long distance runs though; as it allows for limited shock absorption and may cause injury to the lower extremities and possibly the lower back. Additionally, it is taxing to the runner's calves as it requires a continual, or nearly continual, contraction. Therefore, it should only be employed for short distances only, or for sections of a longer race. For example, the half miler will likely remain on his toes for the duration of the race; while the miler may find himself on his toes for only half the race. Distances farther than the mile utilizes toe running for quick surges, running up or down hills, and the finishing kick only. The exceptions to this rule are in highly advanced competitors and those to whom toe running is the only foot strike that comes naturally.

Since toe running is the fastest of the three methods it follows that it would be used for quick surges in pace or in the finishing kick, but why is it used for up and downhills? Running uphill requires much the same form as sprinting. During training, toe running will help you develop better sprinting form. During uphill segments of a course toe running will help you reach the crest sooner as it promotes a forward body lean which allows you to fall up the hill. During downhill running extending your foot and landing on the toes will allow you to reach the bottom with as little muscle resistance and shock as possible. It will get you to the bottom as soon as possible. Unlike the uphill in which your heel should never touch (if fastest speed is desired) your heel may come down and touch during the downhill after the toes hits. The temptation to thrust your heel in front of you, in an effort to slow during a descent is strong - resist it. The result of landing heel first is slower running with increased muscular fatigue. Landing on your toes during a downhill may seem awkward at first and it may strain the shins, but the rewards in your racing will make up for the trouble.

Foot Flare

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During running, successive foot placements should be parallel to each other. Otherwise put, when the foot lands it should be pointed straight forward. If it lands and the toes are pointed to the side or in, the result is a rotation of the ankles and a strain on the feet, ankles, shins and knees. Landing with the fee pointed straight will reduce the rotation of the ankles and knees and will help to prevent shortening of the stride because of a turning out of the foot (foot flare). A flared food wastes energy (Coe & Martin, 1991, 16). Foot flare may be caused by several biomechanical inefficiencies. One such is an excessive Q angle of the quadriceps that causes the knees to protrude either valgus or verus. For help with this you would need to seek the assistance of a qualified sports medicine doctor, or physical trainer. Foot flare in one foot only is often a sign that one leg is longer than the other and the short one rotates to lengthen. To check this look to chapter 21 under leg length discrepancies.

The Ankle

Improved ankle flexibility has a desirable payoff in promoting greater stride length. The dominating African runners seem to have the best ankle flexibility because they don’t wear shoes. Their style shows that the knee of the supporting leg is well in front of the ankle, which gives the foot a greater range of motion throughout the push-off phase. A muscle generates greater contractile force after it has been pre-stretched. The longer the heel is left on the ground while the knee moves forward, the greater the pre-stretch of the calf muscles. This increases both power and stride length, according to Coe and Martin in their book Training Distance Runners. It has been theorized that the Africans' display grater ankle leverage through a heritage of barefoot running. Though it is not advisable to run barefoot, it is recommended to work on ankle leverage through hill running. Hill running accomplishes the same as it forces the knee far in front of the ankle before push-off. This action also serves to stretch the Achilles tendon. For more information on hill running see chapter fourteen under that name.

Stride Length and Frequency

Stride Length

At a given running velocity, an individual chooses, usually subconsciously, a particular combination of stride length and stride frequency. This choice is made from a wide continuum of possible stride lengths and frequencies. These include velocity, grade, footwear, surface properties, anthropometric dimensions, developmental status, muscle fiber composition, longitudinal influences, state of fatigue, and injury history (Cavanagh, 1990, 53). The stride may be defined as the cycle from foot contact to the next contact of

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that same foot. It then follows that the stride length is the distance covered by successive contacts of the same foot. This is not to be confused with step length, which is the distance between two foot strikes of opposite feet.

There are only three ways to increase your running velocity. You may increase your stride length, your stride frequency, or both.. This may lead one to believe that simply lengthening the stride will increase one's running speed. This, however, is not always the case. More often than not, increasing stride length will decrease forward velocity. Because increasing the stride usually leads to an overstriding. The foot landing in front of the hip, causing a momentary backward jarring of the body until momentum can overcome this motion and force the body forward, characterizes overstriding. This repeated jarring causes the runner to slow. Increasing the stride length without overstriding, however, will promote faster running.

“It has been established that humans increase both their stride length and frequency as running speed increases. The relationship between stride length and velocity has been reported to be curvilinear over the entire velocity range with stride length tending to reach a plateau at the higher velocities. Therefore, stride frequency tends to increase relatively more at higher velocities than stride length does”, according to Dr. Cavanagh. The evidence suggests that you increase your stride frequency before increasing stride length. In fact, breakthroughs in performance have been seen in runners who quickened and shortened their stride. Derek Clayton, the first man to break 2:10 in the marathon (breaking the old record by over two minutes) remarked on how his long, powerful stride evolved into a short, economical strides that came to be known as the “Clayton Shuffle.”

It is not advisable to shorten your stride, unless of course you are an overstrider, or the terrain necessitates it. I am advising you to first learn to run with a faster cadence, and then, with the help of a watchful coach, practice opening up your stride length. Lengthening your stride is accomplished by pulling your knees higher into the air, allowing your foot to swing farther forward, and your trail leg farther back. It is important to ensure that your foot always lands underneath or behind your hip, as this not only helps reduce shock and injury, but allows you to run faster.

Here is a demonstration to show the value of landing the foot underneath or behind the hip. Stand and put your right foot in front of your hip a few inches. Then lift your left foot and see which way your body falls. Obviously, it falls backwards. Then put your foot directly underneath your hip and do the same. This time you should remain standing on one foot. Lastly, put your right foot behind your hip and lift your left foot. You fall forward. As a

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distance runner which way do you desire to fall? Of course, you want to fall forward; or at a minimum to keep your center of gravity over your hips. You never want your center of gravity behind your hips; this slows you down and adds stress to the landing.

There has not been evidence to show that a shorter or longer stride length is associated with better or worse performance (Cavanagh, 1990, 287). Notice I make no mention of an overstride, just a shorter or longer stride. Longer strides however, do cause greater shock to the legs following footstrike, which may eventually lead to premature muscle fatigue. Overall, shorter strides are equated with lower energy consumption, but variations of stride length in general contribute less than 1% of the variance in Vo 2 submax, according to Dr. Cavanagh. The evidence for a general relationship between stride length and economy certainly does not prove that stride length has no important effect on energy expenditure. We do know that both increases and decreases in your unconsciously selected stride length results in increased energy costs. Thus, it appears that the freely chosen stride length, within the limits of forward progress (i.e. not overstriding) may be the best. Moreover, a forced longer stride demands more metabolic energy than does a forced shorter stride (Cavanagh, 1990, 287). Below are situations when it is advantageous to shorten or lengthen your stride.

• Shorten your stride into the wind and try to keep your feet on the ground as much as possible to prevent being blown backward.

• Shorten the stride when running uphill.

• Shorten the stride around tight corners or on an indoor track.

• Shorten and quicken the stride to surge, or sprint.

• Shorten and quicken the stride as the legs grow fatigued.

• Shorten the stride when running through sand, and land on the toes; try not to sink in. Accelerate before entering the sand so your momentum will carry you part of the way through.

• Lengthen the stride when the wind is favorable to achieve the maximum push by the wind.

• Lengthen the stride when running downhill. Make sure that the foot still lands underneath the hip and on the toes.

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• Lengthen the stride when running through water to stay as dry as possible. Land flat-footed and lift the knees, too.

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Stride Frequency

There have been studies attempting to correlate stride frequency with performance. We find that world class runners have a faster average stride cycle than the non-world class. This, however, is not something to overly concern yourself about. You will not become world class simply by increasing your stride frequency. A study by Matsumoto M. Kaneko and Fuchimoto A. Ito in Biomechanics X-B (Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL: pp. 803-897) found that the optimal stride frequency for economy, not speed , was 87 revolutions per minute. Yet the average stride frequency of a world class marathon runner is upwards of 95. This data may help ultra-runners (26.2 miles and up) in terms of maximum running economy. It also appears that stride frequency is only one indicator of running economy.

Stride Cross Over or Duccessation

When running in a forward direction it is advantageous to have your successive foot placements land just to the side or on an imaginary line perpendicular to that of your body's midline. The wider pelvis of women will force the feet to land at somewhat a distance from the line, resulting in slower running. Additionally, crossing the feet over the midline will result in both wasted motion, which must be counteracted by excessive arm flail, and a greater possibility of ankle, knee, and hip injury. To correct such an error, run on a painted line, watching as your foot falls.

Vertical Oscillation

“It seems logical that excessive vertical oscillation would be adversely related to energy consumption. Energy “wasted” on vertical motion might be better channeled into contributions to horizontal running speed,” says Cavanagh. However it appears that for many individuals it is possible to run economically despite having a relatively high vertical oscillation. There are at least three possibilities why this could be according to him.

“The first explanation is that it is possible that high vertical oscillation does in fact incur greater metabolic energy costs, but that this is only one of many contributing variables. The inefficiency of high vertical oscillation might be offset by other, more efficient, patterns. The second explanation could be that high vertical oscillation causes the body to adopt a sequence of movement patterns that are, in fact, more economical. For example, if a high vertical oscillation were linked to an increased stride length, perhaps the increased time to get the trail leg through to the next footstrike actually reduces the energy costs associated with the swing phase, making the entire movement pattern

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more efficient.” Lastly, the higher the vertical oscillation the more rest time in the air (while both feet are off the ground) is possible.

Once again, while the economy of the two (vertical bounce and no bounce) may be equal or play no significant role in terms of metabolic energy expenditure. It should be noted that a high vertical oscillation that results in a longer stride brings down with it more weight upon impact with the ground. The result is a quicker musculature breakdown as compared to that of a lesser bounce. Thus, for long distance races it may be beneficial to minimize vertical oscillation. One tool for learning to minimize vertical oscillation is to monitor your bounce while running alongside a fence. Through the use of your peripheral vision you can detect what changes in form are required to minimize the oscillation. Lastly, a bounce is often characteristic of the fact that the runner is overstriding. Before vertical oscillation is accepted, it should be ruled out that an overstriding does not cause it.

Arm Swing and Torso Functions

Arm action in running is synchronous with the action of the legs. Every time the left leg thrusts forward, so does the right arm, and vice versa. It is nearly impossible to run out of this synchronization. Don't believe it? Try it. Stand up and attempt to pump the arms at a faster rate than lifting the legs. Can't do it? Fortunately not, for the most important function of the arm swing is that through internal torques about the trunk's long axis, the arms and upper trunk provide angular impulses to the lower body. These torques are required for the legs to alternate through stance and swing phases. This simple action serves to reduce the fluctuations in the horizontal progress of the runner and increase the vertical lift of the horizontal plane (Cavanagh, 1990, 131). This decrease in horizontal (side to side) motion helps channel the runner's efforts into forward progress. The swinging arms help to hold the upper torso in a forward direction. Without the use of the arms the torque of the thrusting leg would tend to twist the upper body. Additionally, the arm swing positively affects vertical lift. At slow speeds the arms contribute roughly 5% to the total body lift; subtract from that the 3% lift factor of the trunk, and the legs are left with 98% of the total work at a slow running speed, according to Cavanagh. As a runner’s speed increases, however, the arms contribute in greater amounts.

The arms' role in providing lift should not be confused with that of providing drive. Research shows that arm swing does not contribute either negatively or positively to forward drive at a distance pace; and possibly only minimal drive at a sprinting pace. The action of the thrusting arm is canceled by the back swing of the other arm, says Dr. Cavanagh. Why then do coaches yell, “drive the arms” at the end of a race; or as I am well known for yelling, “arms,

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arms, arms...drive the arms!” There are two reasons: 1) the stronger the arm drive the more lift is produced and this lift will allow for a longer stride without overstriding; 2) when the legs grow fatigued, concentrating on driving the arms faster will force the legs to go with them since they are in synchronically. Especially in the closing meters of a race, where many runners find it difficult to increase their turnover, driving the arms forces the legs to turn over faster.

The arms' role in providing lift is not so essential in races of considerable duration, such as the marathon. Indeed, the goal of a truly long-distance race is to conserve energy by running economically. Studies have shown that faster runners tend to be more economical in their use of oxygen, and display efficient form as well. Perhaps there is a link here? Obviously, excessive driving of the arms requires greater oxygen volumes to fuel those contractions. Further, the goal of a marathon runner is not to take powerful, long, vertical strides, but rather short, fast economical strides, thus arm drive for races of duration should be as economical as possible, not vigorous. There are races that do require large amounts of vertical lift, making the arms critical for optimum results. Short distance races, some middle distance races, sprinting and especially hill- climbing require extra amounts of vertical lift, making increased arm drive essential.

“The angle upon which the arm travels in the forward direction is of little importance in terms of how much lift, or angular momentum is produced. The angle of the arms, may however, play a role in your running economy, drive, and stride frequency”, says Dr. Cavanagh. The classical sprinting form of the arm thrusting straight forward and back, may create some forward drive at sprinting speeds. It does not however, contribute to forward drive of the distance runner, because of our submaximal running speeds (Cavanagh, 1990, 131). As stated, where the arm drive does play a role for the distance runner is in terms of economy. There is a natural tendency for the distance runner's arms to angle in toward the midline of his body. To “correct” this might cost the runner in terms of energies spent in effort to hold the arms in a classical sprinting style. For this reason, it is acceptable, and advantageous, to allow the arms to cross over toward the midline of your body. The problem arises when you allow your arms to cross over the midline. This increases the time between arm cycles, ultimately slowing stride frequency.

Additionally, many runners allow their wrist to flail. They make circles with their hands, or as I call it they “swat flies.” This action, too, increases the amount of time required for the arms to make one cycle. This increase in time means that the runner must slow his stride frequency in order to maintain the synchronicity of his arms and legs. It takes considerably longer for the arm to thrust forward, circle, and travel back than it does to simply thrust forward and

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back. Thus, the ideal long distance running form would be to swing the arms gently, allowing his arms to cross over toward the midline of his body (not over the midline), and to keep this thrusting action on one plane (not allow the hands or wrists to flare, circle, or make any other action that would increase time).

The distance runner may also choose to pump his arms more vigorously when ascending hills, sprinting, or surging. He may choose to thrust his arms straight forward and back (sprinter style) for the finishing kick, taking advantage of the extra vertical lift produced at this speed. You should maintain your forearm to your upper arm at a ninety-degree angle. If this is done correctly, the runner's wrist should pass at the same height as his waistline, and his shoulders should be low and loose. If the runner allows his forearms to drop below the waistline (larger than a ninety degree angle) the arm turnover rate will slow, as the thrusts will take longer. If the runner allows his arm to rise higher than the waistline (less than a ninety degree angle) the result will be a decreased stride length. Thus, for both distance running and sprinting, the ideal arm position is that of a ninety-degree bend at the elbows.

The Hand Carry

The hands are of importance in distance running. They are not so important in what they can do for you, but what rather, what they can do to you if carried incorrectly. Tight or clenched fists eventually lead to slower running. The process by which such occurs is a series of connections. Tight hands lead to tight forearms, which in turn leads to tight upper arms, causing a tenseness in the shoulders, which will slow your arm turnover rate, which will ultimately slow your stride frequency, which ultimately slows you! To demonstrate this, try clenching your fist while swinging your arms in a the running pattern. You can feel the tension travel up your arm. Now see how fast you can swing your arms with your fist relaxed. Is not it noticeably faster? You can now see how clenching your fists will serve to slow your forward velocity.

There are several different ways to carry the hands; all will prove valuable at one time or another. The first is to hold the hands with the wrist straight, fingers cupped but not clenched, and thumb resting upon top of them. This carry sees the underside of the wrist facing toward the body. This is the most common hand carry. Many runners have a tendency to clench their fists. For a runner who has difficulty with this, hold a potato chip in between the thumb and forefinger; or simply make a circle out of the thumb and forefinger. This will create some tension, but is a good start in a runner's learning to keep his fists relaxed.

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The next hand carry sees the underside of the wrist facing the ground, allowing the wrists to flop freely. This carry is for relaxation only; it is not productive of faster running since the flopping decreases the turnover rate. Occasionally, in a marathon, I will utilize this form for a short period simply to alternate muscle groups, giving the biceps some rest. One other advantage to this hand carry is that it does teach a runner to keep his elbows at a ninety- degree angle.

The last hand carry is one that I personally believe is rarely, if ever advantageous. This one sees the wrist facing the body, and fingers straight. This style has become famous through use by sprinter Carl Lewis. The only known advantage is that it may help some runners learn to run a straighter line. The obvious disadvantage is the extra musculature effort required to hold the fingers straight. This effort strains the top of the forearms, and again, ultimately slows stride frequency. This method does work well for runners who need to learn to not cross the midline of their body.

Body Lean

There are two types of positions that the runner may choose to utilize depending on the circumstances of the run. The first is to run with an erect body in which the center of gravity is over the hips. This position places less demand on aerobic capacities than the second position, which is a forward body lean. However, the compromise is in speed. Where as the erect posture is more economical because the large muscles in the lower back are not used to prevent you from falling forward, a forward lean is faster and thus ideal for faster races.

When running erect you should find your feet landing underneath your hips. You should land with a heel strike, or flat footed. When running with a lean the foot will either land under the hip or behind, flat footed or on the toes; contributing to the speed of the runner. A body lean should be just that, a lean of the whole body. The lean should originate from the feet, not the waist. There should be a large angle between the Achilles tendon and the ground, as the legs are angled forward. The pelvis should be forward, and the torso in front of the pelvis. Make sure that the head is at a ninety-degree angle to the neck, and not tilted down (this would reduce air intake). At no time is it wise to lean backward, including downhill running, unless the slope is extreme enough to require this for safety.

The Head, Neck and Shoulders

The head and neck do not contribute to the runner's forward progress. Nonetheless, proper upper body form is critical. For the head, neck, and

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shoulders may severely affect the runners speed if proper form is not used. As with any part of the body not directly involved in forward progress, the head and neck should be totally relaxed. The jaw should be loose and may even gently flap with the bounce of the runner. The neck should be relaxed and the head on a ninety degree angle to the neck. Any less or greater an angle will decrease the diameter of the thorax, and will decrease the amount of oxygen uptake.

Runners often grimace with pain in attempt to let others know what he is experiencing. Know that a tightening of the facial muscles will directly result in a tightening of the neck muscles, which, in turn, will tighten the shoulders and slow down the arm turnover rate. This is why it is often said that world class runners “make it look so easy”; for they run relaxed. Squinting, too, will cause tension in the facial muscles, ultimately leading to slower performances. Thus, sunglasses are recommended on sunny days.

The arms should hang off the shoulders, and the shoulders should be low, and relaxed. A tensing of the shoulders, again, will ultimately result in slower running. For some, especially in a race, the shoulders will creep up, growing progressively tighter. It helps to let them drop by taking a deep inhalation and letting them drop upon a forceful exhalation. Reaching for the hip with the elbow will then help keep them low. A shoulder massage is of value minutes before the gun sounds; this coupled with the cue word “relax” will help reduce physical and mental tension. For more on relaxing before a race see chapter ten.

Biomechanics and Running Speed

“If one assumes that improved economy comes at least in part from increased mechanical efficiency, it seems logical that the more a runner trains at a given speed, the more finely tuned the associated mechanical movements might become. Moreover, a runner who is economical at a given speed of running will usually be economical at other speeds as well”, says Cavanagh. It is important to remember the findings of Dr. David Costill in that as our main driving muscles grow fatigued throughout the stages of a race or difficult workout, we begin to recruit the finer muscles to help maintain the effort. These finer muscles are not properly trained in the neurological pattern of the desired form. Therefore, running at race speeds or faster, in training, is beneficial in that we may begin to train those finer muscles in the desired pattern. American mile record holder Steve Scott found this to be the case. He noticed a 5% improvement in his running economy (not speed) after incorporating intervals into his formwork back in 1981 (Anderson, 1990, 26).

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Why should there be a relationship between running economy and running mechanics? The metabolic energy costs above resting levels associated with running are primarily the result of increased muscular activity in the muscles directly involved with running movements or stabilization, and with additional costs associated with increases in supportive metabolic functions (respiration, etc.). Oxygen carried in the blood is directly involved in aerobic metabolism, being a necessary component of the chain of chemical reactions that provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for the contractile process in muscle. Any alteration in movement patterns will be associated with changes in muscle activation, and this opens the possibility of either increasing or decreasing associated energy costs”, says Cavanagh. He further states, “As someone's running skill increases it is likely that metabolic energy costs will decrease. One simple explanation for this would be that the runner learns to activate only the necessary muscles. Inefficient movement patterns or unnecessary contractions are likely to increase metabolic costs without contributing to the forward progress of the runner.”

Uphill Form and Hill Bounding

Hills require a different style of running from that of flat running. The simple nature of an uphill necessitates a shorter stride, as it is impossible to allow full leg extension (your foot would smack into the hill). The action of running uphill necessitates that you put energy into bouncing up as well as falling forward. The steeper the hill, the more you are required to expend metabolic energy in a vertical fashion. Variances of the degree of steepness, the length of the hill, your fitness level, and whether you are racing or not, are some of the factors that will influence your decision to use one of the many differing types of hill running forms.

The first style of hill form discussed is that of a short hill sprint. In a typical race situation it is deleterious to sprint an uphill (see chapter sixteen). However, for training purposes, or for short hills near the end of a race, this type of form should be utilized. This style also builds sprinting speed and style. I value short hill sprints as the distance runner's best tool for the development of proper sprinting form.

This hill sprinting form calls on the feet to land both underneath the hips and on the toes. There exists a forward body lean into the hill. The knees are lifted high and then extended to a ninety-degree angle to the torso. The arms are pumped straight forward and back in classical sprinting style. The upper body remains relaxed and the head is, as always, at a ninety degree angle to the neck. This form is not economical, but it is fast. You can see its application for practicing hill repeats as it translates into faster final meters of a race. By lifting

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the knees up the hill, the runner learns to take a longer stride on the flat. By landing on the toes up the hill, the runner learns to land on his toes in a sprint. By leaning forward, essentially falling, into the hill, the runner learns to utilize a forward lean. By the flexing of the ankle upon takeoff, the runner learns to use more ankle leverage on the flat. Obviously, the advantages hills offer to the runner's final kick are desirable.

The next style of hill form should be used during workouts on hills from 200 meters to several miles long. This style is substantially more economical than sprinting form, in that it does not require vigorous driving and lifting. This form maintains the lean, but it is not as severe (you'd fall over). For hills of this length allow your foot to land flat, thereby saving the strain on your calves. Your upper body form is the same as normal. For hills of great length it is wise to transition your weight as to utilize different muscles, preventing premature fatigue of any one. You may shift these muscle groups by decreasing or increasing your stride, by leaning less or farther forward, by lifting the knees less or more, by tilting the hips forward or back, and by landing on your toes or flat footed. Still, the best method to conserve metabolic energy up a hill of any length is a technique relatively new in the running world, and still rather unknown. It is known as bounding and it uses considerably less energy than traditional hill form.

Hill Bounding

Hill bounding is a technique that utilizes the compression of your leg muscles upon impact and releases the stored energy into the vertical direction. This is much the same as a rubber ball stores energy as it makes contact with the ground, and then releases that energy to propel it vertically again. Because of contributions from this elastic storage and return, metabolic energy consumption is reduced by 30%-40% when bounding up a hill as opposed to not bounding (Cavanagh, 1990, 283). The best possible way to explain hill bounding is for you to do this simple demonstration. Stand on one leg and repeatedly jump vertically, bending at the knees to derive explosive power upon push-off. Now, bounce repeatedly by keeping your leg straight, and simply bouncing off your toes. Feel the difference? Bounding off your toes is far easier. Recall that as we run uphill we are bounding up as well as forward, and you can see the value bounding possesses.

Bounding sounds like something all runners should be aware of, yet they're not. Bounding is one of the only, and the few, real “secrets” known to distance running: though I suspect word about the value of bounding will get around sooner or later. Unfortunately, these gains are hard learned. Hill bounding is not easy to master; it requires you to land virtually straight legged,

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with perhaps a small degree of bend in the knee, landing on your toes, and springing off immediately, not allowing your foot to drop, thus wasting the energy into the ground. The arm action is jerky; it's a pulling action as much as a driving action. Remember that uphill running sees you not only stepping forward, but also upward. The steeper the hill the more vertical bounce is required. The steeper the hill the better hill bounding works.

Hill bounding is an awkward style to learn because we are not used to landing straight-legged. We are used to bending the knees, and you can't do that in a bound for you would lose the compressed energy. With much practice, on a steep hill, you will learn to master the art of hill bounding. Eventually you will find that you can use bounding, or partial bounding, up every hill. It's a good idea to transition from bounding to long hill style while conquering a long hill. This insures your calves, hams, and quads will be as fresh as possible upon reaching the top of the hill. You will also find that, with practice, you will be able to bound up a hill almost as fast as you could run up a hill, especially if the hill is steep.

Downhill Form

“Metabolic costs during running downhill are markedly lower than the costs associated with level running. Of particular interest is that while significantly less metabolic energy is required during downhill running, the combination of muscle fatigue and damage to the muscle and connective tissues during downhill running cause increased motor unit recruitment within the eccentrically acting muscles”, according to Cavanagh. So where gravity may help us in requiring less musculature contractions, it hurts us in terms of pounding and muscle-fatiguing stress.

Therefore, the logical way to run a downhill is to do so in a manner that allows as little stress possible. Fortunately, this method is also the one that will allow us to emerge at the bottom of the hill as soon as possible. Therefore, to minimize fatigue, and improve your time, just get to the bottom of the hill as fast as you can. In shorter words, race down the hill. For this, it is essential to lean forward while propelling down, not backward. The runner's natural tendency in downhill running is to put the foot forward in front of the hip to slow himself. This results in slower running, extra metabolic costs, and considerable muscle strain. Putting on the brakes is not free, but letting yourself go is. You should literally fly down the hill, feeling like you are just on the verge of being out of control. Allow the foot to land on its toes, and underneath the hip. Lean forward, and keep your trail leg behind you as long as possible, seizing all that gravity has to offer. Keep your elbows horizontal to the ground. This will allow for greater balance. This is the only economical method for

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running a downhill. For long downhills, it may be advantageous to transition your weight by making slight shifts in your lean and slightly altering your stride length and style to allow the differing muscles to take their load of the impact.

With the preceding information on hills, I hope that I have clarified that the common technique of charging a hill on the way up, and slowing down on the way down, is in fact wrong. It takes considerably less metabolic energy to bound up the hill, and then to fly down. I would venture to say that you can save up to 50% of energy in running a hill in this manner. For more on hill racing tactics see chapter fourteen.

Videotaping Form

Understanding the role that running form and economy has in determining the success of distance running, it is beneficial to know that you may change your form through the use of three tools. First, see yourself running on video; secondly, visualize the way you desire to run (chapter ten); finally, practice proper form. There are many variables to a runner's form that the camera can detect and allow you to see. By videotaping a runner's form from the front, rear, and side we can detect many attributes of a runner's form with nothing more than a video camera, a television and a protractor. In fact, all aspects of form can be measured. It is best to tape your form while racing, thereby allowing you to see your form under high duress. Additionally, we have a tendency to run with better form when we know we are being taped, during a race you will likely give less thought to the fact. Here are specifics to examine:

• Foot plant: how are you landing, flat-footed, heel, or toe? Which is best for the distance being raced?

• Any supination or pronation? Is it excessive, or worse on one foot than the other?

• Ankle flex: how strong is it; is more hill running required?

• Knee extension: can be measured by the angle of the backside of your driving leg. The closer the knee is toward being locked, the more power is derived from the stride.

• Stride angle: the angle between your legs, as measured from the crotch, at maximum distance apart.

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• A world class runner will have a stride angle of at least 100 degrees. Does the runner need to lift his knees higher into the air?

• Stride: is the foot landing underneath, behind or in front of the hip?

• Leg Cross-over: are either or both of the legs crossing the midline of the body? This will cause a loss of economy and possible injury.

• Arm cross-over: Are the arms crossing over the midline of the body? This, too, is inefficient. If there is arm cross-over, is it a result of the feet crossing over the midline? • Vertical oscillation: Is it higher off one leg than the other? If so it could be a leg length problem. Other than that, a high vertical oscillation may mean a larger stride. This can be measured using background • bleachers as a measuring tool.

• Stride frequency: The optimal stride frequency for economy (not speed) is 87.

• Lean: measure the degree of lean. It should originate from the feet.

• Arm swing: 90 degrees is ideal at the elbow.

• Torso function: How much upper body torque is there? Are the shoulders low and loose?

• Hand carry: What form are you using?

• Head position: It should be 90 degrees from the body, or straight on with no lean forward or backward.

Even without measuring angles, it simply helps to see yourself on video. Many times in the past I have told one of my runners that something needed to be corrected with their form. I would continually remind them to, “lower their arms” or “shorten their stride”, to no avail. Once showed their form on videotape, they could instantly see their mistake and began to correct it.

I have developed a chart that you may choose to fill out yourself, or coaches may decide to copy and duplicate for their athletes. I recommend doing the videotaping during a race, or, if not, during an interval workout on the track. The use of a cart or automobile helps in driving parallel to the runner to videotape him.

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FORM ANALYSIS CHART

Name______Date______Race ______

Approx Mil/min time ______Stride Frequency Per/Minute ______

Foot Plantation: Heel____ Flat____ Toes____ Other____

Foot Stability: Pronation____ Supination____ Extensive____ OK____

Ankle Flex: Degree____ Desired Degree____ Knee Extension Degree ______Desired______

Stride Angle: Degree____ Desired Degree____ Leg Cross Over Yes_____ No ______

Foot placement: Behind Hip____ Under Hip____ Front of Hip ____

Arm Cross-Over: Yes____ Degree____ No____ Elbow Angle Degree ______Desired ______

Hand carry type: ______Desired______

Vertical Oscillation Comments:

Forward Lean Comments:

Arm Carry Comments: Head Position Comments

Relaxation Comments:

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