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A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details The Ghost of the Plantation: Race, Class, Gender and Popular Culture in Venezuela Nadia Mosquera Muriel Doctoral Thesis Submitted for Doctor of Philosophy in International Development University of Sussex November 2018 2 I hereby declare that this thesis has not been, and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: Nadia Mosquera Muriel 3 UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX NADIA MOSQUERA MURIEL PHD IN INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT “THE GHOST OF THE PLANTATION”: RACE, CLASS, GENDER AND POPULAR CULTURE IN VENEZUELA Abstract In the age of #BlackLivesMatter in the United States and Reaja ou Será Mortx (React or Die) in Brazil, black political mobilisations across the globe seek to confront racial injustice and structural discrimination against people of African descent or Afro- descendants. A recent wave of North American, European, and Latin American scholars has begun to look at Afro-Latin American social movements in more innovative ways. However, English-language scholarship on Afro-Latin America rarely explores Afro- descendants in Venezuela. This thesis helps fill this gap by providing an ethnographic account of what anti-racist black politics in Venezuela looks like in the post-Hugo Chávez era. Since the colonial era to the present day, race has always been assembled along class lines in Venezuela. Nonetheless, since the instigation of the anti-capitalist agenda known as “Socialism of the 21st century” by late President Chávez and current President Nicolás Maduro, political polarisation around race has increasingly surfaced in the country. Using the cases of Osma and Todasana -two villages which were former plantations and whose residents are the descendants of Africans who were subjected to slavery until 1854- this thesis illustrates how black activists and “culture-making” or cultural producers from these villages raise questions regarding race, class and gendered inequalities in Venezuela. I explore how activists in Osma and Todasana do this by showing how they problematise their identities using autochthonous resources in the local popular culture. Based on 13 months of fieldwork, this thesis draws on ethnographic methods, including interviews, life stories and participant observation with Afro-descendant activists, cultural producers and residents of these rural villages mostly inhabited by Afro- descendants. In doing so, this study explores what black politics looks like at the dawn of Venezuela's current economic crisis. This ethnography offers a portrait of the ambivalences, tensions, and contradictions through which black Venezuelan politics is articulated within an overtly socialist state. In this research, I shift the focus away from conventional practices of social movements such as mass protests, or civil disobedience to argue that popular culture is a battlefield for Afro-descendants in Venezuela. Exploring popular culture is significant because it broadens our understanding of what political mobilisation means and which resources Afro-Latin American movements draw on to achieve social justice while contesting complex ideologies of mestizaje (racial mixture), which simultaneously celebrates and masks racism. This study thus shows that anti-racist mobilisation by autochthonous popular culture is a system of political mobilisation within Afro-descendants’ struggle for social change. 4 Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 3 Table of figures ............................................................................................................. 8 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 9 Note on terminologies ................................................................................................. 10 Chapter 1: The ghost of the plantation ......................................................................... 12 1.1. The Problem ..................................................................................................... 12 1.2. The Fieldsite .................................................................................................... 15 1.3. The Ghost of the Plantation: Overview ............................................................. 17 1.3.1. Land and race ............................................................................................ 18 1.3.2 Race, class and gender in Osma .................................................................. 20 1.3.3. The contestation ........................................................................................ 21 1.4. Political polarisation and race in the Chávez and Post- Chávez Venezuela ........ 22 1.4.1. Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution (1999-present) ............................... 22 1.4.2. Venezuela’s political polarisation .............................................................. 24 1.4.3. Contemporary Racism and Political Polarisation in the Post- Chávez period ............................................................................................................................ 28 1.5. Methodology: constructing the field: Osma and Todasana ................................ 32 1.5.1. Committed Ethnography ............................................................................ 33 1.5.2. Ethics, researching race and methods ......................................................... 34 1.5.3. Access and informants ............................................................................... 35 1.5.4. Positionality: The ‘insider-outsider’ within ................................................ 37 1.6. Structure of the thesis ....................................................................................... 39 Chapter 2: Popular culture as a battlefield ................................................................... 42 2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 42 2.1.1. Locating contestations in public spaces ...................................................... 42 2.2. Race, class and gender ...................................................................................... 45 2.2.1. Race and structural racism ......................................................................... 45 2.2.2. Debates on the links between race and class............................................... 47 2.2.3. Orthodox Marxism .................................................................................... 48 2.2.4. Intersectionality ......................................................................................... 52 2.3. The Anti-black state ......................................................................................... 53 2.3.1. Blackness, Anti-blackness and mestizaje ................................................... 54 2.3.2. Mestizaje and racial democracy ................................................................. 55 2.3.3. Racial mixture through rose tinted glasses ................................................. 57 2.3.4. Busting the myth of racial democracy ........................................................ 58 5 2.3.5. White supremacy ....................................................................................... 58 2.3.6. Blanqueamiento as White supremacy ......................................................... 61 2.4. What is the political? Race, blackness and popular culture ............................... 62 2.4.1. Social movements definition ...................................................................... 63 2.4.2. On black popular culture ............................................................................ 64 2.4.3. Black social movements reload .................................................................. 65 2.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 67 Chapter 3: Contesting Mestizaje .................................................................................. 68 3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 68 3.2. Who contests mestizaje? ................................................................................... 70 3.2.1. The ‘culturalists’........................................................................................ 71 3.2.2. The ‘rebels’ ............................................................................................... 72 Labels of racial identity ....................................................................................... 75 3.2.3. Contesting mestizaje through public holidays ............................................ 75 3.3. Ideas of Race and Nation .................................................................................
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