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RIPARIAN BUFFER PRESERVATION

The growing body of scientific evidence documenting the beneficial role of riparian buffers in protecting has led to action by conservation groups and governmental bodies to preserve existing buffers. In many cases, retaining existing buffers is the most cost effective method of protect- ing waterways from runoff, pollution, streambank and destructive flooding which are often associated with unbuffered waterways. A variety of preservation tools are available to interested communities and landowners to guide and limit development along corridors. These tools can be designed to fit local conditions.

Among the approaches that have been used to protect existing buffers are: • Fee simple acquisition: purchase of the full ownership of riparian What are Development Rights? land by conservation groups or local governments • Conservation easements for land along riparian corridors • Fee simple land ownership • Municipal planning tools which incorporation riparian buffer provides landowners with a bundle preservation into the County Comprehensive Plan and an Official of rights. Each right, such as Municipality Map mineral rights, water rights, air rights or development rights, may • Riparian buffer ordinances be separated from the rest and • Development tools that promote conservation of riparian buffers transferred to someone else while during land development the original owner still retains ownership of the land. An overview of these methods will be discussed in this chapter in order to provide a basis for selecting buffer preservation options appropriate to a • A development right is a right to develop land, as distinguished specific locality. from the ownership of land

• Development rights entitle property owners to develop land Fee Simple Acquisition of Riparian Land in accordance with local Fee simple acquisition, that is, gaining the full ownership of riparian land, regulations. provides the greatest amount of control over the use and maintenance of a • Ιn some jurisdictions, these property. This type of ownership is most desirable if the resources con- rights may be sold to public tained on the land are highly sensitive and protection of the resources cannot agencies or qualified non-profit be reasonably guaranteed using other approaches for conservation. organizations through the pur- chase Some landowners may prefer to sell their land outright through a fee simple of an agricultural or purchase of a transaction because it eliminates concerns about landowner liability and development rights program. maintenance. Those who relinquish certain rights to their land (e.g. develop- ment rights, timber harvesting) through a conservation easement still maintain • Development rights may be long term liability and management responsibilities. sold to individuals or to a public agency through a transfer of Typically, fee simple acquisition of the land is through purchase or donation. development rights program. In this case, the buyer acquires a Alternatively, a municipality may seek to trade a parcel of land it owns that right to develop land on a site is less environmentally sensitive for privately held riparian land. Whether by that can accommodate a higher density. 2 2 purchase, donation or trading of land, the municipality or conservation group will hold the deed and have control over its use as well as be respon- sible for monitoring, maintenance, insurance, taxes and long term property management.

The Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) offers funds for land acquisition projects for the purpose of preserving natural and critical areas and open space through the The Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau Community Conservation Partnership Program. The funds are available to of Recreation & Conservation’s conservation groups, municipalities, nonprofit land trusts and conservancies Community Conservation to encourage the preservation of open space and natural areas either Partnerships Program through fee simple acquisition or acquisition of conservation easements. can provide communities and non-profit organizations with Lands acquired with these funds must be open to the public. the technical assistance or grant funding necessary to undertake Another option for financing the fee simple acquisition of riparian land by a conservation projects. conservation organization entails the purchase of a property that can poten- tially be subdivided. Division of the parcel and sale of the less sensitive sections could reimburse the organization for a portion of the purchase price Learn more about the Pennsylvania DCNR while maintaining ownership of the riparian area. Community Conservation Partnership Program at: Other options exist for a conservation group to impact the control of www.dcnr.state.pa.us/brc/grants sensitive riparian property. For example, a governmental entity may con- sider donating property that has been foreclosed because of delinquent taxes to a conservation group. Alternatively, the group may find a conserva- tion-minded buyer for this property in order to ensure protection of the riparian buffer. These types of transactions would benefit the municipality by putting a delinquent property back onto the tax rolls and by protecting local water resources.

Conservation Easements Purchasing an easement does not transfer the An alternative to buying riparian land is the purchase of the property burden of maintenance, owner’s right to use that riparian land for specific purposes through the insurance, taxes and purchase of a conservation easement. A conservation easement is a written management to the legal agreement between a landowner and a land trust and/or a local easement holder. government that permanently restricts some landowner rights to the use of a property in order to protect its conservation value. In determining the easement value, a real estate appraiser evaluates the monetary value of the economic activities foregone because of easement restrictions.

For example, a riparian buffer conservation easement would pay landown- ers for the economic loss resulting from restrictions to timber harvest or grazing within the designated riparian corridor. A landowner may also be fully or partly compensated for the loss of development rights through the easement price. The landowner and easement holder negotiate the details of 3 the restrictions. Not only is the purchase of a conservation easement less expensive than fee simple acquisition, purchasing an easement does not transfer the burden of maintenance, insurance, taxes and management to the easement holder. Easement holders are however, responsible for enforcing the easement, taking legal action if necessary to correct violations of the easement restriction. Locating a Land Trust The Pennsylvania Land Trust Local governments can partner with land trusts in the acquisition of conser- Association (PALTA) is a state level entity representing land vation easements. This type of relationship is beneficial in that land trusts trusts. Contact them at: often have less regulatory constraints than a municipal entity. In many 707-230-8560; instances they can act more quickly, raise tax-deductible funds for purchase email: [email protected]; and purchase at above appraisal prices. Land trusts also have more experi- www.conserveland.org/landtrust ence coordinating the acquisition process.

Some easement transactions offer tax benefits. A landowner who donates an easement or sells it for less than fair market value may be entitled to a federal income tax deduction. Such land must be used exclusively for conservation purposes. Another option is donation or a bargain sale of an easement by a landowner to a land trust. The easement is legally trans- ferred, but at no cost or at a value below-market value to the easement holder. This allows the landowner to qualify for a tax-deductible charitable donation.

Legal Aspects of Conservation Easements Although conservation easements have been recognized under common law in Pennsylvania for many years, the state legislature enacted the Conserva- tion and Preservation Easements Act in 2001 (Pub.L. No. 330) to give state authority to perpetual conservation and historic preservation ease- Pennsylvania allows property ments. The Act shifted the rules of legal interpretation in favor of the grant of tax assessments to be restricted easement. In other words, the burden of proof is now on the person who to the land use value imposed challenges the validity of an easement, rather than on the easement holder. by the covenant. A landowner who donates an easement or sells it for less than fair Pennsylvania has further supplemented PA Act 330 with Act 153, which market value is also gives authority to townships, cities, and boroughs to purchase conservation entitled to a federal easements for the protection of water resources, watersheds, and natural income tax deduction. resources such as floodplains and steep slopes. The act also allows munici- palities to use various taxing schemes to raise funds for the acquisition of open space and agricultural land.

Easements may appear more attractive to the landowner because Pennsyl- vania allows property tax assessments to be restricted to the land use value imposed by the covenant. A landowner who donates an easement or sells it for less than fair market value is also entitled to a federal income tax deduc- tion as well as an Estate Tax subtraction (see Allegheny Land Trust “Land Conservation Handbook” or Heritage Conservancy “Using Conservation Easements to Preserve Open Space”). 4 4

Landowner Liability – Liability for injuries arises if the eased or purchased land is open for public access. If that is the case, Pennsylvania has two recreational use statutes to limit the potential liability of the landowner. The Recreation Use of Land and Water Act, Act #586 of 1966, limits land- Land Use Resources: owner liability to willful or malicious failure to warn or guard against a For access to the PA dangerous condition, use, structure or activity. Municipalities Code and current bills introduced in the PA General Assembly This statute was specifically drafted to encourage landowners to make their relating to land use planning land and water areas available for traditional recreational uses, such as issues, go to: hunting and fishing. The Pennsylvania Rails-to-Trails Act, Act #188 of PA Land Use Law Library 1990, also limits liability for property owners with property surrounding or www.landuselawinpa.com adjoining a rail trail. For important news on the latest Pennsylvania land use issues, go to: Planning Tools for Municipalities 10,000 Friends of Pennsylvania The legal basis for local governments to protect Pennsylvania’s and www.10000friends.org regulate the use of the adjoining riparian land resides in the Pennsylvania Municipalities Planning Code, Act 247. This legislation sets a framework for municipality planning and specifies the types of controls that may be used to regulate land use and the acceptable purposes for which municipalities may enact land use regulation.

In the Planning Code, authority is given to municipalities to protect water Comprehensive Plans Not all of the counties in supply and enact riparian corridor protection ordinances. Additionally, many Pennsylvania have riparian features such as woodlands, historic resources, wildlife habitat, comprehensive plans or wetlands, wooded areas, and scenic vistas can be protected under the buffer zoning ordinances. Code. If you are planning to work with buffers, call first to check your municipality’s Municipalities have several avenues in which to plan for and determine land riparian buffer protection use. A County Comprehensive Plan is created to determine future regulations. location, character and timing of land development in the county and is updated every ten years. According to the Municipalities Planning Code, zoning ordinances enacted in the county are required to have general consistency with the comprehensive plan, which should contain planning for natural and historic resource protection.

An Official Municipality Map designates existing and proposed open Weed Ordinances space reservations. The map designates areas within a municipality that will Many PA communities have eventually be used for public purposes and declares the intent of the munici- antiquated weed ordinances pality governing body to purchase that land. It is a tool that can be used to that may interfere with protect existing vegetated buffers. However, municipalities are legally preserving or restoring buffers. obligated to purchase such lands within twelve months of a landowner’s Check for local regulations before starting buffer work. expressed intent to develop the land; therefore, if a municipality fails to act, the designation is null and void. 5

Municipal Riparian Buffer Ordinances

Zoning Land use ordinances define land use restrictions and plans. Zoning is one of the most common types of land use ordinances. In Pennsylvania, municipali- ties including county level entities can adopt zoning regulations. It is a tool commonly used to control the location and intensity of development. Zoning is useful in protecting public health, safety and welfare as well as guiding growth.

Zoning that protects riparian wetland buffers may be part of an existing natural resource protection ordinance, storm water ordinance or floodplain ordinance. These regulations should be reviewed for their adequacy in protecting riparian areas. An overlay zoning ordinance pertaining to riparian How Wide Should A Buffer Be? buffer protection is appropriate in a municipality that already has a zoning ordinance in place. For a municipality that does not have zoning ordinances Field Studies have shown that the water quality benefits of riparian in place, a separate, freestanding ordinance may be necessary to protect buffers increase as buffer widths riparian buffers. increase.

Components of a Riparian Buffer Ordinance - Typically zoning ordi- nances consist of two parts: a text defining the elements listed below and a Buffer widths of at least 75-100 feet have been suggested as a minimum to map of the districts zoned. A chart following this section provides informa- produce water quality benefits; tion for acquiring copies of several buffer ordinances enacted in Pennsylva- however, measurable benefits to nia. Generally speaking this type of ordinance is constructed in the following stabilization, the aquatic food web, manner: wildlife habitat and water temperature • Definition of a buffer – This section describes the location as moderation can be realized at lower buffer widths. “including creeks, , intermittent watercourses, and wetlands.” The definition should further refer to specific features of the commu- Buffer width determination should also nity to be protected such as the names of streams and ponds. It also consider: describes the functions of the buffer e.g., the removal of nutrients, • Existing or potential value of sediment, organic matter, and other prior to the resource to be protected • Site, watershed and buffer entry into surface water. characteristics • Legislative intent/purpose of the ordinance – This section • Intensity of adjacent land use provides a rationale for the regulation using scientifically proven • Specific water quality functions benefits of riparian buffers for community benefit. Ordinances and habitat goals desired should clearly tie health, safety and welfare issues to any ordinance so that the requirement cannot be seen as an arbitrarily applied These considerations should be “taking”. weighed along with the concerns for • Definition of buffer boundary – Depending on the goals of the property owner rights when strategies buffer, there are many different approaches to defining buffer width, for buffer preservation are considered. boundaries and allowable activities. Examples include: o Zoned buffers– designates minimum distances for stream- side zones, middle zones and outer zones with the most restrictions placed on the streamside areas; typical width for the streamside zone is 25 feet, 50 to 100 feet for the middle 6 6 7

and 20-30 feet for the outer zone; o Designated width based on stream size or order, adjacent land slope, or relationship to floodplain, wetland or ease- ment boundaries, and greenways; Riparian Buffer o Buffer averaging – allows for variable buffer widths within a Ordinance Terms: development site; allows developers to narrow the buffer width at some points if the average width of the buffer Overlay Zoning District: meets the minimum criteria; streamside zones should not be A designated area within a municipality that contains a encroached upon. unique characteristic. The overlay is an amendment that • Specified quality of in buffer – A list of appropriate adds a riparian buffer overlay native and shrub species may be created by the municipality, as zone in addition to or supersed- well as rules concerning minimum plant density. ing the underlying zoning district(s). The overlay zone • Permitted uses within the buffer – Permitted uses may include can span more than one zoning passive use areas, livestock crossings, and streambank stabilization. district and can impose more Ordinance language typically allows tree removal by the property restrictive regulations than those owner as part of normal maintenance so long as the disturbance is in the underlying zoning district. under a determined square footage. Land uses would again be primarily passive. • Uses specifically prohibited in riparian buffer – These restric- Takings: tions could be specified by buffer zone. In the zone closest to the Takings are an exercise of stream, the ordinance might prohibit all removal of plants except governmental authority in invasive plants and those presenting a hazard to safety or property. restricting a property owner’s use of his property. To minimize a Restrictions applied to all zones may include clear cutting of vegeta- charge of takings, a riparian tion and storage of hazardous or noxious materials. buffer ordinance should include • Regulation of nonconforming structures and uses – Noncon- wording in the legislative intent forming structures and uses are those that legally exist prior to to justify the buffer on the basis adoption of the ordinance. Their regulation under the ordinance of sound science and concern for public safety and health. should be defined. • Procedures to file for appeals or exemption – Include proce- dures to follow for those property owners wishing to file appeals or to seek exception from, or modification to, particular sections of the Net Out Regulations: riparian buffer ordinance. The technique of deducting environmentally constrained • Delineation requirements – Ordinances can require that buffers lands, such as wetlands, steep appear on clearing and grading plans and that they be physically slopes, floodplains and wood- delineated on site to protect the integrity of the buffer during con- lands, from the total developable struction; a pre-construction meeting to review any site constraints area used for development that may impact a buffer can also be required. density calculations. It is intended to protect and preserve • Buffer management and maintenance – Ordinances can clearly environmentally sensitive land outline post-construction maintenance responsibilities. In buffer particularly in areas that are management and maintenance agreements, allowable activities nearly fully developed and where can be listed, authority to inspect a buffer can be defined and there is greater development conditions under which a landowner is responsible for repairs pressure on environmentally sensitive land. can be described. 8 8

Case Studies in Buffer Ordinances

Some municipalities in Pennsylvania with riparian buffer ordinances are listed below. This list is not exhaustive and is meant to provide an assortment of examples for reference.

Municipality Ordinance Title How to obtain a Copy

Upper Salford Township RCC – Riparian Corridor Upper Salford Township Phone: Montgomery County Conservation Overlay District (610) 287-6160 Web: http://www.dvrpc.org under Regional Planning, then Municipal Natural Resource Protection

Horsham Township Stream Corridor Horsham Township Phone: Montgomery County Protection Ordinance (215) 643-3131 Web: http://www.dvrpc.org under Regional Planning, then Municipal Natural Resource Protection

Kennett Township Natural Resource Kennett Township Phone: Chester County Protection Ordinance (610) 388-1300 Web: http://www.dvrpc.org under Regional Planning, then Municipal Natural Resource Protection

Warwick Township Riparian Buffer Easement section Warwick Township Lancaster County of Stormwater Ordinance (717) 626-8900

Radnor Township Riparian Buffer Radnor Township Phone: Delaware County Conservation Ordinance (610) 688-5600 Web: http:// www.radnor.com then New Additions

Upper Salford Township - Upper Salford Township in Montgomery County adopted a Riparian Corridor Conservation Overlay in 1999. This very specific ordinance establishes an overlay district along waterways and wetlands. A working group with the help of the Montgomery County Planning Commission drafted the ordinance. It is a very detailed and specific ordinance that defines clearly the types of water bodies and watercourses that are covered by the overlay district. Township officials have found that the specific language has prevented legal challenges to the ordinance. The ordinance sepa- rates the riparian area into two zones with zone one being a minimum of 25 feet and zone two a mini- mum of 50 feet. Permitted land use in each zone is itemized in the ordinance, as are prohibited uses.

Horsham Township - Horsham Township in Montgomery County passed a Riparian Corridor Preser- vation Ordinance in 1998 as part of its Environmental Ordinance. At the time the ordinance was enacted, the township was approximately 60% developed. A board of interested parties was formed to develop the ordinance and address citizen concerns in its initial draft. The ordinance uses the Horsham Township Open Space Plan to identify all waterways protected by the ordinance. Like the Upper Salford ordinance, two zones are defined with a minimum width of 25 feet for zone one and a minimum 9

width of 50 feet for zone two. Land uses and prohibitions are specified by zone. The Zoning Hearing Board is responsible for hearing petitions for exceptions.

Horsham Township has put a lot of effort into encouraging citizens to restore riparian vegetation. They have incorporated citizen groups into local park riparian restorations and used these plantings as models for other organizations. Free consultation is also given to citizens to help them design riparian plantings. A display about riparian vegetation has been placed in the Township building’s lobby.

Kennett Township - Kennett Township in Chester County protects sensi- tive natural areas including streams with a Natural Resource Protection Ordinance. The ordinance restricts development within two zones delin- eated as a riparian corridor, prohibits filling, building, or channeling the Property Value Benefits floodplain and requires Pennsylvania DEP and U.S. Army Corps of Engi- of Riparian Buffers neers approval of restricted activities in a delineated wetland. A national study found that Warwick Township - Warwick Township is located in Lancaster County in riparian buffers were thought the Lititz Run watershed. As part of Warwick’s Storm Water Ordinance, a to have a positive or neutral Riparian Buffer Easement provision was enacted to control land use along impact on adjacent property values in 32 of 39 communities riparian corridors. The easement requires a minimum 35 foot zone (mea- surveyed.1 sured from the centerline of the watercourse) and requires the preservation of existing vegetation and “the planting of additional native , shrubs and other plant material as determined necessary in order to create a suitable In a national study of ten riparian canopy and understory” within the buffer easement. The planting programs that diverted development away from requirements are based on published practices and guidelines. The ease- flood prone areas, researchers ment is incorporated into the deed of all newly developed property and in discovered that land next to some cases is also written as a separate specific agreement between the protected floodplains had landowner and township. increased in value by an average of $10,427 per acre.2 When the easement provision was enacted in 1999, it codified and man- dated what had been initially a voluntary riparian buffer restriction in the 1Schueler, T.R., Site Planning for township. Township officials have found that early intervention in the plan- Urban Stream Protection. Center for Watershed Protection, ning stage of land development is key to acceptance of the easement by Ellicott City, MD 1995 developers. The township will identify properties with applicable riparian 2Burby, R., Cities Under Water: areas and work with the developer in the early planning stages to protect A Comparative Evaluation of and perhaps restore the . Open space and trails along water- Ten Cities’ Efforts to Manage Floodplain Land Use. ways in a newly developed property have been well-received amenities by Institute of Behavioral Science #6, homebuilders and developers. Boulder, CO 1988

Radnor Township - On December 8, 2003, The Riparian Buffer Conser- vation Ordinance was adopted by the Board of Commissioners. This new zoning ordinance in Radnor Township, Delaware County was designed to protect streams, wetlands, pond edges, shore or any area of hydric soil. Though the township is almost completely built-out, the new ordinance 10 10 imposes flexible setbacks for established homes and regulates any further development of larger properties in the township by establishing a manda- tory buffer of 35 feet. An initial public hearing enabled citizens to express concern about the impact of the proposal. The township revised the ordi- nance to reflect these concerns and held a second hearing before adopting the ordinance.

Landscape Regulations Landscape regulations can be used to protect existing vegetation in a riparian corridor. This type of ordinance may protect designated existing vegetation or specify the planting of native vegetation in protected areas. These “tree ordinances” have historically focused on specimen trees that are old or rare; however, they have the potential to be used to protect existing What is a Riparian Corridor? stands of . A riparian corridor is a perennial or Streambank Setbacks intermittent body of water, its lower Similar to overlay zoning, a streambank setback establishes a corridor along and upper banks, and the vegetation streams that may not be developed. It leaves open other, non-built options that stabilizes its slopes. for using the setback zone making it less protective than a riparian buffer zoning ordinance. It includes the channel plus an adjoining strip of the floodplain, usually 100 feet on each side of the Development Tools that Promote Conservation of channel. Riparian Buffers

Article V of the Municipal Planning Code grants municipalities the power to What does a Riparian control the development of subdivisions. Municipalities can take a regula- Corridor Do: tory or incentive-based approach to protect riparian areas in new develop- ments. The degree of riparian area protection is likely to vary with the • protects the waterway from approach. Best results occur when a municipality identifies riparian areas to erosion and sedimentation protect early in the planning stage of a new development. Intervention • provides cover and shade during early planning stages often promotes good will efforts from the developer. Amenities such as greenways or trails along stream corridors that • maintains wildlife habitat result from municipal intervention can benefit the developer as well as protect the water resource as these green spaces can enhance the desirabil- • filters out air and ity of property within a new development.

Conservation Development/Open Space Development Conservation or open space development provides the developer with the As much as 80% of in option to develop a property using smaller lot sizes and/or providing for runoff and shallow ground water higher densities in return for retaining open natural space. Minimum lot sizes, can be reduced after passing setbacks and frontage distances are relaxed to provide common open through a riparian zone. space. When carefully designed, open space developments can be compat- ible with adjacent land uses, preserve natural areas and be highly desirable places to live.

A property may be developed in such a way that the upland areas are 11 developed leaving an adjacent riparian corridor undeveloped. Sensitive natural resources such as stream corridors can be part of the “net-out” of environmentally constrained lands during development. These areas are deducted from the total land to be developed before permitted density for Transferable Development the land is calculated. Rights Brandywine Conservancy’s publica- tion, “Transfer of Development Under DCNR’s Growing Greener initiative dealing with conservation Rights: A Flexible Option for subdivision design, a variety of density options are designed to fit zoning Redirecting Growth in Pennsylva- districts that are nearly urban to nearly rural. Training programs conducted nia” outlines steps for developing a by the Natural Lands Trust are available to municipalities to learn how to successful TDR program. apply these open space principles to local ordinances. A Conservation www.brandywineconservancy.org Planning Workbook provides a wealth of technical information and ex- 610-388-2700 amples of municipalities that have adopted this approach.

Transferable Development Rights A tool to be aware of when introducing new zoning restrictions is Transfer- able Development Rights (TDR). TDR is based on the concept that devel- opment should be redirected from areas where it is not appropriate (sending zone), to areas where it is more appropriate (receiving zone). This redirec- tion of development rights, usually expressed as residential dwelling units, are sold to developers in the same manner that land is sold. TDR provides off-site rather than on-site density compensation.

The right to develop can be sold from one property and applied to another Stormwater Credits less environmentally sensitive property that could accommodate increased A series of six stormwater credits development densities. This technique is newly authorized in Pennsylvania are provided for Pennsylvania and has been utilized by several municipalities. designers using non-structural practices to reduce water impacts on site. Corridor Management Planning A corridor management plan may be required of any new development to They include: ensure protection of sensitive riparian corridors during the planning stage. • Natural Area Conservation It addresses the long term objectives and management of the riparian • Disconnect of Rooftop Runoff • Disconnect of Non-rooftop Runoff corridor. • Sheet Flow to Buffers Density Bonuses and Penalties • Grass Channel Developers can be awarded increased building densities for developments • Environmentally Sensitive that conserve natural areas, such as riparian corridors. Conversely, munici- Development palities can employ density penalties to encourage conservation of natural areas. A jurisdiction could establish a minimum and maximum density and permit the higher density to a developer that plans for natural areas and Appendix D: “Stormwater Credits for Effective Site Planning”; open space techniques while lowering the allowable density for develop- www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/ ments that do not incorporate preservation of natural areas. watermgt/wc

Stormwater Credits A stream buffer can be used as a stormwater credit, which is a technique that developers can use to reduce their stormwater management costs. These techniques reduce runoff volumes, which helps to avoid the 12 12 construction of costly stormwater management facilities. A stormwater credit for a stream buffer would be given when runoff from upland areas is treated by a grass or wooded buffer. Pennsylvania’s new stormwater management protocol now allows for stream buffer credit areas. Runoff treated with a stream buffer may be deducted from the calculation of total site area when computing the volume of stormwater runoff that must be stored and treated.

Additional Resources

Allegheny Land Trust. “Land Conservation Handbook.” Pittsburgh, PA. 1995

Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. “Streamside Buffer Monitoring Protocol: For Maryland’s Tributary Strategies Teams.” Baltimore, MD. 1999.

Brandywine Conservancy, Environmental Management Center. “Transfer of Development Rights: A Flexible Option for Redirecting Growth in Pennsylvania.” Chadds Ford, PA. 2003.

Center for Watershed Protection. “Better Site Design: A Handbook for Changing Development Rules in Your Community.” Ellicott City, MD. 1998.

Goldstein, Debra Wolf, Esq. “Using Conservation Easements to Preserve Open Space.” Doylestown, PA.

Montgomery County Planning Commission. “Guidebook for Riparian Corridor Preservation” Norristown, PA. June 1997.

The Streamside Forest Buffer. EPA Chesapeake Bay Program, “Chesapeake Bay Riparian Handbook: A Guide for Establishing and maintaining Riparian Forest Buffers.”

Funding provided by:

Pennsylvania Department of through Section 319 of the federal Clean Water Act administered by the U.S. Environmental Agency.

The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of EPA, DEP, or any of its subagencies.

printed May 2004