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Comunicare Lo Spazio, Collocare La Storia UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PAVIA DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN STORIA XXVII CICLO TITOLO DELLA TESI DI RICERCA COMUNICARE LO SPAZIO, COLLOCARE LA STORIA GEOGRAFIA TEDESCA E DISCORSO POLITICO NEL XIX SECOLO Realizzata in cotutela con l'Università di Innsbruck, all'interno del Dottorato Internazionale in «Comunicazione politica dall'Antichità al XX secolo» SETTORE SCIENTIFICO-DISCIPLINARE: M-GGR/01 CANDIDATA: Isabella Consolati TUTOR COORDINATRICE Prof.ssa Marica Milanesi prof.ssa Marina Tesoro Prof.ssa Brigitte Mazohl INDICE Introduzione 1 Capitolo I IL CONTESTO STORICO, BIOGRAFICO E ISTITUZIONALE DELLA ERDKUNDE DI CARL RITTER 1. Interpretazioni dell'opera di Ritter 15 2. Ricostruzione biografica 27 3. I luoghi dell'attività scientifica a Berlino 33 4. Il retroterra della Erdkunde: il dibattito sui confini 42 Capitolo II IL LABORATORIO DI UNA GEOGRAFIA DEL MOVIMENTO STORICO 1. La Terra come totalità: filosofia naturale, teologia e pedagogia 59 2. L'elemento storico della Erdkunde 67 3. La rilettura della «teoria dei climi» 75 4. Gli «individui» geografici 81 5. La preistoria dell'umanità 89 6. Hegel lettore di Ritter 93 7. Lo spazio del futuro 106 8. Una geografia storica dei prodotti 109 9. L'India Welt an sich e Ländersystem 115 i Capitolo III ERNST KAPP: LA ERDKUNDE FILOSOFICA 1. Ricostruzione biografica 132 2. Kapp lettore di Hegel e Ritter 141 3. Geografia e storia 151 4. Geografia fisica e geografia politica 159 5. Geografia e politica 172 6. Dispotismo costituito e libertà costituzionale 190 7. Geografia della cultura 203 Capitolo IV JOHANN GEORG KOHL: LA GEOGRAFIA DEL TRAFFICO E DEGLI INSEDIAMENTI 1. Ricostruzione biografica 214 2. La geografia del traffico 234 3. La geografia degli insediamenti 252 4. Il significato politico della geografia dei fiumi 266 5. La geografia politica del fiume Reno 276 6. I confini mobili dello spazio tedesco 284 Conclusione UNA GEOGRAFIA POLITICA DEL MOVIMENTO STORICO 293 ii BIBLIOGRAFIA 1. Fonti principali 315 2. Altre fonti 319 3. Letteratura secondaria 325 iii Introduzione Uno dei tratti che più comunemente si attribuiscono alla globalizzazione è la «compressione spazio-temporale»1, cioè l'estensione, l'intensificazione e l'accelerazione delle relazioni su scala mondiale2. Dal punto di vista geografico, ciò significa che «per numerose relazioni sociali, luoghi, distanze e confini non giocano più alcun ruolo»3. A ciò si accompagna la «deterritorializzazione»4 dello spazio globale, a partire dalla messa in discussione della sovranità territoriale a favore di dinamiche sovranazionali. «La globalizzazione», infatti, «è essenzialmente sconfinamento, sfondamento di confini, deformazione di geometrie politiche»5. Di fronte a questi processi, una parte degli studi sulla globalizzazione pone l'accento sul superamento dello spazio e del tempo a favore di una sincronizzazione e di una omogeneizzazione del globo. In quest'ottica, nell'era globale non si consuma solo la fine della storia, ma anche la fine della geografia6. Se, come sostiene Marshall Berman citando Marx, «all that is solid melts into air», la misura e la scienza dello spazio non sono più geografiche7. 1 Il termine è stato coniato dal geografo marxista David Harvey. Si veda D. Harvey, La crisi della modernità. Alle origini dei mutamenti culturali, Milano, Il Saggiatore, 1997, pp. 319 ss. 2 J. Osterhammel e N. P. Petersson, Storia della globalizzazione, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2003. In particolare si veda il capitolo I «Globalizzazione»: delimitazione di un concetto, pp. 7-16. 3 J. Osterhammel e N. P. Petersson, Storia della globalizzazione, cit., p. 12. 4 J. A. Scholte, Globalization. A Critical Introduction, New York, Basigstoke, 2000, pp. 46-50. «Social space can no longer be wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and territorial borders» (ivi, p. 17). 5 C. Galli, Spazi politici, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2001, p. 133. Sulla globalizzazione si veda pp. 131 ss. 6 P. Virilio, La velocità di liberazione, Eterotopia, Milano, 2000; Z. Baumann, Dentro la globalizzazione. Le conseguenze sulle persone, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2010; R. O'Brein, Global Financial Intergration: The End of Geography, London, Chathman House/Pinter, 1992. In Sette tesi sulla storia globale, Franco Farinelli, rifacendosi alle teorie della «società in rete» di Manuel Castells, sostiene che la globalizzazione ha per la prima volta creato le possibilità affinché l'economia-mondo funzioni all'unisono come unica entità e che «proprio su tale istantaneità e complessità si fonda il carattere inedito e oggettivamente rivoluzionario della globalizzazione» (F. Farinelli, Sette tesi sulla storia globale, in «Equilibri», n. 3, 2013, pp. 513-530, p. 515). 7 M. Berman, All That is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity, New York, Penguin Books, 1982, p. 123. 1 Nell'ultimo decennio, tuttavia, ha preso forza una lettura differente della globalizzazione, che non la considera come un processo di unificazione, di annullamento spaziale, ma piuttosto come nuova combinazione di elementi già esistenti e come articolazione di differenze e gerarchie all'interno dello spazio globale8. In questa prospettiva, «far from an end to history, we may be witnessing the "beginning of geography"»9: la frammentazione e la riconfigurazione di luoghi ed eventi su ogni scala spaziale in seguito alla fine della Guerra Fredda ha una tale portata da porre lo spazio e la natura, i temi principali della scienza geografica, al centro dell'indagine sulle dinamiche globali. A questo proposito si è parlato di uno «spatial turn» e di una «reassertion of space» nella teoria politica e sociale10, che 8 N. Smith, Uneven Development. Nature, Capital and The Production of Space, Athens, University of Georgia Press, 2008, p. xii. Tra gli esponenti più importanti di questa prospettiva vi sono S. Sassen, Territorio, autorità e diritti, Milano, Mondadori, 2008: «la trasformazione epocale che chiamiamo globalizzazione sta accadendo nell'ambito nazionale molto più di quanto normalmente si riconosca. È qui che si costituiscono i significati più complessi della sfera globale; inoltre l'ambito nazionale è spesso anche uno dei catalizzatori e degli agenti dell'emergente scala globale» (ivi, p. 3). Di Sassen si veda anche Une nouvelle géographie politique, in «Multitudes», n. 3, 2000,pp. 79-96. Inoltre, si consideri David Harvey, The limits to Capital, London-New York, Verso, 2006. Per Harvey, «the annihilation of space by time» non indica la produzione di uno spazio omogeneo, ma la tendenza del capitale a superare ogni barriera spaziale in modo tale da poter sfruttare più intensivamente le differenze tra gli spazi (cfr. D. Harvey, Spaces of Hope, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2000, pp. 59 ss). Si consideri anche S. Mezzadra, B. Neilson, Border as Method, or, the multiplication of labour, London- Durham, Duke University Press, 2013: «the focus on the deep heterogeneity of the global is one of the distinguishing point we make» (ivi, p. ix); inoltre gli autori lontani dall'affermare il superamento dei confini, riconoscono una «proliferation of borders» nell'era globale (ibidem). Su questo si veda anche N. Oke, Globalizing Time and Space: Temporal and Spatial Considerations in Discourses of Globalization, in «Intarnational Plitical Sociology», n. 3, 2009, pp. 310-326, pp. 313 ss.). Questi contributi sono accomunati dal fatto di superare il dibattito sulla sopravvivenza o decadenza dello Stato nell'era globale a favore dell'analisi delle sue trasformazioni interne e del ruolo giocato dallo Stato nel promuovere i processi di globalizzazione (per un esempio precoce di questa tendenza si veda P. Taylor, Political Geography. World Economy, Nation-State and Locality, London, Longman, 1993). 9 Ivi, p. 234. Parlando di fine della storia, bisogna considerare il fatto che spesso la geografia è utilizzata, in particolare a partire dall'opera di Michel Foucault, come disciplina alternativa rispetto alla storia e capace di superare il carico di teleologia e necessità che questa porta con sé. La giustapposizione cartografica riuscirebbe, in quest'ottica, a conservare la contingenza dell'evento nella sua singolarità, senza inglobarlo in una narrazione complessiva o in un progetto. Su questo si veda il numero Geografie del potere. Spazio ed eterotopie a partire da Michel Foucault di «Materiali Foucaultiani», n. 1, 2012 e J. Crampton, S. Elden, Space, Knowledge and Power. Foucault and Geography, Burlington, Ashgate Publishing Company, 2007. Per una storia invece che pone al centro la dimensione spaziale si veda ovviamente F. Braudel, Spazio e storia, Milano, Il Saggiatore, 1988. 10 Cfr. E. Soja, Postmodern Geographies. The Reassertion of Space in Critical Theory, London and New York, Verso, 1989. Ma si consideri anche l'opera di Martin Albrow, secondo cui la globalizzazione indica una nuova epoca policentrica in cui le relazioni non sono più fondate sulla territorialità dello Stato-nazione 2 indicano una svolta epistemica in cui la geografia è diventata un sapere capace di fornire metodi e concetti a una serie di discipline differenti impegnate a studiare l'articolazione dello spazio globale11. Alcuni degli studi che pongono l'accento sulle differenziazioni interne piuttosto che sull'omogeneizzazione dello spazio globale mettono in discussione l'idea che il processo di globalizzazione implichi il superamento del ruolo dello Stato, ponendo l'accento, piuttosto, sulla sua trasformazione. Si è aperto, così, un campo di indagine che considera la consistenza attuale della statalità alla luce di processi molteplici, complessi
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