White Paper on Nordic Sustainable Cities

Luciane Aguiar Borges Kjell Nilsson Moa Tunström Asli Tepecik Dis Liisa Perjo Anna Berlina Sandra Oliveira e Costa Christian Fredricsson Julien Grunfelder Ingrid Johnsen Iryna Kristensen Linda Randall Lukas Smas Ryan Weber white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 1 White Paper on Nordic Sustainable Cities

Borges, L. A.; Nilsson, K.; Tunström, M.; Dis, A. T.; Perjo, L.; Berlina, A.; Costa, S. O.; Fredricsson, C.; Grunfelder, J.; Johnsen, I.; Kristensen, I.; Randall, L.; Smas, L.; Weber, R. (2017)

Available online at: http://www.nordregio.se/nordicsustainablecities

Nordic Co-operation is one of the world’s most extensive forms of regional collaboration, involving Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland. Nordic co-operation has firm traditions in politics, the economy and culture. It plays an important role in European and international collaboration, and aims at creating a strong Nordic community in a strong Europe. Nordic co-operation seeks to safeguard Nordic and regional interests and principles in the global community. Common Nordic values help the region solidify its position as one of the world’s most innovative and competitive.

Nordregio is a leading Nordic and European research centre for regional development and planning, established by the Nordic Council of Ministers. We conduct solution-oriented and applied research, addressing current issues from both a research perspective and the viewpoint of policymakers and practitioners.

Stockholm, Sweden 2017

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 2 Preface

‘Nordic Sustainable Cities’ is one of six flagship Urbanization accelerated about 100 years ago projects within Nordic Solutions to Global Chal- in Europe and North America, but significantly less lenges, an initiative launched by the Nordic prime intensely than in the present day. During the latter ministers. part of this development phase, after the Second As the Nordic urban model is founded on the World War, the Nordic Region became a model for values of environment, equality, openness and ef- urban planning. Professionals and politicians from ficiency, the initiative should contribute to spread- all over the world came to Vällingby, Albertslund ing Nordic approaches to good and sustainable and Tapiola to study how suburbs could develop as urban development across the world. Nordic Sus- modern urban forms supporting a high quality of tainable Cities directly links to the United Nations’ life. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11: Make Continuously pursuing ways to address con- cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. It temporary challenges, the Nordic urban model also contributes to other SDGs, such as 3: Ensure remains highly appreciated internationally. The healthy lives and promote well-being, 5: Achieve Nordic Region offers high-quality urban solutions gender equality, 6: Ensure access to water and based on strengths such as good governance, pub- sanitation, and 13: Take urgent action to combat lic–private partnerships, design tradition, environ- climate change and its effects. mental and social consciousness, and robust tech- By 2050, 66% of the world’s population is ex- nological solutions. Even in the development of pected to live in urban conurbations. The World small and medium-sized cities and in the interplay Resources Institute has estimated that, between between town and countryside, the Nordic Region 1995 and 2030, cities in Asia, Africa and Latin can be an example to the world. America will account for 90% of an estimated The aim of Nordic Sustainable Cities is to global population growth of 2.7 billion. Urbani- strengthen the Nordic brand, add value to existing zation is thus a worldwide phenomenon. From a trade promotion efforts, through Nordic co-oper- global perspective, one of the biggest challenges is ation, and expand the market potential of Nordic to create a sustainable and inclusive environment businesses. The project, which is co-ordinated by for the growing urban population. Nordic Innovation, is carried out in close co-oper- While cities are strong drivers of economic ation with national export organisations, clusters growth, they do experience several problems, such and businesses. The current White paper, devel- as crime, housing shortage, youth unemployment oped by Nordregio, presents the background story and segregation, while also having substantial cli- supporting inclusive, safe and sustainable Nordic matic and environmental impacts. cities.

Dagfinn Høybråten Kjell Nilsson Secretary General of the Director of Nordregio Nordic Council of Ministers

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 3 Scope

This white paper tells the story of Nordic Sustain- may inspire alternatives or solutions to address able Cities. This story relies on shared norms and some of the challenges outlined in the 17 Sustain- values and on a set of initiatives, policies, tools and able Development Goals (SDGs) identified in the instruments identified in cities of the Nordic Region Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN, 20151), that may offer solutions for sustainable futures. especially goal number 11: ‘Make cities inclusive, Beginning with these values and tools, a set of safe, resilient and sustainable’. ‘practices’ are acknowledged and brought together This is a positive story that focuses on good to highlight certain features to show what a sus- practices and examples from the Nordic Region. tainable city might be from a Nordic perspective. Nevertheless, dealing with the complexity and dis- This story brings together practitioners, public putes that surround the term ‘sustainability’ while authorities and private actors in a common nar- maintaining the necessarily high level of generali- rative with a twofold aim. First, common knowl- zation to create the overall framework has been a edge is formed, in which competences from vari- major challenge in writing the story. In this respect, ous sectors are acknowledged and allow actors to the term ‘sustainability’ is understood to refer to make sense of their roles and opportunities for ac- practices that to some extent respond to envi- tion on sustainable urban solutions. Second, such ronmental, social and economic challenges. How- a narrative creates space for communication and ever, this perspective disregards how equally these negotiation, facilitating learning and encouraging three sustainability aspects have been achieved in synergies between actors from different sectors a certain initiative or project. Nor does it consider searching for and implementing sustainable urban the consumption perspectives that certainly influ- solutions. As a platform for the range of Nordic ence overall sustainability. This study highlights solutions for sustainable cities, this story invites some good Nordic projects or initiatives to inspire stakeholders to discuss and develop ideas about other countries without claiming to be the one and the feasibility of implementing these solutions in only model of sustainability. diverse contexts. Despite these challenges, many lessons were The added value of a common story that tran- learnt in the process of writing this story. The dis- scends national boundaries is based on the belief cussions of the contents in a range of forums have that the Nordic countries are stronger together. been enlightening with respect to how it could be They combine a range of competences that offer interpreted and used in various contexts. These valuable solutions for sustainable cities in regard debates have also contributed to reshaping some to energy, transport and buildings. In addition, of the content and to understanding the future di- this story reinforces the perception that other rection of Nordic sustainable urban development. countries outside Europe have about the Nordic In this respect, we extend our sincere thanks to all countries, which places Swedes, Danes, Finns, other co-authors of this story—interviewees and Icelanders and Norwegians under the common participants in the focus groups, the Nordic City label of ‘Nordic’. By realizing their potentialities Network (NCN), the Nordic Built City Jury (see Ap- and exploring their possibilities and opportunities pendix 1), the participants in the workshops held for joint action, the Nordic countries are expected in Stockholm, Copenhagen, Oslo and Helsinki and to engage in discussions with other cities in the our colleagues at Nordic Innovation —for sharing world. These cities can adapt Nordic solutions that their opinion and perspectives.

1 [UN] United Nations (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Online available at: http:// www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E. Retrieved in 15 December 2016 white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 4 Contents

Preface...... 3

Scope ...... 4

1. Introduction...... 7 1.1. Urbanization...... 7 1.2. Methods...... 8

2. NORDIC VALUES...... 10 2.1. Introduction...... 11

3. NORDIC TOOLS...... 13 3.1. Introduction...... 14 3.2. Spatial Planning Systems...... 15 3.3. Public–Private Partnerships...... 17 3.4. The Role of Civil Society...... 18 3.5. Corporate Social Responsibility...... 20 3.6. Innovation...... 22

4. NORDIC PRACTICES...... 24 4.1. Introduction...... 25 4.2. The Inclusive City...... 27 4.3. The Healthy City...... 30 4.4. The Resilient City...... 33 4.5. The Compact Green City...... 36 4.6. The Mobility City...... 39 4.7. The Low-Carbon City...... 42 4.8. The Circular Economy City...... 45 4.9. The Smart City...... 48 4.10. The Design City...... 52

5. THE NORDIC SUSTAINABLE CITY...... 56 5.1. Final considerations...... 57

References...... 59

Appendix 1...... 70

Appendix 2...... 73

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 5 List of figures Figure 1: Nordic Values...... 12 Figure 2: Nordic Governance Tools...... 14 Figure 3: Nordic practices...... 25 Figure 4: Nordic Sustainable City - framework...... 56 Figure 5: Telling the story to build cohesion among actors in the Nordic Region...... 57 Figure 6: Telling the story to other audiences outside the Nordic Region...... 57

List of tables Table 1: Document analysis – cluster of main themes...... 26

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 6 1. Introduction

1.1. Urbanization Efforts towards sustainable urban futures are Worldwide cities have been growing at fast pace, also mirrored in policies at different levels. Sup- half of the world population lives in cities and pro- porting a shared story about the Nordic Sustain- jections suggest that 66% of people will live in ur- able City, the Nordic Council of Ministers brings ban areas by 2050 (UN, DESA, 2015). Between together the competences that the different 2014 and 2050, an additional population growth countries and territories of the Nordic Region al- of 2.5 billion urban dwellers is expected, with ap- ready have in regards to sustainable solutions to proximately 90% of this development taking place urban environments. Beyond creating a platform in Asian and African cities (UN, DESA, 2015). for communication, knowledge exchange, sharing While cities have proven to be powerful driv- norms and values and developing trust and com- ers of economic growth they have also been source mitment between different actors, this initiative of several problems. Seventy-five per cent of the may also generate synergies between different natural resources are consumed in cities which sectors persuading the development of new inven- also account for 80% of global greenhouse emis- tive sustainable urban solutions. sions (UN 2011). In addition, crime, homelessness, The strong tradition in co-operation in the youth unemployment, social unrest and social seg- Nordic Region also extends to other levels. Cross- regation are challenges that generally take place sectorial, triple-helix collaborations have been, for in urban environments. many years, a practice firmly established in Nor- These facts suggest that the fast urban dic countries. Creative solutions and the ability to growth has been accompanied by unsustainable link different actors involved in specific processes patterns, that cannot be maintained in the future. are characteristics that have enabled the Nordic Thereby, one of the biggest challenges, in a global Region to become a leader in innovation. Citybusi- perspective is to create sustainable environments ness in Finland is an example of a partnership in for the rapidly expanding urban population. This, which six major cities had enabled companies to however, implies shifting our understanding about use public data and develop digital interfaces that cities from merely consequence of growth to op- advances competences in different fields (e.g. portunities to respond and resolve environmental public participation, urban mobility, exchange of and social challenges. services). This initiative has created opportunities Despite problems and challenges that the for companies to innovate, develop and test new cities of the Nordic Region have, they have been products, while the public sector and communities performing well in many aspects related to ur- also profit from solutions that facilitate everyday ban sustainability. Copenhagen, for example, has life and make cities more efficient. established ambitious targets of becoming car- The symbiosis between individual behaviour bon neutral in a quite short term future (City of and consciousness about environmental problems Copenhagen, 2009). Oslo will have a car-free city is supported by urban policies and initiatives that centre by 2019 as a strategy to slash greenhouse enable sustainable solutions. In Copenhagen, for gas emissions. In addition, new technical build- example, cycling is encouraged by bike paths that ing codes, product requirements, eco labelling of stretches for long distances in different directions products, as well as innovative tax and incentive and in Helsinki platforms for collaborative con- schemes have been created and implemented sumption2 and efficient mobility3 are becoming in the Nordic Region settling high standards for more popular. energy efficiency. These efforts to meet sustainability are pushing technological developments, 2 https://www.sitra.fi/en/news/most-interesting-finnish-companies-circular-economy/ increasing social awareness and leading to many 3 http://www2.liikennevirasto.fi/julkaisut/pdf8/lts_2015-56_maas_ alternative solutions to urban challenges. services_web.pdf white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 7 Thus, cities in the Nordic Region have been organized with the aim of covering groups that developing a set of initiatives, policies, tools, and had been involved with issues of sustainability in instruments that have potential to offer solutions cities of the Nordic Region. Academics, practition- to sustainability challenges. Therefore, by telling a ers from local authorities, civil servants and com- common urban story, communicating good prac- pany representatives working in the energy field, tices and sharing experiences, cities in the Nordic smart cities, transport, planning, architecture and Region might be contributing towards the UN Sus- design, climate change and waste sectors were in- tainable Development Goal number 11: ‘Make cit- terviewed and/or took part in the discussion (see ies inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’. Appendix 1). The questionnaire template for the interviews 1.2. Methods set the scene by exploring tools, methods and pro- The methods employed to write the story include a cesses that in the opinion of the interviewees could literature review, semi-structured telephone inter- influence policies and practices regarding sustain- views and focus group discussions. able urban development in Nordic cities (Appendix The literature review has continued through- 2). The interviews also provided access to addi- out the stages of this white paper. In October tional material (e.g. websites, reports, presenta- 2016, relevant documents in the field of urban tions and examples of best practices) that facili- sustainability at different policy levels and in vari- tated further understanding of particular areas of ous contexts (global, European and Nordic) were expertise. consulted. Some of these documents were the The responses of the interviewees were ana- UN habitat III new urban agenda (UN, 2016), the lysed to identify recurrent themes. This process United Nations sustainable development goals included deconstructing the interview notes and (UN, 2015), the Urban agenda for the EU—Pact of transcriptions as well as the notes from the focus Amsterdam (EU, 2016), publications of the Nordic group discussions to obtain insights and develop- Working Group for Green Growth, Sustainable ing an open coding system and linking these codes urban regions (NWG4) (Smas et al. 2016), The or units of data to form overarching themes and Nordic Eight (NCM, 2012), Nordic urban strengths associated concepts. and challenges (Norden, 2015), Faglig råd for Twenty-four experts took part in the two fo- bærekraftig byudvikling (Professional advice for cus group discussions, co-organized by Nordregio sustainable urban development) (Kommunal- and Nordic Innovation. Fifteen members from dif- og regionaldepartementet & Miljøverndeparte- ferent fields (e.g. academics and private actors) mentet, 2013), the Nordic Built Charter (Norden, participated in the discussion held in Copenhagen 2012), Nordic urban ways (Engström, 2016) and (4 November 2016), while nine professionals (e.g. the Market analysis and action plan (Ramboll, planners, architects) affiliated with the Nordic 2016). The systematic review of these documents City Network joined the discussion held in Malmö was useful for understanding the strengths and (21 December 2016). challenges of urban sustainability in the Nordic The focus group discussions were important Region (see Table 1). These documents also out- for the initial exploration of stories and for iden- lined some aspects of the identity of cities in the tifying possible themes and sectors in the Nordic Nordic Region. Between April and June 2017, 14 re- story of sustainable urban development. They searchers from Nordregio specializing in a variety created a framework for dialogue, knowledge ex- of fields such as mobility, bio-economy, innovation, change and experiences from which a variety of planning, digitalization, circular economy, climate perspectives on urban sustainability in the Nordic change adaptation, green infrastructure and ar- Region emerged. chitecture undertook an in-depth literature review Together with the analysis of major docu- to explore each of these aspects in relation to the ments, the interviews and focus group discussions cities in the Nordic Region. highlighted three features that were most rele- Forty semi-structured interviews and two fo- vant to the ‘story’ of Nordic sustainable cities: cus group discussions were conducted between November 2016 and March 2017. While the inter- n Nordic values: the roots of sustainability, viewees were identified through snowball sam- n Nordic tools: enabling sustainability, and pling (e.g. Babbie, 2010), the focus groups were n Nordic practices: urban sustainable outcomes. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 8 This framework—also called the core story of the with branding representatives from Sweden, Den- Nordic Sustainable Cities—has been presented mark, Finland and Norway in Oslo (10 May 2017). and discussed in workshops organized by Nordic Both events were organized by Nordic Innovation. Innovation held in various capital cities: Stockholm An additional workshop, organized by Nordregio (16 March), Copenhagen (29 March), Oslo (4 April) to present the story to the Nordic City Networks and Helsinki (11 April). During these workshops, ac- (NCN), was held in Malmö (16 June 2017). tors from private and public sectors provided input The discussions with a range of actors helped to shape the story of Nordic Sustainable Cities. us to revise some of our initial assumptions, sharp- The development of this framework also prof- ening our arguments and improving the content of ited from a discussion with the Nordic Built Cities the story. Jury held in Malmö (29 April 2017) and a meeting

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 9 2. NORDIC VALUES Roots of sustainability

Pictures from norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 10 I am proud of being a member The welfare state flourished after World War of Nordic democracy. II, and for many decades social stability was sup- The public realm is needed to ported by progressive income taxes and an egali- create a democratic city, which is tarian supply of public services which raised living standards in the Nordic countries (Kokko and very important in planning. Tingvall, 2007). Even today, despite globalization MONICA VON SCHMALENSEE; and internationalization, the welfare society still CEO AT WHITE ARCHITECTS provides social insurance and many forms of social services (Lindbom, 2001). The longevity of 2.1. Introduction the welfare state lies in the administrative struc- Working-class movements have had a great influ- ture, which is characterized by the autonomy of ence in shaping the values and qualities that un- local governments and a robust central govern- derlie Nordic society (Alestalo et al., 2010; Roth- ment. With a large public sector, this structure has stein and Stolle, 2003). In fact, the negotiation of strengthened local democracy and the participa- tensions between labour and capital was the driv- tion of civil society in political affairs; it has been ing force in the establishment of the welfare state. identified as one reason for the low levels of cor- The labour unions (1881) and farmers’ movement ruption in the Nordic countries (Lindbom, 2001). (1918) in Sweden and the formation of independ- The values shared by the Nordic countries ent workers’ associations back in 1847 in Denmark have also been influenced by their long history of are examples of the early organization of social transnational regional co-operation. In 1907, par- movements. liamentarians from Sweden, Denmark and Nor- Accordingly, the Nordic countries implemented way already co-operated on issues related to so- social benefits quite early for the working class. cial policy. In 1919, Copenhagen hosted the first of For example, in the late 1890s, Denmark, Finland many regular joint meetings of senior political ad- and Sweden already had insurance schemes to ministrators. Nordic Social Statistics was estab- cover industrial accidents. Through a series of re- lished in 1946, and the free Nordic labour market forms in 1891, 1922 and 1933, Denmark implement- in 1950. Collaborations on various issues paved the ed the National Pension System. Sweden adopted way for the establishment of the Nordic Council in a similar system in 1913 (Alestalo et al., 2010). 1952. Throughout these years, the Nordic Council Beyond pushing the implementation of universal promoted joint action, projects and research, rais- social security schemes, popular movements have ing the Nordic perspective in European and global strengthened collectivism, contributing to shaping debates, thus shaping and consolidating the iden- a relatively non-hierarchical society. These move- tity of the Nordic Region. ments are also regarded as a major school for For all these reasons, the Nordic Model is ac- democratic and organizational training and were knowledged in academic, political and mass media crucial in mediating a smooth transition to democ- discourses. The positive connotations of this model racy in the Nordic countries (Rothstein and Stolle, are strengthened by Nordic countries’ strong per- 2003). formance in global rankings regarding openness, These universal schemes, which extended so- trust, equality, environment and happiness. The cial rights to the entire population rather than only State of the World’s Mothers Report of 2015 (Save to those in need, have also helped to prevent the the Children, 2015) recognizes the Nordic countries exclusion of less affluent people while nurturing as the best places in the world for women and chil- social solidarity among diverse people. They have dren to live. placed group interests over individuals, while cre- The fruit of historical processes, these values ating a shared recognition that all people are vul- and qualities are thus part of the identity of the nerable to risks (Alestalo et al., 2009). Therefore, Nordic societies and are very important for the the principles of equality, universalism and democ- sustainability challenges that societies face today. racy form the basis of the well-functioning Nordic With legitimacy at the individual level, values such society (Alestalo et al., 2009). They also explain as democracy, trust, transparency, openness and why Nordic countries are frontrunners in support- care for nature were highlighted by many of the ing human rights, which even today are not upheld interviewees as central to the story of the Nordic in some countries around the world. Sustainable Cities. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 11 Nevertheless, five values were selected as part n Openness and a belief in everyone’s right to ex- of the Strategy of International Branding of the press opinions Nordic Region (NCM, 2015), which describes a com- n Trust in each other, and because of proximity to mon platform of shared Nordic strengths in the power, trust in leaders of society form of characteristics and values. Figure 1 illus- n New ways of thinking, focusing on creativity trate the Nordic values. and innovations n Sustainable management of the environment and development of natural resources (NCM, 2015)

Thus, equality, openness, sustainability, creativity and trust are the values and qualities chosen to tell this story. These values have shaped the relationship between the state and the people and between the state and corporations, and they have influenced individual and collective behaviour. For this reason, they lie at the centre of this story.

Figure 1: Nordic Values

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 12 3. NORDIC TOOLS Enabling sustainability

Pictures from norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 13 The strong policy system and regulations give voice to different opinions not only to the private developers (…). The planning process includes communicating the proposals for development with the public through showings, meetings and discussions. However, it is quite a slow process since decisions must be discussed and regulated.

TONJE FRYDENLUND, MANAGING DIRECTOR AT SNØHETTA

3.1. Introduction As discussed in the previous sections, the princi- Figure 2: Nordic Governance Tools ples of democracy, equality and universalism have shaped the intimate relationship between people and government, and thus exert a strong influence Despite differences in the spatial planning sys- on the overall institutional framework of the Nor- tems of the Nordic countries, the strong power dic Region. In fact, institutions function both as and autonomy of the local level is an important constraints and as primary instruments of change common factor in all of them. This has enabled a of socio-economic behaviour. As such, they per- straightforward channel between people and gov- form an important role in mediating transitions to ernment, for example, by facilitating the allocation sustainable futures. of resources to areas or issues that are in line with Governing for sustainability implies bringing the needs of local communities. people and their differences together. It requires Public–private partnerships highlight the rise co-operation, negotiation and management of of neo-liberalism and new public management but dissimilar interests to seek joint solutions that represent a participative turn in policy and plan- integrate economic, social and environmental as- ning (Bogason, 2000; Bucchi and Neresini, 2008; pects of an issue. In this respect, the inheritance Cass 2006). They offer an opportunity for the pub- of collaboration and collectivism also shapes good lic sector to overcome budget deficits by sharing preconditions for the implementation of sustain- risks with the private sector while upholding public able solutions. interests. Partnerships between public and private The interviews and focus groups highlighted actors are complementary, and often deemed nec- the importance of governance tools to mediate essary for sustainable urban development. and enable the implementation of sustainable Civil society acknowledges the role of people, solutions. Based on these arguments, five govern- non-governmental agencies and other associa- ance tools or preconditions that establish a frame- tions that are active in the production and repro- work for action for actors in various contexts were duction of urban environments. Perhaps inspired deemed crucial in the implementation of sustain- by the history of popular movements that made able solutions in the Nordic context. Figure 2 illus- the Nordic countries social policy pioneers, bot- trate these tools. Government, public and private actors, civil Inclusion of the private sector society and companies have networked in innovative ways, seeking alternatives to achieve sustain- – Creating public – private able outcomes in cities of the Nordic Region. Spa- partnership with the inclusion of tial planning is a governmental instrument that public participation. co-ordinates various aspects of socio-economic ANNA LOUISE HØJBJERG HENRICHSEN, development across different sectors of society. PUBLIC AFFAIRS MANAGER AT DANFOSS white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 14 tom-up initiatives remain present in public debate co-operation between levels, care for the environ- and policy-making. In addition, civil society can in- ment and social responsibility. The importance of fluence the decision-making process through par- these tools for governing for sustainability is fur- ticipatory governance. ther developed in the following sections. Socially responsible business models, partnerships and investments can also deliver sustainable 3.2. Spatial Planning Systems solutions for cities by focusing on organizational Comprehensive, regulatory and with a governance, human rights, just labour and fair op- strong local level erating practices, the environment, sustainable Nordic planning systems have often been de- consumer issues, and community involvement and scribed as comprehensive and mature, with a development, including health, safety and gender systematic, hierarchical and rational approach to issues. Companies are then the actors driving ini- spatial planning (EC, 1997). In the Nordic coun- tiatives towards sustainability. tries, spatial planning is primarily done by local Innovation plays a significant role in enabling municipal authorities through comprehensive mu- sustainable societal transition. Innovations are in- nicipal plans and local development plans. Nation- tended to create societal value and contribute to al ministries and state authorities are mainly re- social, economic and ecological sustainability. Op- sponsible for guiding spatial planning frameworks portunities for innovation include open and inclu- and directives and supervising issues of national sive relationships and collaborations with and be- interest, whereas the intermediate regional level tween various actors, as they all have important often is marginal. Although there are many simi- roles in channelling resources in a sustainable di- larities, there are also differences both within and rection to create change for a better future. between countries, and systems are continuously For many years, these initiatives have borne being reformed and adapted to changes in society. fruit in the Nordic context and have proven to be Local municipal authorities are the indisput- effective in delivering sustainable outcomes. The able planning authority in the Nordic countries. story of the Nordic cities is thus reinforced in a In Sweden, it is often claimed that there is a lo- context characterized by innovative solutions, cal planning monopoly, which implies that the mu-

Roofs in Helsinki. Source: Johannes Jansson/norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 15 Nordic cities are well planned and Sweden only have regional plans for the capital and well kept, due to in large regions. Iceland does not have a regional adminis- part to the municipalities planning trative level, but associations of municipalities can produce guiding regional plans. Greater Copenha- monopoly gen is governed by the internationally known Fin- MADELEINE NOBS, BUSINESS DEVELOPER ger Plan, which is a national directive that guides AT NCC BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION COMPANY urban development along five transport corridors, with green wedges in between. Stockholm has a nicipality has the right to decide when and where regional plan that is produced by the Stockholm development will take place. The most important County Council in accordance with the Planning local planning instruments (which exist in various and Building Act. The regional development plan forms in all Nordic countries) are comprehensive for the Stockholm region specifies that regional municipal and local development plans. In princi- development should focus on urban and regional pal, all land in the Nordic countries is covered by a cores. However, there are also many more informal compulsory comprehensive municipal plan. These spatial initiatives at the regional level across the comprehensive plans that should steer land- use Nordic countries that accompany more general re- and the spatial development of the municipality gional policies and programmes. are generally binding for the local development How the national ministries and state authori- plans, except in Sweden, where the comprehensive ties guide, intervene in and supervise local plan- plan is only a guiding instrument. A local develop- ning processes differs between the Nordic coun- ment plan is generally needed for all urban devel- tries, depending partly on government systems opment, even if a building permit (outside urban and the traditional relationships between the na- areas) can be granted based on the comprehen- tional ministries and state authorities. However, sive plan. there have been new developments in this area Participation in the planning process at the lo- as well. For example, in Norway and Finland (and cal scale is rather extensive in the Nordic countries, to some extent, in Sweden), new innovative forms and is regulated by national planning framework of contractual arrangements between larger city acts. For example, the generation of local devel- regions and state authorities are emerging to co- opment plans typically includes public exhibitions ordinate land use, transport and housing. In the and hearings, as well as opportunities for stake- last few years in Sweden, Denmark and Norway, holders to appeal (Fredricsson and Smas, 2013). A the responsibility for spatial planning issues has plan is usually prepared by local planning depart- shifted toward ministries responsible for business ments (often in co-operation with private develop- and entrepreneurship rather than for environ- ers) and approved by a local political committee or mental or social affairs. This is one indication of council. In Norway, private developers can prepare a general shift toward spatial planning facilitat- a local development plan, which is then reviewed ing growth and not being an obstacle to economic and approved by the local planning authorities. development. The often rather extensive public and bureaucratic The comprehensive regulatory, rational and process do however create tensions with needs for hierarchical planning tradition is still strong in the efficiency and new forms of market oriented man- Nordic countries. However, more flexible forms of agement, between “input legitimacy and output strategic, market-oriented planning approaches efficiency” (Mäntysalo et al, 2011). In both Den- have emerged as well as (and parallel to this) more mark and Norway, the comprehensive municipal communicative and participatory methods and in- plans, which because of their comprehensiveness are often rather time and resource consuming to produce, so they have been complemented with The systematic approach more flexible planning strategies. to planning is especially Regional planning in the Nordic countries is a important because it brings field of policy experiments and regional govern- predictability. ance in the Nordic countries are becoming more JUHA KOSTIAINEN, SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT, divergent (Røiseland et al, 2015). Finland and Nor- SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT way have statutory regional plans, but Denmark AT YIT CORPORATION white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 16 itiatives to spatial planning. These different devel- are vertical or horizontal. Vertical relationships re- opment paths have created interesting tensions fer to more traditional forms of co-operation, such within the dynamic field of Nordic spatial planning as purchaser-provider models, whereas horizontal systems (Smas and Fredricsson, 2015). relationships involve less hierarchical networks between the public and private actors (Hanssen, 3.3. Public–Private Partnerships 2012). In practice, public–private-partnerships Co-operation between sectors and actors often include characteristics of both vertical and Public–private partnerships may be able to con- horizontal relationships. tribute to sustainable urban development, in- Globally, reaching the UN Sustainable Devel- crease efficiency in urban planning and develop- opment Goals requires new innovative financing, ment processes and ease the financial burden on especially for new infrastructure projects. To reach the public sector. Public–private partnerships are these global goals, public–private partnerships are practised across the Nordic Region through vari- seen as possible way to attract resources that can ous levels of institutionalized co-operation that supplement limited government financing (Shar- range from loose co-operation via binding part- ma, 2017). The Sustainable Development Goals nerships to joint organizations. Fund includes public–private partnerships as one In urban planning and development, public– of the three issues that cross-cuts all of its pro- private partnerships typically refer to more or less grammes, and it emphasizes the importance of formalized arrangements and forms of co-op- joint efforts and shared responsibilities between eration between public planning authorities and governments and businesses to reach sustainable private developers. For example, there are many development. different models of public–private partnerships Increasing co-operation between public and related to financing and the degree of risk aver- private actors in urban development is high on the sion. In theory, public–private-partnerships can be agendas of Nordic countries. Internationally, there divided into two types based upon whether the re- has been a great deal of focus on using public– lationships between the public and private actors private partnerships to finance large-scale infra-

Energy and Water workshop. Source: Johannes Jansson/norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 17 Planning that goes hand However, there are challenges in implement- in hand with public-private ing public–private partnerships in the Nordic Re- partnerships is the way we do gion, where the ideals of citizen participation and openness are central. Partnerships between public city planning. We bring private authorities and private companies are often ac- sector consultants, city staff and companied by the implication that secrecy and residents together at a very early decreased transparency will limit the possibilities stage in the design process. It is for public influence (Mäntysalo and Saglie, 2009). an ongoing dialogue, and you get There is also a risk of public–private partnerships a whole different output. A major focusing on economic sustainability at the expense part of the dialogue occurs in the of environmental and social sustainability. Large- scale urban development projects may focus on conceptual phase. I think that has increasing land values and profits at the expense a considerable impact. There is of liveability and sustainable living environments massive involvement and you carry (Schmidt-Thomé, 2015). out numerous workshops months The role of the public sector in setting up well- before the design phase starts. In functioning institutional frameworks in Nordic that sense there is an imbedded countries is essential to ensure that public–private partnerships contribute to development that is democratic structure behind the economically, environmentally and socially sus- Nordic model. tainable. For example, in broad co-operation with KLAUS LEHN CHRISTENSEN, public and private actors and local citizens and as- DANISH CLEANTECH HUB - NYC sociations, the City of Malmö has developed and adopted a model for the regeneration of urban ar- structure projects, but Nordic countries have also eas that ensures inclusive and efficient planning. focused on public–private partnerships in urban Nordic and Baltic approaches to combining pub- development projects. Municipalities play a rela- lic–private-partnerships with citizen participation tively strong role in Nordic urban planning. Many are also being developed in Norrköping, Turku, Riga municipalities now see it as increasingly important and Tallinn (Perjo et al, 2016). to involve private developers early in planning processes, primarily to make these processes more 3.4. The Role of Civil Society efficient. Side by side with the State Policy exchanges and other types of co-oper- Civil society has a relatively long history and es- ation between Nordic countries have been impor- tablished position in the Nordic countries—as an tant for learning about different forms of public– organizer of leisure activities and as a dialogue private partnerships (e.g., Smas et al, 2015). For partner with the government in regard to social example, the concept of “partnership planning” is and political issues. There are also philanthropic used in Finland to describe a variety of models in organizations that help, educate or empower peo- which municipal and private actors co-operate to prepare detailed plans and construction plans. The aim is to shorten the planning process and bridge We use dialogue effectively the temporal gap between plan approval and the as a tool. We involve people start of construction. In Denmark, partnership early in the process as an inspira- agreements in combination with so-called qual- tion for planning. We facilitate ity programs have been used as practical tools for dialogue and discussion. We use public–private co-operation in urban development digital tools, we invite people, we projects. In Norway, private developers are already allowed to propose local development plans, and have a network in the neighbour- this has had a significant impact on public–private hoods. We facilitate the bottom relationships and led to other forms of govern- up process. ance, such as active land politics and joint develop- TINA SAABY, CHIEF CITY ARCHITECT ment companies. OF COPENHAGEN MUNICIPALITY white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 18 Planting in urban gardens in Helsinki. Source: Benjamin Suomela / Norden.org ple in need. Civil society is an arena in which groups The public realm is needed and organizations come together for a common to create a democratic city purpose, idea or interest, for knowledge exchange, which is very important in planning. and for political, social and cultural activities. It has the potential to be an arena in which people MONICA VON SCHMALENSEE, CEO AT WHITE ARKITEKTER of different socio-economic backgrounds meet as equals. On this arena, there are for example non- racy, and it therefore carries promises related to profit and non-governmental organizations, foun- sustainable development, particularly to the social dations or trusts, religious organizations, social aspects of sustainability. Civil society can also be networks or other types of temporary collabora- an arena for trying out new solutions on a small tions or associations of people or groups. It is of- scale that can later be scaled up and commercial- ten dominated by voluntary and unpaid work, but ized. It is possible to use study circles or small asso- that of course depends on the size of the organi- ciations focused on a particular theme to apply for zation and its funding. Organizations can receive government funding, develop knowledge and ideas public funding or fund their activities via donations and give voice to certain interests or perspectives, and membership fees. such as local urban development. Civil society can become especially visible in In Sweden, the temperance movement, the extraordinary circumstances, such as when the worker’s movement and the unions and the non- flow of refugees to the Nordic countries increased conformist churches are often seen as having been dramatically in 2015; organizations and individuals central to the development of voluntary and social came together to help with food, money, informa- engagement in the early 1900s. In Norway, col- tion, housing, etc., and new aid organizations were lective and voluntary work is described as having initiated. This is one example of how organiza- emanated from premodern times and the traditions in civil society can challenge or scrutinize the tion of collective work in and for the local village government. Also, associations require meetings, (Brochmann & Rogstad, 2004: 329). Habermann protocols, note taking and transparency—that is, and Ibsen described the Danish voluntary sector in the learning and practicing of local democracy. In the following way: academic terms, civil society is focused on build- “The voluntary sector personifies personal free- ing social capital and safeguarding local democ- dom, social community and the fight for human white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 19 rights, is the fertile soil for self-help, empower- 3.5. Corporate Social Responsibility ment and integration, and functions as a school Nordic companies have global reach and for democracy” (Habermann & Ibsen, 2005: 6). responsibility They also state that the Nordic welfare state has Nordic cities are global cities. Thus, a genuine claim given rise to myths about the abilities of the State to the “sustainable city” title must transcend the that have somewhat obscured the importance physical boundaries of the city itself to consider of the voluntary sector in the Nordic countries. the broader, often global implications of the ac- In Denmark the voluntary sector is becoming in- tivities that occur within it. Private actors play an creasingly professionalized. However, there are important role in this work, both through their in- still traces of certain senses of morality, a certain dependent activities and by their increased pres- organization of work and certain understandings ence in the public sphere through public–private of the individual and the collective. Today, the no- partnerships. As such, the presence of socially re- tion of civil society must be broadened from tem- sponsible companies is an important precondition perance, workers’ rights and religion to include for the Nordic Sustainable City. The ‘responsibility such issues as women’s shelters, environmental of enterprises for their impacts on society’ is gen- education, sports and leisure activities, local urban erally referred to as corporate social responsibility development, urban gardening, neighbourhood (CSR) (EC, 2011). As a concept, CSR first emerged events, cultural exchange and language training in the U.S. around the middle of the twentieth cen- for immigrants. tury as a market-driven idea focused on aligning Civil society organizations in the Nordic coun- social responsibilities with profitability (Carson et tries often are complementary to the responsi- al., 2011; Gjølberg, 2010). In practice, the simulta- bilities of the government or to commercialized neous pursuit of social and economic goals in Nor- services. That means that they can organize and dic business has a much longer history.4 As out- campaign for interests, such as in the case of the lined in the Nordic Strategy for Corporate Social temperance movement, religious organizations or Responsibility, the current Nordic vision for CSR is amateur sports associations. It also means that that the ‘[i]ntegration of social, environmental and they can mediate the relationship between the ethical concerns into business operations and core State and the citizens, such as in the case of trade strategy in dialogue with stakeholders will become unions or tenants’ organizations. However, in most mainstream practice’ (NCM, 2012: 6). cases, it does not mean that they take over gov- Broadly speaking, two approaches to CSR ernmental tasks. Consequently, in the Nordic coun- are evident – implicit and explicit. Implicit CSR tries, civil society is central to the development of is typically associated with Europe and involves society, both in terms of values and with respect companies fulfilling their social responsibilities by to certain practices. The Nordic network for civil operating within broadly accepted institutional society organizations (SOU, 2016) claims that be- frameworks (Carson et al., 2015). By contrast, ing a strong civil society that influences decision- explicit CSR is more commonly associated with making is a Nordic characteristic. North America and involves companies them- Government funding of civil society organiza- selves identifying social goals and developing poli- tions is not only a means of support for voluntary cies to pursue (Carson et al., 2015). Historically, work, but also a means of control. This presents Nordic companies have adopted an implicit ap- a potential challenge for NGOs, in that they must proach to CSR (Strand et al., 2015), but more re- at the same time be both dependent on and inde- cently, scholars have noted a shift toward a more pendent of the State. Another challenge is manag- explicit approach (Carson et al., 2015; Gjølberg, ing co-operation with the State in welfare services 2010). Although there are challenges associated without being properly funded. With respect to with taking a concept developed in one cultural the traditionally strong and highly trusted Nordic context and applying it to another (see Gjølberg, welfare state, giving responsibilities to and having 2010), there are also benefits. A more explicit ap- confidence in civil society can be interpreted not proach allows Nordic businesses to be more ex- only as empowerment, but also as the govern- pressive with respect to the way their corporate ment trying to reduce its burden by placing it in the hands of voluntary and unpaid labour. 4 For a comprehensive example, see Ihlen and von Weltzien Hoivikor’s (2015) account of the history of CSR in the Norwegian context. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 20 Hellenes Group, Hellenes house of Technology in Førde, Norway Source: Oddaleiv Apneseth/ Norden .org

Traditionally there is a clear the sustainability of the city by taking responsibil- division of responsibility in ity for the broader implications of the goods and services consumed within it. the energy sector’ Alongside its global governance role, there is a ANNA LOUISE HØJBJERG HENRICHSEN, PUBLIC AFFAIRS local dimension to CSR that has received consider- MANAGER AT DANFOSS ably less attention in the Nordic Region. This disre- gard appears to be connected to the implicit roots values are shaped by sustainability goals (Carston of CSR described above. Historically, the strong et al., 2015), and provides scope for Nordic practice role of the State in the Nordic countries, along- to act as a source of inspiration for other parts of side a cultural context that promotes consensus the world (Strand et al., 2015). and stakeholder collaboration, created a model of Some scholars argue that through its adop- state-market-society relations in which CSR was tion in the Nordic context, the concept of CSR has (implicitly) implied (Carson et al., 2015; Strand & undergone something of a transformation (Gjøl- Freeman, 2015). Although this legacy remains, the berg, 2010). The most notable element of this structures that underpin it have undergone sub- transformation is that a Nordic perspective posi- stantial transformation in recent years, not the tions CSR almost exclusively as a tool for global least of which is the increasing role of private com- governance (see Gjølberg, 2010; NCM, 2012). Thus, panies in the provision of public sector services. understanding the role of CSR in enabling sustain- The inclusion of social and environmental goals in ability in Nordic cities means conceptualizing “the public procurement processes has strong poten- city” within its global context as described above. tial as a practical tool for promoting CSR in the For example, both H&M and IKEA have partnered context of this change locally, as well as abroad. with Save the Children and UNICEF to address Examples can be found in the recent work of the challenges related to child labour (Strand & Free- Nordic Council of Ministers on green public pro- man, 2015). Similarly, Norsk Hydro is working with curement (e.g., Bauer et al., 2016), and in research Amnesty International to train their managers by Swedwatch5 into labour conditions in global and employees to deal with human rights issues in the various countries in which the company op- erates (Strand & Freeman, 2015). Although these 5 Swedwatch (www.swedwatch.org) is an independent, not-for-profit organization that reports on Swedish business relations abroad, with a activities take place elsewhere, they contribute to focus on social and environmental concerns.

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 21 supply chains (Sjöström & Scott Jakobsson, 2016). Clear environmental focus, CSR can also be a useful tool to promote local pro- high level of trust between duction. By marketing themselves as socially and businesses and the public sector, environmentally responsible, companies can jus- education and good governance. tify the higher cost of locally produced goods to Tolerance, putting all various consumers (Carson et al., 2015). types of stakeholders together 3.6. Innovation to find the best solutions, Support for technological and sustainable distributive power, being able to innovation make compromises and being Innovation can be defined as a new combination open for innovations (…) of existing factors, including ‘new things’ as well JONAS TÖRNBLOM, DIRECTOR MARKETING as ‘new ways’ of combining things, and it can be AND COMMUNICATION AT ENVAC GROUP AB specified as new goods (product innovation), new methods of production (process innovation), the In Nordic countries, the process of knowledge cre- exploitation of new markets, new sources of sup- ation is very concentrated. Cities play an integral ply and new organizational models (Schumpeter, part in innovation generation, contributing to the 1934; Fagerberg, 2005: 6). In other words, innova- creation and diffusion of tacit knowledge, which tion is not a single event; it is a process of inter- is most effectively shared within a common geo- active knowledge exchanges between innovation graphical and social environment. system components such as public agencies, in- In the Nordic context, innovation has histori- dustrial partners and research institutions. In this cally played an important role in providing novel framework, cities emerge as suitable seedbeds of solutions for sustainable urban development. The innovation as they bring together different actors, innovative nature of the Nordic Region can be knowledge bases and competences, thereby facili- largely attributed to a strong collaborative culture tating the generation and diffusion of innovation. and interactive learning between actors and sec-

World Circular Economy Forum , Helsinki 2017. Source: Heidi Orava / norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 22 tors that mediates the creation and implementa- technological innovation that emerges through tion of technological and social innovation. This a range of interactive processes for the develop- attitude stems from the belief that joint efforts ment and diffusion of knowledge elements, which have a more positive impact on society than do are essential for creating economic value (Edquist, individual efforts. Consequently, public and pri- 2002). Nordic countries are leaders in digitaliza- vate agents engage in co-operation for ‘the mu- tion, including in the area of public services. The tual benefit of social development’ (Fogelberg & digitalization of society’s various functions by Thorpenberg, 2012). Promoting and strengthen- means of modern technology significantly facili- ing co-operation between companies, universi- tates the transformation and upgrading of public ties and public actors – the so-called triple helix services in Nordic cities. This approach to innova- model (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 1997) – is widely tion reflects the Nordic welfare state model that practiced in all Nordic countries to create efficient has long favoured cross-sectoral collaboration to innovation systems. Nordic governments take a foster innovation and competitiveness and its long particularly active role in technology and innova- history of social movements (e.g., labour move- tion policy by supporting the establishment of in- ments). The introduction of a social dimension in novation centres and facilitating industry–univer- welfare services and organization has led to inno- sity interactions (e.g., through different forms of vation activities in the Nordic countries that are public–private innovation partnerships). primarily directed toward promoting social pro- In pursuit of innovative solutions to problems, gress rather than technology per se. Nordic countries have always relied heavily on

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 23 4. NORDIC PRACTICES Sustainable outcomes

Pictures from norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 24 Energy issues (efficiency and transition to bio- ment that ‘the natural environment underlines the sources), green structures, water and air quality, urban development of Nordic cities’ was based on and Nordic design were some of the issues that the preservation of green edges and the protec- emerged from this analysis. The Nordic Charter tion of aquatic ecosystems seen in the urban form (Norden, 2012) and Sustainable Development Ac- of Stockholm, Helsinki and Copenhagen. The con- tion—The Nordic Way (NCM, 2017) also influenced sistency between the literature review and good the selection of practices. While the 10 principles examples also revealed the main competences of highlighted in the Charter provided goals for inter- the Nordic Region in implementing sustainable ur- ventions in urban environments, the Sustainable ban solutions. The outcome of the interviews and Development Action explained the relationship be- focus group discussions also influenced the choice tween the five goals and 16 objectives outlined in of these practices. Figure 5 illustrates the practices. the Nordic Strategy for Sustainable Development (NCM, 2015) with the SDG goals. Further emphasis on both documents is expected to highlight the Nordic perspective. This process indicated nine practices/outcomes: inclusive, healthy, resilient, compact green,

The free, relaxed and informal tone between authorities, housing companies, and developers – it’s all about dialogue.

PEDER BALTZER, CHIEF CITY ARCHITECT, MUNICIPALITY OF AALBORG.

mobility, circular economy, low carbon, smart and design. These labels (e.g. inclusive, healthy, smart) have often been applied in the literature on urban sustainability. For example, a ‘smart city’ is defined as ‘a city performing well in a forward- looking way in economy, people, governance, mobility, environment, and living, built on the smart Figure 3: Nordic practices. combination of endowments and activities of self- decisive, independent and aware citizens’ (Giffin- ger et al., 2007). Nevertheless, the main idea of these labels was to highlight the key qualities and The human scale - based on characteristics of cities in the Nordic Region in re- a long history of fellowship lation to these themes. Therefore, the question: ‘In what ways can the inclusive city (or healthy, resil- and on the Nordic welfare model – ient, compact-green, etc.) be characterized in the accommodates all. Nordic context?’ guided the literature review and HOLGER BISGAARD, SENIOR ADVISOR research of good initiatives/projects implemented AT THE DANISH BUSINESS AUTHORITY in the cities of the Nordic Region. This question highlights the Nordic distinctiveness in various areas that intersect in the sustainability of urban en- 4.1. Introduction vironments, but the challenges that cities from the This section describes and discusses Nordic prac- Nordic Region face are not overlooked. tices. As shown above, Nordic values and tools are A particular quality and/or characteristic was interrelated; these practices can be understood as judged valid if it could be found in cities of at least a combination of both. For example, one can ar- three Nordic countries. In this respect, the argu- gue that values such as democracy have enhanced white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 25 the participation of civil society in decision-making tainability at the global, European and Nordic in the planning process, thus delivering inclusive levels were initially consulted. Based on the main practices in cities of the Nordic Region. issues identified in these documents, a cluster The choice of these practices followed a non- analysis was performed to identify associations linear process that encompassed the interplay and patterns among the documents (Macia, 2015). between a literature review, research on good ex- Table 1 illustrates part of this process. The differ- amples and Nordic distinctiveness. Six documents ent colours indicate the recurrence of themes in that were influential in the debates on urban sus- the different documents.

Table 1: Document analysis – cluster of main themes

UN Habitat III EU Urban Nordic Built The Nordic Professional Market analysis NORDIC New Urban Agenda Chart Eight advice for SUD & action plan PRACTICES Agenda (EU,2016) (Norden, 2012) (NCM,2012) (Kommunal - (Rambøll, 2016) (UN,2016) og regional & Miljøvern- departementet, 2013)

Social Inclusion of Made for Growing Compact Architecture The inclusive function migrants and people compactly and growth and design city refugees efficiently

Participatory Air quality Innovative Transport Protect nature Climate The healthy performance adaptation city

Gender Urban poverty Qualities of Street lighting: Sustainable Conceptual The resilient equality nature intelligent transport planning and city technologies solutions development

Economic Housing Zero emissions Energy: moving Walkability Energy The growth from fossil solutions compact fuels green city

Territorial Circular Nordic design Water Active and Governance The mobility functions economy tradition protection attractive city public open spaces

Urban Jobs and skills Built to last Smart Support ICT solutions The low mobility in the local information business and carbon city economy management culture

Disaster risk Climate Utilises local Behaviour: Urban planning Planning and The circular reduction adaptation resources Changing for climate, construction economy attitudes health and services city environment

Protect Energy Collaboration The role of Redevelop- The digital ecosystems transition across borders the national ment projects city and disciplines authorities

Sustainable use Scalable Housing Transports The design of land concepts city

Urban mobility Profitable Sustainable Water and building Sanitation techniques

Digital Support urban transition research

Public procurement

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 26 4.2. The Inclusive City There is a willingness to invest Developing the city with a social awareness in “feel good environments”. Social inclusion and ambitions for a just city are People have the same willingness central to urban sustainability in the sense of social equality between citizens, equal opportunities and contribute making good urban to live and work in the city and the reduction of so- environments to hang out with cial conflicts. In the Nordic context, three aspects families and friends. of an inclusive city will be highlighted in the follow- SVERRIR BOLLASON, ing section – inclusive public spaces, participatory PLANNING CONSULTANT AT VSO planning and housing policy. centres often attract a relatively mixed crowd, Inclusive public spaces including people who are shopping, seeking enter- Public spaces in Nordic cities are relatively well tainment or participating in cultural events. In ad- designed and open, both in terms of physical ac- dition, although the privatization of public spaces cessibility and low “entrance fees” in economic and does happen in Nordic cities, such as with closed social or cultural sense. It is possible to claim that shopping centres, there is still a strong emphasis the “right to the city” for all citizens has long been on the necessity of open squares, parks and open an urban planning ambition. First, in post-war ur- and accessible urban waterfronts. ban planning, there was a strong desire to create a built environment that encouraged a democratic An inclusive planning process society as well as a democratic citizenry. This took Participatory planning practices are believed to the form of small-scale neighbourhoods with gen- contribute to more democratic societies. Propo- erous open green spaces, and small local centres nents argue that citizen participation increases with commercial, public and cultural amenities, the transparency of planning processes and makes all of which were intended to encourage social in- it possible for experts to include a diversity of us- teraction, education and democratic values. To- ers’ knowledge and experiences. Furthermore, it day, these spaces are still important for political builds social capital and can lead to greater par- functions, social events and commercial and pub- ticipation by groups that would otherwise have lic services. Second, with his focus on the “spaces weak political influence in society (e.g., Kugelberg between the buildings”, the influence of Danish & Trovalla, 2015: 16–17; Lindholm et al., 2015). architect Jan Gehl on Nordic cities can be seen in Common challenges associated with partici- the region’s emphasis on human scale and people- patory planning processes include the risk that the oriented urban design. positions of participants with an already strong In recent decades, Nordic cities have been political voice will be strengthened, as well as the quite ambitious regarding accessibility and safety potential for disappointment if citizens feel that in public spaces. Strategies for accommodating their views were not considered in the way that people with physical or cognitive disabilities have they had envisioned. Another issue is related to been developed in both urban planning and de- the political system of representative democra- sign. There is a Nordic charter for universal design cies: what role do “parallel” participatory pro- (Björk, 2014), and the planning processes in the cesses play in the formal political decision-making Nordic countries has checkpoints to ensure that process? the interests of these populations are considered In Nordic countries, planning and building leg- in the design of physical environments and their islation provides opportunities for the public to ex- amenities. Children and parents, the elderly and press their views on ongoing plans. Public debates others who need assistance with public trans- in the 1960s included critiques of rational planning port and other means of travel in the city are also as dominated by experts. Critics pointed to the considered; everyone should be able to cross the need to include the everyday life experiences of street, rest in the park or orient themselves safely citizens in urban development (Listerborn, 2015). in the city. In the 1980s and 1990s, public hearings were in- Nordic cities also use urban design and plan- cluded in the planning process by law. In the last ning to create a social mix. By combining functions few decades, there have been many experiments and types of commercial and public services, city at the local level to develop methods to include white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 27 Ved stranden 18, Copenhagen. Source: Yadid Levy, Norden.org the public in planning processes (e.g., Kugelberg & idea of housing as a right. This is addressed either Trovalla, 2015; Lindholm et al., 2015). In Sweden, through public housing or through needs-tested this has sparked debates about how to safeguard social housing. However, there are differences be- citizen input while maintaining efficient planning tween the Nordic countries. In Sweden and Den- processes that can address the massive new de- mark, housing was a key part of the welfare state velopment needs owing to a housing shortage.To project, and Sweden in particular had strong fo- overcome the challenges of representative par- cuses on housing as a social good and on equal ticipation, many local administrations try various housing opportunities for all (Andersen, 2012). In ways to target more marginalized populations. recent years, Finland has worked at the ministerial The Swedish Association of Local Authorities and and city levels to prevent homelessness by adapt- Regions provide national networks for knowledge ing the “housing first” principle, in which the right exchange and methods like participatory budget- to housing is prioritized as the proper basis for ing or digital tools to encourage new groups to be targeting the social problems faced by homeless involved are some examples of ongoing activities. persons. This is based on broad co-operation and agreements between the ministerial level and the Inclusion via housing policy biggest cities, among other things. In recent years, Segregation and gentrification are global urban Finland has been the only European country with challenges, and housing policy can contribute to decreasing homelessness, although Denmark also making cities and neighbourhoods inclusive and has quite successful programs targeting home- open to all by such means as affordable housing lessness. and social mixing policies. It should also be empha- Segregation is still a major challenge in many sized that the Nordic countries have a very high Nordic cities, but cities are introducing innova- standard of housing across housing types, even tive approaches to tackle the problems. Different in comparison with other EU countries. Although types of social mix policies, such as ensuring the there have been changes in the last few decades, availability of different tenure forms in all neigh- the Nordic countries are still characterized by the bourhoods, help to prevent segregation at the white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 28 neighbourhood level. Helsinki is known for its social tions for “the just city” (Fainstein, 2010). She em- mix policy, which was established in the 1970s, and phasized affordable housing and low-cost public regulates the shares of different tenure forms at transport, among other things. Of course, the spe- the neighbourhood level to ensure a mix of popu- cific approach to inclusion or social sustainability lations in each area and prevent spatial segrega- can differ if a city or a district is characterized by tion. The city of Gothenburg in Sweden is currently physically segregating barriers, large informal set- experimenting with new ways of steering rents in tlements, ethnic conflicts or extreme poverty, but newly-built apartments in the large Frihamnen a common denominator in research that explicitly brownfield development project. deals with urban social sustainability is the need to define the concept and find the most useful indi- International outlook cators with which to measure it. This is regardless Inclusive cities and social aspects of urban sus- of whether it concerns the Nordics or other parts tainability may well be higher on the agenda than of the world. ever before, especially with respect to policy. Even A few examples from around the world illus- Richard Florida, the world famous American urban trate the different ways planning for inclusion can economist who has been preaching about com- be implemented: in Medellín, Colombia, the Metro- petitiveness to cities all over the world, as well cable transportation link improves accessibility for as about attracting the “creative class” through residents in poor neighbourhoods and helps create urban development, is reconsidering. Instead, his street life; in Austria, there are policies that en- current message focuses on the importance of in- courage the supply of subsidized housing; and the clusion and the problem of gentrification (Florida, participatory budgeting scheme that originated in 2017). Porto Alegre, Brazil has been an important source Considering that the term “inclusive cities” can of inspiration for contemporary citizen participa- be interpreted in a variety of ways, there is ample tion practices all over the world. research in this area. For example, inclusiveness Nordic cities are often cited as good exam- can be about segregation, discrimination and liv- ples of inclusion and social sustainability because ing in “divided cities” (e.g. Gaffikin and Morrissey, of their accessible public spaces, small socio-eco- 2011), local democracy and governance practices nomic differences, rights to housing and trust in for inclusion (van den Dool et al., 2015) or how to local democratic governance structures (regard- address poverty and socioeconomic divisions in ing trust, see, e.g. Ortiz-Ospina and Roser, 2017). cities (Koonings and Kruijt, 2009). Both the Or- For example, on the UN Habitat’s “Prosperity In- ganisation for Economic Co-operation and De- dex”, the Nordic capitals of Oslo, Stockholm, Co- velopment (OECD) and the European Union (EU) penhagen and Helsinki are all at the top of the list. map socio-economic differences (OECD 2015; The “Prosperity Index” includes measurements OECD 2016; European Commission 2016) or look of quality of life, equity and social inclusion, and for sustainability indicators (Eurostat, 2016), and governance, all of which are related to inclusion. more qualitatively oriented social scientists and UN Habitat writes, “The strong integration and urban theorists focus on such issues as urban poli- homogeneous balance of all the dimensions show cies in the peripheries of cities (Dikeç, 2007), ac- that these cities have achieved a good synergy be- cessibility to green space and local environmental tween urban planning, urban governance and fi- injustices (Wolch et al., 2014) and the role of public nance for the collective interest. It allows them to spaces in social conflicts and interactions (Hajer be ‘hubs’ of prosperity thanks to the high produc- and Reijndorp, 2001; Wanjiku Kihato et al., 2010). tion of goods and services within a safe and secure Jane Jacob’s book The Death and Life of Great environment (…) Cities like Oslo, Copenhagen and American Cities (Jacobs, 2011) was first published Stockholm are doing well, as are the regions where in 1961, and since then, it has been an important they are located. With their relatively well-educat- international reference in this context because ed and fully employed populations, they base their she tells a convincing story about how the built economic momentum on a combination of factors, environment and social life are interrelated. More since they act as administrative and financial as recently, urban planning researcher Susan Fain- well as cultural capital cities. Urban planning has stein used empirical studies of Amsterdam, New had much more influence here than in any other York and London to propose the necessary condi- region of the world” (UN Habitat, 2015). white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 29 4.3. The Healthy City design and management of the built environment Linking social health and well-being can encourage or constrain certain behaviours to environmental health that are likely to influence air quality in urban ar- Nordic cities are clean. Almost anywhere in the eas. For example, planning can decrease the reli- city, people can breathe cool, fresh air and drink ance on private cars by encouraging the use of water directly from the tap or take a bath in the public transportation, biking and walking, thereby nearest harbour or lake. Cities in the Nordic Region enhancing health (people get more exercise) and have overcome urgent issues related to health in the environment (less CO2 emissions). Gelormino urban environments, such as unsanitary condi- et al. (2015) suggest that the complex relationship tions, vulnerability to hazardous air and water pol- between cities and health can be divided into three lutants and the accumulation of solid waste. The aspects: (i) City – nature – health; (ii) City – social contribution of urban-based production and con- context – health; and (iii) City – behavioural as- sumption to ecosystem disruptions and resource pects – health. The first aspect emphasizes the re- depletion has also been emphasized in addressing health-related issues. Thus, in Nordic cities, health is perceived as a broad issue that surpasses human I feel that in general there is health to also include care for the environment. a responsibility towards the Health in urban environments is a complex is- environment, and that we feel a sue that cuts across policy sectors. At the macro responsibility for being a role model level, it includes spatial planning, land use and for others as well as learning from transportation infrastructure, while at the local other cities and regions. level, the design, maintenance and use of buildings, public spaces and transport networks are ÓLÖF ÖRVARSDÓTTIR, HEAD OF DIVISION, REYKJAVIK ENVIRONMENTAL AND PLANNING also relevant (WHO, 2010). In this respect, the DEPARTMENT, REYKJAVIK CITY

Långholmen, Stockholm. Source: Yadid Levy/Norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 30 lationship between the natural and built environ- Nordic cities focus on ments, the second focuses on social norms that well-being. shape people’s lifestyles, and the third addresses MONICA VON SCHMALENSEE, the differences in health conditions that emerge CEO AT WHITE ARKITEKTER from individual behaviours. This characterization of the healthy city in the Nordic context acknowl- Cities in the Nordic Region usually have a thriv- edges the inter-related nature of these aspects, ing relationship with their waterscapes. Water is but it prioritizes the relationship between city – highly valued and it gives people an opportunity nature – and health, especially with respect to the to experience and enjoy nature. The waterfront importance of water quality, air quality and green of the Islands Brygge in Copenhagen was trans- spaces for peoples’ health. formed from a polluted port into a vibrant urban environment. Technology and political will enabled The natural landscape is the underlying the restoration of the water quality, creating a principle for urban development healthy place where people can swim in the mid- In the Nordic countries, spatial planning at dif- dle of the city (State of Green, 2017). Project H+ ferent levels has encouraged the integration of in Helsingborg provided for the redevelopment of nature in urban areas, positively influencing both a harbour district into a residential and business human health and the health of ecosystems. The area for more than 10,000 people. The project integration of blue–green infrastructures in ur- includes the modernization of water treatment ban environments underlies the logic of urban plants and an innovative sewage system. These in- development of many Nordic cities. In Stockholm, itiatives highlight the recreational value of water, 47% of the total area is non-developed land (e.g., increase social awareness about its importance green areas) and water (Egerö and Malmros, n.d.). for health and encourage care for and preserva- This spatial pattern is also seen in Helsinki, where tion of nature. greenery covers over 40% of the city’s land surface, forming a ‘network of recreation areas’ with Water quality, air quality and health finger-like patterns separating urban areas that Cities in the Nordic Region have widespread and have been encouraged to develop along railways equitable access to safe and affordable drinking and main roads (Söderström et al., 2015). Similar- water, as well as adequate sanitation for all of ly, the Copenhagen Finger Plan maintains ecologi- their residents. All urban dwellings are served by cal corridors alongside the development of urban public water supplies and sewage systems. Never- structures (Jorgensen, 2004). Reykjavik’s spatial theless, some Nordic cities face water outbreaks development also follows a plan that maintains because of critically low ground-water levels, a continuous forest and an outdoor recreational which are most common between June and Au- area at the edge of the urban growth area, which gust (Guzman-Herrador et al., 2015). The use of is called ‘the Green Scarf’ (Kristjánsdóttir, 2008). digital technologies, such as sensors to monitor In these cities, the use of green edges and the pro- leakages in the water supply network, has helped, tection of aquatic ecosystems have enabled the saving significant amounts of treated water while creation of rich biodiversity zones and enhanced maximizing the distribution and treatment of spaces for recreation, exercise and social activi- wastewater (State of Green, 2017). ties, thereby preserving nature and improving hu- With respect to air quality, the overall level of man physical and mental health. By mixing urban, pollution is relatively low in the Nordic countries green and blue structures, these spatial patterns (Norden, 2007). Nevertheless, because of the have reduced air pollution, diminished the heating cold climate, Nordic cities occasionally experience effect of grey structures and increased accessibility worsening air quality. Unfavourable meteorologi- to green spaces, which has proven to have a posi- cal conditions often increase the concentration of tive influence on human health (Nilsson et al., 2011). pollutants in the atmosphere, and the cold climate The relationship between the natural environment and relatively short average driving distances in and physical structures seems to have cultural the cities contribute to a large number of engine value as well, as social health and well-being are cold-starts and higher levels of emissions (Norden, clearly linked to environmental health, and access 2007). Recently, Oslo has experienced high levels to nature is directly related to cultural issues. of pollution, and Stockholm has also identified vul- white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 31 nerable urban areas that might pose health risks enced environmentalism and environmental health to the population. Nevertheless, a diverse range by documenting that vulnerable groups were often of actions have been taken to improve air quality. exposed to environmental hazards. In the follow- In collaboration with industry and the authorities, ing decades, trends such as rapid urbanization and the Norwegian Institute for Air Research has de- the sprawling expansion of cities changed the fo- veloped sensor networks that provide the popu- cus of environmental health from just the chemical lation with real-time information about aerial environment to built environments more generally contaminants throughout Norway (NILU, 2016). (Frumkin, 2005). The need to integrate environ- Ambitious investments in electric cars have made mental and social sustainability dimensions has Oslo the world leader in switching to emissions- also strengthened the ties between issues related free transportation (Hockenos, 2017). The city has to health and built environments (Barton, et al. also implemented large no-car zones and insti- 2003). tuted rush hour fees for motorists, steep conges- Research in the field reflects the broad array tion charges and parking fees. Similar initiatives of meanings that the term “urban health environ- have been adopted in other Nordic cities, including ment” covers, including studies that explore the Helsinki, which has converted inner city ring roads role of urban design in health and well-being (Klein- into residential and walking areas, and Stockholm, er and Hor, 2016), uncover relationships between which restricts the use of private vehicles in vulner- walkability and air pollution (Marshal et al., 2009) able areas and has decreased the number of cars and examine liveability in cities through infrastruc- in the city centre through congestion charges. ture innovations in energy, water and green infra- Although human exposure to hazardous pol- structure (Lennon et al. 2017), as well as through lutants has been managed by soft and quickly im- food systems linked with social, behavioural and plemented planning measures, many cities in the policy changes (Milan Municipality, 2015). Never- Nordic Region have a growing concern for the long- theless, the literature seems to suggest a divide term health of the environment, which has been between how developing and developed countries manifested through various planning measures. use the term. In developing countries, issues relat- For example, Copenhagen has set the ambitious ed to the “brown agenda”, including poor housing target of becoming carbon neutral by 2025 (Co- conditions, lack of access to safe water and sani- penhagen Climate Plan, 2009) through such poli- tation, and overcrowding, get most of the atten- cies as greening transport (improving bike paths, tion, whereas in developed countries, the “green investments in public transportation, etc.). Relying agenda” emphasizes the importance of healthy on a nodal cityscape that offers most of the fa- environments for future generations; the preven- cilities that people need, the Stockholm city plan tion of overuse and the degradation of resources aims to establish a walkable city of interconnect- are also relevant (McGranahan and Satterth- ed neighbouring districts (Stockholm City Coun- waite, 2014). cil, 2010). Both of these development plans have Cities in different parts of the world are de- transportation or land use policies that are likely veloping strategies and allocating financial re- to lead to better urban air quality and improve hu- sources with health as the goal of planning. For man health by encouraging physical activities. example, with the goal of “A Healthy City for All”, the Vancouver City Healthy Strategy (2015–2018) International outlook includes policies in areas such as the fulfilment of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (1962) is often re- basic needs (housing, water, sanitation, etc.), cul- garded as a milestone in the field of environmental tivating social connections and ensuring liveability health. This book warned of the effects of pesti- now and into the future. Similarly, Manningham, cides on wildlife ecology and human health, and by Australia recently developed a Healthy City Strat- doing so, environmental health became strongly egy (2017–2021) that highlights inclusion, safety, associated with the recognition and control of resilience, connectivity and creativity as relevant chemical exposure. This perspective on environ- issues for healthy urban environments. The initia- mental health changed in the early 1980s, when tive “Invest Health: Strategies for Healthier Cit- the “environmental justice” movement highlighted ies” (2016) subsidized 50 mid-sized U.S. cities to the connection between civil rights and environ- develop strategies to improve the health and well- mental health. This movement powerfully influ- being of residents in low-income neighbourhoods. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 32 Increasing access to quality jobs, affordable hous- 2003). Malmö, Sweden has developed good prac- ing and nutritious food, and reducing crime rates tices for using planning to facilitate human health and environmental hazards are some of the action (Malmö Stad, 2013). The initiatives reported in areas that the program covers. These examples all these cases show how the strong and autonomous indicate that initiatives for healthy cities today are role that the local level plays in Nordic planning often quite broad and comprehensive. systems more readily facilitates the integration of Acting in six worldwide regions (Africa, the health practices into spatial planning than do the Americas, South-East Asia, Europe, the Eastern more centralized and hierarchical administrative Mediterranean and Easter Pacific), the World structures of other planning systems. Health Organization (WHO) has been promoting discussions and actions and driving research in the 4.4. The Resilient City field. In 1987, the WHO launched the Healthy Cities Adapting to climate change Project in Europe with the participation of 11 cit- Nordic cities take the risks caused by human cli- ies. By 2009, at least 1300 cities in the European mate change seriously. Adaptation and mitigation region were engaged in this program (Lafond and actions, especially water issues such as more fre- Heritage, 2009). Based on the understanding that quently occurring torrential rains and rising water human health and well-being are the fundamen- levels, are integrated in multifunctional spaces. tal purpose of sustainable development, the WHO There is a long tradition of climate and environ- European office developed the Healthy Urban mental monitoring in the Nordic Region (Morgen, Planning (HUP) initiative in 1997. This initiative rec- 2009). As part of the Nordic countries’ responses ognized that the quality, equity and efficiency of to climate change, energy policies have focused on urban environments profoundly influence health, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions while and it became a reference tool for providing an ev- also promoting sustainable urban development idence-based foundation for planning and policy- through the decoupling of emissions from eco- making (Barton et al., 2003). nomic growth. Between 1990 and 2011, the total The Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Nor- Nordic GDP rose by 55% while emissions across way and Sweden), the UK, the Netherlands, South the region were reduced by 9% (Norden, 2014). The Korea and United States lead research in regard Nordic countries differ in their projected climate to the impacts of physical urban environments on change impacts, and their responses to climate people’s health and well-being (Nilsson, et al, 2011). change have differed according to their geograph- When it comes to best practice, the capital Nordic ic specificities and economic structures. However, cities also stands out. The winter sport facilities in the Nordic countries have many commonalities, Oslo (Oslomarka) and Helsinki and the cycle tracks and seaside areas, such as Amager Beach Park We have the green structure; in Copenhagen are few examples. Concerning air we cannot build everywhere. quality, the Northern Europe has, in general, better conditions in comparison with other European We have a policy to maximize all countries (EEA, 2017). Particle pollutions, also the different functions that green called Particulate Matter (PM), are not an issue areas could have. One is the social for cities in Finland and Sweden. Conversely cities aspect, spending time in green in Denmark and Norway may experience problems areas. Green areas also create with PM concentrations, depending on the local shade, lowers the temperature emissions and weather conditions (Rispling, et al 2016) and can absorb rain water. They Healthy Urban Planning has been part of the are also important for biodiversity. agenda of national authorities in the Nordic coun- A city could be the habitat for tries. Municipalities in Denmark, Finland, Norway species that are vulnerable. and Sweden are engaged in WHO networks for We have a focus on balanced healthy cities (WHO, 2015). Gothenburg, Sweden, development. Horsens, Denmark and Sandnes, Norway have had good experiences integrating health into spa- BJÖRN HUGOSSON, HEAD OF CLIMATE UNIT AT CITY OF STOCKHOLM EXECUTIVE OFFICE, CITY DEVELOPMENT tial planning policy and practice (see Barton et al., DEPARTMENT white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 33 Rainy day in Helsinki. Source: Benjamin Suomela / Norden.org such as similar legal frameworks, and they have will have to be adapted to climate change im- been co-operating on climate change related is- pacts such as increased precipitation (rainfall) and sues for many years in Nordic Working Groups un- rising water levels in lakes, coastal waters and riv- der the Nordic Council of Ministers (Scherbenske ers. Because of growing urban populations, there is and Diș, 2011), as well as in larger regional groups, increasing pressure on water resources in terms of such as the Arctic Council and the Baltic Sea Re- access, security, treatment, and scarcity. The oppor- gion Programme. tunities and challenges of city densification6 and the The Nordic countries have also incorporated an uncertainties related to climate change impacts integrative approach to climate change that em- also create water-stressed cities. Therefore, one phasizes the interactions between mitigation and of the major areas of adaptation is water man- adaptation responses to climate change, which agement, with a focus on flood management and have usually been addressed in separate policy sea level rise. spheres and documents (Goodsite et. al., 2015). It Hence, of particular concern for the Nordic has been recognized that adaptation and mitiga- countries with respect to climate change impacts tion actions are mutually beneficial when consid- are water-related issues, with increased precipita- ered together, rather than causing conflicts. The tion patterns, a rise in sea-level and urban flooding term “adaptigation” has been developed to de- projected by the IPCC (IPCC, 2014). Adaptation scribe the Nordic countries’ integrative approach through planning, land use design and construc- to adaptation and mitigation (Langlais, 2009). tion can help to reduce the negative impacts of climate change such as flooding, landslides and Coping with increasing rainfall erosion. The most relevant responses for building According to various scenarios of climate change resilient Nordic cities can be grouped under three impacts, the amount of extreme rainfall could rise themes: water management; the development of by up to 40% in Scandinavia and North-Eastern Europe (SMHI, 2017). More extreme heat and rain are expected to be the pattern with increased fre- 6 The increase of hard surfaces associated with city densification can lead to cities being more vulnerable to increased precipitation caused by quency and intensity. Surface water management climate change. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 34 ecosystem services; and the design of multifunc- green areas, increased CO2 absorption) (State of tional urban spaces that address storm-water, Green, 2016). emissions and adaptation. There are several examples of adaptation Integrating ecosystems services into through planning and construction and initiatives urban planning that focus on resilience in cities in the Nordic coun- The integration of ecosystem services into urban tries. With respect to adaptation measures, effec- planning provides benefits by reducing emissions tive water management is crucial, as water has the and developing preventative measures for climate potential to improve the daily lives of people living change impacts. The Stockholm Biochar Project in cities. For example, the Finnish Environment Re- is another good example of developing a better search Centre increases the safety of people with city ecosystem. Biochar is a powerful soil condi- the provision of 5-day flood warning maps that in- tioner that is considered a carbon sink because it dicates vulnerable areas (SYKE, 2017). decreases carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere Water management requires an integrated and retains water, air and nutrients in the soil. process that includes land use planning, infra- Through its production in Stockholm, it will create structure, energy generation and waste. In 2015, enough energy to provide heat and hot water for Stockholm adopted a new storm-water strategy more than 80 apartments in the city (Stockholm to prepare for a 30% increase in precipitation by Vatten och Avfall, 2017). When garden waste is 2100 and to improve the quality of storm-water converted into biochar and added to the soil, the to reach the city’s environmental quality stand- landscape becomes greener and healthier and ards. Stockholm’s drinking water comes from Lake carbon is sequestered for thousands of years. Mälaren, which is separated from the Baltic Sea Furthermore, by introducing biochar into tree and by the Slussen Lock. Stockholm’s largest climate flower-beds, cities can increase local infiltration of adaptation project is the reconstruction of the storm-water, which enhances ground-water pro- Slussen Lock to allow it to release more water and duction and traps pollutants. prevent urban flooding (Stockholm Stad, 2017). In the production of biochar, bio-oil and syngas By rethinking the multiple uses of rainwater can be extracted to be used for bio-fuel produc- and seeing it as a resource to create beneficial tion, electricity and district heating. The Stock- urban green spaces, Denmark created synergies holm biochar project and existing municipal waste from investments and developed two tools. These streams have been combined in a new concept tools are available online and can be used by di- in which public engagement and circular models verse stakeholders such as Danish municipalities, for energy and material flows are promoted and utilities, consulting companies, architects, con- stimulated. tractors and knowledge institutions to help them One example of Denmark’s approach to re- plan and prioritize their efforts. The first tool is a silient urban planning involves an alternative look method developed by Water in Urban Areas for at land use. Tåsinge Plads has been referred to as comparing expenses for building ‘grey’ vs. ‘green’ Copenhagen’s first climate change-adapted ur- solutions. This method takes into account param- ban space, thereby making it Copenhagen’s first eters such as the durability of the solution, envi- climate-resilient urban space. Tåsinge Plads is a ronmental effects and visual and recreational square that shows that rainwater can be used to qualities, as well as possible synergies with other create new recreational urban spaces. The square planned construction projects (State of Green, is designed as a multifunctional space that can 2016). The second tool, called ‘SPLASH’, was de- handle rising volumes of rain at the street level. veloped by the Danish Nature Agency to help cal- Tåsinge Plads is a living part of the urban environ- culate the socio-economic consequences of spe- ment that is designed to direct and hold back as cific climate adaptation measures in local areas. much rainwater as possible. The landscape also SPLASH calculates the size of the investments slopes away toward an area at a lower level, where needed to guard against a given rain event, and the storm-water gathers. The landscape is raised then shows the long-term economic gains from above ground level to provide space also designed each suggestion, including the value of positive in a way that visitors can enjoy it as a public space. spillover effects (e.g., reduced costs of flooding The design of this square is a good example of wa- damage, reduced water consumption, increased ter management in anticipation of extreme future white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 35 rainfall events that contributes to a vibrant urban structure with a strong focus on resource efficien- life (Klimakvarter, 2016). cy, water, waste and energy, as well as on mobility There are many more examples to share and and transportation, has been at the forefront of draw inspiration from. With respect to co-ordinat- the movement to create resilient cities. Examples ing all these different efforts, a common Nordic from Europe seem to dominate city initiatives on adaptation strategy could be useful in helping to sustainability. Germany has many good cases, identify areas where a joint regional effort could such as HafenCity Hamburg, Kronsberg in Hano- achieve more than individual countries’ actions, ver and Emscher Park in Ruhrgebiet. In other parts and provide a useful mix of top-down (regional of the world, cities such as Melbourne, Australia strategy) and bottom-up (local examples) guid- and New York, Seattle and Portland in the US have ance (Scherbenske & Diș, 2011). adopted good practices concerning urban transformation projects, focusing on how to effectively International outlook realize rapid structural and cultural changes with- The concept of resilient cities has stimulated dis- in existing urban environments and communities cussions and inspired books, articles, reports by reconfiguring urban form and public spaces. and initiatives by major institutions such as the Community involvement has also been identi- United Nations and the World Bank. The Interna- fied as an important ingredient of resilient cities tional Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (McCormick et al., 2013). Semarang in Indonesia, (ICLEI, 2013) and the Intergovernmental Panel for San Francisco in the US, Montreal in Canada, Thes- Climate Change (IPCC, 2014) highlighted the im- saloniki in Greece, and Porto Alegre in Brazil have portance of urban climate adaptation and how it engaged their national governments, ministries can contribute to building resilience and enabling and local authorities to embed resilience thinking sustainable development. With respect to resil- into national plans and priorities (Resilience in Ac- ience, cities are commonly referred to as complex tion, 2016). adaptive systems (Batty, 2008; Godschalk, 2003; The capitals and other big cities of the Nordic Mehmood 2016). After four decades of academic Region provide good examples of water and waste literature on urban resilience (beginning in 1973), management strategies and the design of multi- the most recent definition of urban resilience in- functional spaces. Roskilde and Copenhagen in cludes the abilities of urban systems and all their Denmark, Stockholm, Sweden, and Bergen and constituent socio-ecological and socio-technical Fornebu in Norway are a few of the cities in the networks across temporal and spatial scales to region that have adopted urban resilience strate- maintain or rapidly return to desired functions in gies (State of Green, 2017). the face of a disturbance, adapt to change, and Several Nordic countries have developed ini- quickly transform systems that limit current or fu- tiatives to showcase and export innovative Nordic ture adaptive capacity (Meerow et al., 2015, p.39). solutions for resilient cities. The Nordic Built Cities “Governance”, “climate change” and “city” Challenge is one example of this type of initiative. seem to be the research hotspots in urban resilience (Pu and Qiu, 2016). There is a growing empha- 4.5. The Compact Green City sis on enhancing the resilience of cities worldwide Striving for densification and containment in the face of climate change and rapid urbaniza- while preserving green infrastructure tion. Future directions for research include a fo- Across the Nordic Region people live closely to- cus on ecosystem service, adaptive capacity and gether in densely populated cities that provide human-dominated ecosystems (Pu and Qiu, 2016). rich opportunities for human interaction and busy A great majority of the definitions of urban resil- social lives. People also have easy access to na- ience highlight adaptability, flexibility or adaptive ture and green open spaces within built-up urban capacity (Eraydin et al., 2013; Bhamra et al., 2011). environments. These green spaces are viewed as The US and the UK are seen as the most pro- essential in promoting biodiversity and improving ductive countries in this field of research (Pu and the health, living conditions and quality of life for Qiu, 2016). Stockholm University is second in urban Nordic citizens living in urban areas. Indeed, Nor- resilience research among the top 20 research in- dic cities are widely known for their nature, green- stitutions (ibid.). ery and clean environments. Nevertheless, they Developing adaptive and sustainable infra- remain among the largest sources of greenhouse white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 36 Architecture Merihaka, Helsinki. Source: Benjamin Suomela/Norden.org

gas emissions because of the heated homes and Closeness to and under transportation systems. To combat the problem standing of nature. We of road traffic, urban policymakers have long ad- manage to bring nature into the vocated for more compact cities. city. In Stockholm, closeness to water and nature, in Finland The potential conflict between mitigation closeness to forest. These natural and adaptation The EU has identified urban sprawl as a serious elements are well integrated into planning problem and advocated the development urban development so it is quite a of more compact cities as the only solution (Fert- contrast to the urbanity you find ner et al. 2016). Within its thematic strategy on outside the Nordic region. the urban environment, the European Commission TINA SAABY, CITY ARCHITECT, COPENHAGEN recommends better co-ordination between transport and spatial planning, along with the develop- Increasing density in an attempt to reduce energy ment of more compact settlements (European consumption could lead to the loss of green spaces Commission, 2006). A key objective of the Work within cities and the vital ecosystem services that Programme for an Urban Agenda for the EU is to they provide (Niemilä et al., 2011; Elmqvist et al., ensure that any changes in urban areas respect 2013). For example, an increasing number of heavy the environment and improve the quality of life of rainstorms would cause more frequent problems citizens. This chapter examines how to limit urban with flooding, as there is a greater risk of flooding sprawl by making cities more compact through when there are insufficient permeable open green the development of brownfields and green spaces. spaces for water infiltration. Also, if average tem- Densification as a means to mitigate climate peratures change in the future, the urban heat is- change is not without its problems. Greenhouse land effect is likely to exacerbate more frequent gas emissions must be reduced so that tem- temperature extremes in urban environments. peratures stop rising, but this necessary process A tension exists between the need to keep cities takes a long time and requires much greater unity green and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which among and determination of world leaders than creates a conflict between measures for adaptation has so far been possible to achieve. At the same to and the mitigation of climate change. The poten- time, it is important that we adapt our cities to tial answer to this problem lies in a combination of make them less vulnerable to extreme climatic these two seemingly conflicting properties. situations in the future.

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 37 Nordic cities have found a good balance Attractive newly built residential areas in city The challenge is to create a city that is both dense centres, such as the Western Harbour in Malmö, and green: the compact green city. It seems that Hammarby Sjöstad in Stockholm, and Pilestræ- Nordic cities have found a sound balance between det Park in Oslo, are all regarded as pioneering the compact and the dispersed, which is why examples in this field. These developments rest woods and water are key ingredients, even in our on a solid Nordic city building tradition whereby largest Nordic cities. new residential areas were constructed on natural Urban containment, managed through a dis- land close to the forests in Finland, Norway and tinct boundary between urban and rural land use, Sweden, and low and density housing in Denmark. is a common strategy for urban growth manage- Urban districts of Tapiola in Espoo near Helsinki, ment and for achieving sustainable development Gärdet in Stockholm, and the Fredensborg Houses that is focused on efficient land use and the pres- outside Elsinore are also examples of this tradi- ervation of rural functions, such as ecosystem tion. services (Nilsson et al., 2014). Nordic cities are at One way to make certain that future cities re- the forefront of green infrastructure planning and main green enough is to ensure that authorities management. require a certain proportion of greenery in new Copenhagen’s regional plan from 1947, the so- settlements. In a pioneering project in Sweden, called Finger Plan, is an example of combined ur- the planning authorities in Malmö required a green ban transport, land use and open space planning. space factor of 0.5 for the expansion of Western Urban development has taken place along trans- Harbour—that is, a fifty-fifty relationship be- port corridors, “the fingers”. An important part tween sealed soil and green space in the new area. of this strategy is the near-to-station-principle, By specifying an index instead of formulating de- which means that, whenever possible, new work- tailed rules, the authorities managed to safeguard ing places should be located close to public trans- greenery in the area, with the flexibility of letting port. In between the fingers, open spaces are pre- construction companies find innovative solutions served as green wedges forming an overall green themselves, including ideas such as green roofs infrastructure. The original vision behind the Fin- and allotment gardens. ger Plan is still the principle for the future develop- In the Nordic building tradition, care for nature ment of Greater Copenhagen. Another attempt is a basic value. Buildings located in forests and to preserve the urban green infrastructure is the other natural surroundings are popular in Norway, establishment of National Urban Parks. The first Sweden and Finland. Nordic construction compa- National Urban Park was established in Stockholm nies have developed great skill in preserving trees in 1995, Ulriksdal-Haga-Brunnsviken-Djurgården, and natural vegetation much closer to buildings but the idea had its greatest success in Finland, than what was normally done in engineering prac- where so far the government has approved eight tice. In situations where there is no natural vegeta- National Urban Parks, such as those in Hämeen- tion, it has become common practice to plant the linna or Turku. vegetation years before the development takes place, which is a tradition in Denmark, where build- Brownfields turned into attractive ing in forests is not allowed. residential areas Nordic cities prevent urban sprawl by reconfigur- International outlook ing existing structures rather than building new Research on compact green cities is dominated ones (Braae, 2015). Attempts have been made to by researchers from Asia, most of whom are from make the existing built environment more com- China. According to a 2015 review, 39% of all sci- pact through the regeneration of brownfield sites, entific articles on the subject were published in the transformation of old harbour areas, retrofit- China (Haaland and Konijnendijk, 2015). Europe ting existing housing areas and revitalizing certain accounted for 31% of the published research, fol- sections of inner cities and urban areas. Further- lowed by Australia with 19%, and, somewhat sur- more, underutilized urban areas have been devel- prisingly, North America, which only contributed oped for high-density housing, serving to increase 9%. South America and Africa accounted for 1% population density and promote the liveability of each. Of the European countries, the Nordic coun- urban spaces. tries are among the most prominent, especially if white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 38 we consider participation in key international re- well-known internationally. Otherwise in Europe, it search projects such as PLUREL and Green Surge is mainly in the Netherlands (The Hague, Amster- in addition to scientific publications. dam and Utrecht) and Germany, with the trans- The Nordic Region’s leading position is further formation of the Ruhr District and urban renewal consolidated when we look for good examples of in Hamburg, that good examples are found, but compact green cities. In the parts of the world there are also good examples in France (Montpel- with the fastest urbanization, such as India and lier and Lyon) and Spain (Barcelona and Valencia). Africa, urbanization often occurs at the expense of On the other hand, the development of compact green spaces and other urban qualities. China is an green cites in Britain has been rather poor, mainly exception here, as urbanization typically includes because of limited public funding, with similarly the development of the urban green infrastruc- poor development in Eastern Europe, where de- ture. Examples of cities that are considered green clining populations and weak public governance of despite having very high population densities in- urban development also have contributed to de- clude Hong Kong and Singapore. In North America grading urban environments. and Australia, they are struggling to adapt scat- Thus, the ability to combine urbanism and sus- tered cities characterized by urban sprawl into tainable construction with the conservation and more sustainable structures. Australian cities such development of green cities is an unambiguous as Brisbane and Adelaide, as well as cities such strength of the Nordic Region, both in research as Vancouver and Seattle in North America, have and in practice. taken the lead in this development. In Europe, there is a clear gradient from the 4.6. The Mobility City south and east to the west and north such that Providing safe and clean transport alternatives we find the best examples of compact green cit- In Nordic cities people can move fairly easily, quick- ies in Northern and Western Europe. The capitals ly and safely. Nordic solutions for intelligent public of the Nordic Region, as well as second-tier cities transport and cycling are at the forefront interna- such as Aarhus, Bergen, Malmö and Tampere, are tionally. In particular, urban planning concepts in

Subway in Stockholm. Source: Magnus Fröderberg/norden.org white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 39 Oslo has decided to have Long tradition in Transit Oriented an inner city free of private Development cars, which means more space for Land-use policy measures for sustainable mobility pedestrian and city life. The new try to reduce distance travelled in general, as well as limit the use of cars. These measures focus on main avenue Dronning Eufemias both mixed land-use (as opposed to the separation gate of Oslo has space for bikes of activities in space) and increasing the densities and trams, 10,000 m2 of new of people and activities. An example of one of these sidewalks, and 600 trees for the measures is Transit Oriented Development (TOD), new inner city. which offers more transportation choices (more alternatives to the use of private cars), fewer and RAINER STANGE, PARTNER/PROFESSOR/ LANDSKAPSARKITEKT MNLA shorter trips, lower personal transportation costs and easier access to daily needs. TOD is character- Nordic cities emphasize cycling and walking and ized by an efficient public transportation with sup- that favour public transportation instead of pri- ply of frequent travel opportunities, high quality vate cars, to benefit both the environment and public spaces with user-friendly environments for people’s health. cyclists and pedestrians, a high density of develop- Nordic cities and urban regions are character- ment around public transport stations, a limited ized by significant population growth, increasing number of parking spaces, and a mix of residential, population densities, relatively compact spatial office and retail uses. The development of transit structures and high transport demands (Næss, corridors with strict land-use rules around the sta- 2012), which creates challenges for the organizations (e.g., Copenhagen’s Finger Plan), and the tion of intra-urban mobility. The urban form and creation of a subway network through the sale of the resulting urban spatial structure of Nordic cit- publicly owned land along the network in Ørestad ies directly influence mobility choices and travel are two well-known examples. The construction behaviours. The majority of Nordic cities can be of dense mixed land uses along a new light rail seen as adaptive cities, that is, cities in which, line took place south of the Stockholm city cen- “urban transit is the dominant element of mobil- tre with the establishment of Hammarby Sjöstad ity and the urban landscape has been adapted to and Liljeholmenskayen. Mixing uses in transport service the general needs of urban mobility” (Rod- hubs by offering cultural and retail services along rigue, 2006: 188). with mobility services is also a measure that pro- Mobility is a key aspect of sustainable urban motes sustainable urban mobility (e.g., the re-de- development. Sustainable urban mobility is con- velopment of the central stations in Odense and stant challenged by urban dynamics that influence Uppsala). High priority and strict rules keep green mobility (changes in transportation infrastruc- belts in and around urban corridors in Nordic cities ture, means of transport, mobility needs, density (Copenhagen, Stockholm). of people and activities, etc.). Sustainable urban mobility is defined as “sustainable movement of Favouring green mobilities people and goods within an urban geography”, Transport policy measures for sustainable mobil- where sustainability “contributes to cities being ity try to influence the modal shift through the re- able to function in a way that minimises air and duced use of private cars and the increased use of noise pollution, contributes toward targets to re- green means of transport. Some Nordic cities have duce CO2 emissions, promotes economic develop- reduced car use with dissuasive measures, such ment of the city, enables good levels of mobility for as high parking fees, road pricing and congestion people and goods, and is affordable to users and taxes (such as in the city centres in Stockholm and taxpayers” (Booz & Company, 2012: 1). Oslo) and the reduction of speed limits for cars in Banister (2008) listed four types of actions certain areas. In parallel, they have also promoted that contribute to sustainable mobility: land‐use more environmentally friendly means of transport policy measures; transport policy measures; tech- (walking, biking and public transport) by dedicat- nological innovations; and reduction of the need to ing more space to these activities. The idea was travel. The first three of these actions can be illus- that urban streets should not be strictly for auto- trated within the context of Nordic cities. mobile traffic; they should also be safe public envi- white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 40 ronments for people, cyclists and public transport company MaaS Global, was the first capital region (e.g., Nørrebrogade in Copenhagen). Bicycle infra- transport provider to offer Maas services to its structure development played an important role customers. Finally, Rejsekort, an electronic ticket- in this modal shift, with dedicated paths, cycling ing system for travelling by bus, train and metro, is highways and parking opportunities, as in Lund, another example of Nordic innovation in the mobil- Odense and Kristiansand for instance. Facilitating ity sector. It unifies a number of transport opera- the combination several modes of transport is also tors, travel zones, ticketing systems and discount part of sustainable development, such as co-ordi- schemes into a common system that allows users nating bicycling and public transport (e.g., parking of public transport to travel locally, regionally and at train stations, sections dedicated to bikes in re- nationally within Denmark using a single ticketing gional commuter light rail trains in Copenhagen). system.

Intelligent transport solutions International outlook Technological innovations for more sustainable Sustainable urban mobilities are enabled by char- mobility try to provide more efficient and less pol- acteristics of the urban structure, socio-econom- luting transportation modes. Emblematic initia- ics, attitudinal and cultural factors, strategic tives include the development of self-driving cars transport networks and the price of travel (Hick- (e.g., the innovation programme Drive Sweden, man et al., 2009). A number of these character- which includes national agencies, research institu- istics have been included in investigations of sus- tions, public authorities and private companies), tainable urban mobilities in cities worldwide, as CO2-neutral major bus lines (e.g., line 5c in Co- illustrated by the three studies described in this penhagen), access to public transport for all (e.g., section. Stockholm), and mobility as a service (MaaS), Capital cities and large urban areas in Western which involves the integration of various forms of Europe represent the upper ranks of sustainable transport services into a single mobility service urban mobilities (Cebr, 2017; Copenhagenize De- that is accessible on demand. MaaS has recently sign Company, 2017; Little, 2014; UITP, 2015). Oth- emerged as a new way to promote intermodality er highly ranked cities include large cities in micro- and reduce car ownership. There are several types states in Asia, such as Singapore and Hong Kong. of MaaS in Nordic cities (Swedish ICT AB, 2016). These European and Asian cities have in common a Car-sharing is the most developed type of MaaS well-developed infrastructure of environmentally- in Swedish cities, an example of which is Sunfleet, friendly transportation modes (e.g. bike path net- which was developed by Volvo, who owns both the works), shared vehicle fleets (e.g. electric cars and car fleet and the platform. There are also com- bike sharing systems) and advanced digital mobil- bined mobility services that integrate options ity platforms. The cities have also reached (or are from different transport providers (public trans- expected to soon) ambitious targets for sustaina- port, taxis and rental cars) into a single mobile ser- ble urban mobility, such as achieving zero-emission vice and unified invoicing. For example, Helsinki Re- transportation solutions. gional Transport, in co-operation with the Finnish These studies highlight two regions of the world that face more challenges than others, the Middle East and Africa. Cities in the Middle East Our focus on Mobility and are challenged mostly because of their relatively accessibility in urban planning low population densities and high per capita car contributes to a higher quality of ownership. However, several cities have set ambi- life. It is easy to get around, and tious targets for zero emissions (e.g. Abu Dhabi). through the way we build cities, Cities in Africa lack mature urban mobility systems, public transportation is very which presents many challenges for sustainable urban mobility, and they typically do not have zero- efficient. Also, at least in Denmark, emission targets, or they are low priority (e.g. Cairo). bicycling is a huge benefit for In terms of their sustainable urban mobilities, public health as well. cities in the Nordic Region are top global perform-

KLAUS LEHN CHRISTENSEN, ers. Four recent publications highlight the mobility DANISH CLEANTECH HUB - NYC performance of Nordic cities. The Future of Urban white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 41 Mobility 2.0 report (Little, 2014) assesses the mo- 4.7. The Low-Carbon City bility maturity of 84 cities and summarizes their Transitioning from fossil fuels to bio performance with the so-called Urban Mobility a based economy Index (Cebr, 2017). Three Nordic capital cities are Nordic cities show that it is possible to decouple in the top 10, and Hong Kong was ranked first. economic growth and CO2 emissions. Since the Stockholm was second thanks to a high rate of late 1990s, despite a steady growth in GDP, Nordic public sector initiatives, low transport emissions cities have managed to keep CO2 emissions at a and well-developed car sharing systems. Copen- constant or even reduced level thanks to improved hagen was ranked fourth, with the safest urban energy efficiency and increased use of bio-based mobility system, a dense cycle network and a low and renewable sources. In Iceland in particular, in- rate of car ownership, among other factors. Hel- novative solutions have been developed for geo- sinki was ranked ninth, partially because it has a thermal energy, and the Danish, Finnish and Swed- high use of environmentally-friendly transport ish are known for their state-of-the-art solutions modes and short commuting times (Oslo and Rey- for district heating. kjavik were not part of this study). The Mobility in Cities Database (UITP, 2015) highlights how Oslo Thanks to progressive build- is one of the global cities with the most promising ing codes, new buildings changes in urban mobility patterns in the last 20 have a very high energy efficiency years. For instance, the number of trips made by public transport increased at a faster pace than standard. We don’t even think the population in Oslo, and at a faster pace than about it, it is a given. Functional in cities such as Vienna and Berlin, but at lower design, aesthetic houses, amazing pace than in Geneva and London. The Urban Mo- urban planning. It looks great, and bility Index (Cebr, 2017) shows progress towards it is very energy efficient. the goal of sustainable urban mobility in 35 global KLAUS LEHN CHRISTENSEN, cities. This report includes two Nordic cities, Oslo DANISH CLEANTECH HUB – NYC and Copenhagen. The former city holds the first rank in this index, which can be attributed to its Urban areas are home to approximately 85% of fruitful efforts to reach zero emissions; it is esti- the Nordic population. Capitals such as Oslo and mated to have achieved 80% of this goal to date. Stockholm are among the fastest growing cities Copenhagen is fourth, with a value of 69%. Finally, in Europe. Considering the various aspects of daily several Nordic cities are often mentioned as good urban life, such as housing, mobility, recreation examples of bicycle-friendly cities. As shown by and the economy, it is clear that energy demands the Copenhagenize Index (Copenhagenize Design and greenhouse gas emissions are concentrated in Company, 2017), the city of Copenhagen is ranked cities. However, this also implies that cities collec- first ahead of two well-known bicycle-friendly cit- tively offer the greatest potential for reducing the ies in the Netherlands, Utrecht and Amsterdam. climate impact of human activities and promoting Malmö has consistently ranked highly over the sustainable development. This is the essence of years, whereas both Helsinki and Oslo are new in the low-carbon city concept, which describes the the top 20, and Stockholm has not made the top actions and responsibilities that cities assume by 20 since the 2013 index. pursuing carbon neutrality in an integrated way, Capital cities in the Nordic countries are among together with urban resilience, a green economy the global leaders in sustainable urban mobilities. and the development of green infrastructure A long tradition in land use and transportation (ICLEI, 2017). planning, ambitious targets set by local govern- The ability of cities to reduce their emissions is ments and the environmentally-friendly commut- chiefly an energy issue, and there are three main ing habits of its residents have contributed to the areas in which energy use and emissions can be strong performance of the Nordic capitals. reduced in cities: the energy performance of buildings; mobility and transport; and the continued development of a low-carbon energy supply. Each of these aspects is particularly important in the Nordic Region. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 42 Wind turbines, Nordland Norge. Source: Johannes Jansson/norden.org

Energy efficiency in buildings ment housing that is prevalent throughout larger In 2013, buildings were estimated to be responsible Nordic cities. Further investment in deep energy for 43% of our energy consumption, which is at- retrofitting with improved standards is needed to tributable to the large stock of poor energy-per- transform the current poor performance of these forming buildings built in the 1960s and 1970s, as buildings. Existing Nordic construction technolo- well as our cool climate and larger than average gies can be pursued further, with a continued ori- living spaces (NER, 2016). Many Nordic cities have entation toward the global construction market. ensured that the new construction of green buildings will exceed the standards set by national au- Low carbon solutions for transportation thorities, and construction and design firms such The mobility and transport sector is the second key as Skanska have become world leaders in green dimension of the low-carbon city. The core aspects building. The city of Stockholm took many steps of reducing transport emissions include strate- to implement green building and green urban gic densification and good land use planning, as planning during the development of Hammarby pointed out in the compact-green and mobility Sjöstad, and many of these principles are being chapters. For example, Stockholm’s Walkable City used in the current development of the Stockholm Plan promotes car-free, low-carbon alternatives, Royal Seaport. Similarly, Ny Karolinska, one of the and Copenhagen’s Finger Plan is a global exam- largest construction projects in Europe, recently ple of how an effective land use plan can promote received the LEED Gold certification for its energy sustainable transport solutions such as rail trans- performance standards. port, cycling and walking. In fact, all of the Nordic Although the performance of new green build- countries have worked extensively to develop pub- ings in the Nordic Region is strong, continued im- lic transport, cycling, walking, electric vehicles, and provements are required in existing structures. alternative fuels. Approximately 70% of the estimated building However, like many cities throughout the stock for 2050 has already been constructed, in- world, the historical footprint of Nordic cities is cluding the extensive supply of modernist apart- still with us. The predominance of the private car white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 43 The political process in the Renewable and smart urban energy systems seventies in Denmark meant The third key dimension of the low-carbon city con- that there was a consensual deci- cerns the urban energy system, which is seen as a sion to say no to nuclear power. network of energy flowing throughout the Nordic Region and abroad. The Nordic low-carbon city will As a consequence, wind power continue to be a net consumer of energy, and will was introduced relatively early. therefore depend on advances in the energy sec- It sped up the green transition tor, both within and outside of cities. However, tremendously. the Nordic Region is fortunate in that its energy supply already has a high share of renewables, KLAUS LEHN CHRISTENSEN, DANISH CLEANTECH HUB – NYC good development of district heating and modern biomass. Thus, even though Nordic residents con- and the associated urban sprawl is extensive in sume more energy per capita than the EU average, all large Nordic cities, as are the associated envi- the associated CO2 emissions are 50% lower than ronmental challenges, including carbon emissions average (NER, 2016). (EEA, 2006). Although 85% of the Nordic popula- According to the recent report, “Nordic Energy tion lives in urban areas, 60% of this population Technology Perspectives” (NER, 2016), the devel- lives in urban areas with fewer than 100,000 opment of solar photovoltaic energy will provide people (NER, 2016). Therefore, Nordic cities are an opportunity to further decarbonize the en- characterized by distance barriers both within and ergy supply; however, the greatest savings will be between them. These factors suggest that the achieved by decarbonizing urban transport (de- transport sector is the greatest challenge facing scribed above), and especially by decarbonizing the Nordic Region for reaching carbon neutrality the supply of heat for buildings. Therefore, fourth- by 2050 (NER, 2016). Thus, an integrated urban generation district heating technology (4GDH) will strategy that bridges technological innovation, be a core component of the future low-carbon city. urban planning and behavioural change is neces- 4GDH includes low-temperature heating sup- sary. For example, in a recent article titled “Unless plies, improved heat transmission infrastructures, we share them, self-driving vehicles will just make heat recycling, and building innovations such as traffic worse”, Roberts (2017) describes how the smart metering, floor heating and local heat ex- transport sector is facing three main revolutions: changes for hot water heating. Combined with (i) Electrification – toward electric vehicles; (ii) smart energy technologies such as variable renew- Automation – toward self-driving cares; and (iii) able technologies, energy storage and intelligent Ride-sharing – toward fleets of shared cars, vans control systems, we can see that 4GDH and smart and buses. urban energy systems encompass a wide range of The concept of ride-sharing highlights how it technologies that need to be co-ordinated. From is possible to use new technologies more or less a broader perspective, it is clear that this concept efficiently and that behavioural norms regarding is designed for future urban energy systems that transport need to be adapted (Roberts, 2017). further integrate district heating with the electric- However, Nordic cities are making progress. Oslo ity and transport sectors for optimal efficiency of has extensively developed charging points for elec- the system (Lund et al., 2014). Thus, the integrated tric vehicles, and it recently announced that it will nature of 4GDH is an illustration of a future Nordic be a car-free city. Stockholm is planning a similar smart urban system at large, a system that will car-free strategy for significant portions of its city require further investment in both product and centre, and an extensive hybrid, self-driving vehi- process innovation across the spectrum of exist- cle pilot project is underway in Gothenburg. These ing opportunities. examples highlight how the low-carbon urban mo- All of the Nordic capitals have ambitious tar- bility strategy will become increasingly multimod- gets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and al, and suggest that the existing divide between most of them aim to achieve carbon neutrality. “public” and “private” transportation will continue These policies will require continued investment in to narrow. technological development and efforts to adapt consumer behaviour to ensure that new technologies are used efficiently. With these develop- white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 44 ments, Nordic cities can continue to be low-carbon The transport sector is a core theme, especially innovation hubs and capitalize on their success in in relation to sustainable urban mobility and the the global market. development of electric and self-driving cars. In- deed, the world’s largest pilot project in autono- International outlook mous driving is currently underway in Gothenburg The low-carbon city is an integrated concept cov- (Gothenburg, 2017). Urban land use planning that ering the energy, land use, mobility, housing and promotes the low-carbon city is a well-established even the industrial sector. This topic has been re- enabler of sustainable urban mobility, with Copen- searched intensively in urban planning and policy. hagen’s Finger Plan being a global pioneer. Stock- A recent “low-carbon city” search using Scopus7 holm’s current Walkable City Plan and Oslo’s new revealed 4,457 articles8, of which 31.0% came from car-free city centre are also guiding examples. The China, 31.6% from Europe and 25.6% from North green building sector is also prevalent. This is not America. The UK is the dominant country in Europe surprising given the energy-saving potential as- (145 articles and 23.3% of the European total), fol- sociated with northern climates and the presence lowed by Italy (71) and Germany (60). The Nordic in the region of world-leading green construction Region features prominently, with 31 articles from companies, such as Skanska and PEAB. Sweden, 30 from Finland, 13 from Denmark and The Nordic Region has clearly developed a 8 from Norway. European and global networks position of global strength in implementing low- dealing specifically with low-carbon cities are also carbon city principles. Nordic cleantech firms that key contributors to both knowledge of cities and have honed their trade in the Nordic context are progress in planning and policy. These networks now leading companies supporting the transition include the European Union’s Covenant of Mayors to low-carbon cities. This includes not only product and Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI). offerings such as ENVAC (waste management), The low-carbon city has recently developed but also knowledge, design and planning intelli- into a mainstream concept in the broader field gence from companies like WSP Group and Sweco of urban sustainability. In terms of academic dis- (consulting). Such companies have been strength- course, knowledge growth peaked in 2014, when ened by international knowledge, marketing and 525 scientific journal articles were published, com- communication networks, such as EnviroSweden9 pared to 43 articles in 2000, 105 articles in 2005 and Cleantech Finland10, to help ensure that their and 235 articles in 2010. Our awareness of the technologies are being effectively exported to the low-carbon city has clearly grown profoundly in international community. the last seven years. In terms of the research theme, 25.7% of all ar- 4.8. The Circular Economy City ticles dealt with eco-engineering as a main subject Turning waste into resources area, particularly those from Asia, and specifically By creating timeless built environments, our cities China. Examples include industrial symbiosis in will continue to be attractive, functional and inter- Asian cities (Fujii et al., 2016) and industrial emis- esting in the future. Waste can have positive value sion abatement (Wang, 2014). Other common through creative solutions for reuse, recycling and themes include issues of general modelling and repair. Buildings are seen not only as shelters, but monitoring for supporting low-carbon city plan- also as future material banks for new houses, and ning and policy responses (Huisingh et al., 2015; through industrial symbiosis, waste material from Tan et al., 2017; Calderon & Keirstead, 2012; Yin one kind of production can be used as a valuable et al., 2012) and integrated perspectives of land resource for another kind of production. use, transport and built environment (Ness & Xing, A circular economy (CE) refers to a produc- 2017; Lehmann, 2012). tion and consumption system that has as little The research themes and implementation economic loss as possible and in which most of the activities in the Nordic context also emphasize the integrated nature of the low-carbon city. 9 EnviroSweden, a Web-portal for 591 Swedish companies with the common objective of showcasing Swedish environmental technology to the world. 7 Scopus is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-re- 10 Cleantech Finland is a hub of Finnish cleantech expertise and viewed literature. sustainable innovations in fields such as green building and smart grid 8 Search of low-carbon city in article title, keyword and/or abstract. energy solutions for cities. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 45 Four Nordic bio-economy strongholds. Source: Norden.org products and resources used in production can be and (iii), citizens’ and communities’ activities for reused or recycled. This changing design of prod- urban sustainability. ucts and production processes can help minimize (i) With respect to the role of businesses, Nor- waste and increase the potential of unused re- dic circular economic initiatives are widespread in sources, thereby having a positive environmental sectors such as food, textiles, electric and electron- impact. ic equipment, building and construction, furniture, Apart from the business case for enhanced and packaging (NCM, 2015). Designing out waste resource efficiency, the environmental and social is one of the key principles of CE thinking, and it is benefits of switching from a linear to a CE should applied in the field of product design. For example, not be underestimated. The benefits of a CE range the sustainable construction company Xella Dan- from reducing greenhouse gas emissions and en- mark produces innovative concrete blocks that can couraging innovation-rich urban environments to be reused and recycled in all parts of the product creating new workplaces in the areas of reuse, life cycle. Nordic CE businesses are also found in remanufacturing, and materials innovation and the fields of reuse, repair and recycling. The Finn- changes in consumer behaviour and lifestyles that ish company Martela designs circular furniture so- lead to better health and increased safety (EMF, lutions. Their business model ensures the repair of 2017; URBACT, 2016). old items and the reuse and recycling of materials; Cities play an important role in driving the it also promotes modernization and maintenance transition to CEs, as they have significant waste to the fullest extent (NCM, 2015). Several repair streams and by-products that can be upcycled, cafés have been opened in Nordic cities to encour- reused or recycled. Building a city-wide CE calls age repair and sustainable consumption. Moreo- for an inclusive approach that goes beyond the ver, service- and function-based businesses have framework of a single company (City of Paris, gained in popularity in Nordic CE cities (see below). 2015). A CE implies not only full systemic changes (ii) Urban authorities (planners and policy- and technological innovations, but also changes in makers) in Nordic cities have extensive experience organization, society, financing methods and policies. providing sustainable urban infrastructure and management services and in developing innova- No actor can address it alone – collaboration tive policies to support CEs. Providing sustainable is the key waste management and wastewater treatment The transition to a CE in Nordic cities encompass- as services of general interest are two examples. es both bottom-up and top-down interventions Household waste is turned into energy, and sludge by: (i) the business sector; (ii) public authorities; from sewage treatment plants is used for bi- white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 46 Nordic countries have the based business model relies on redistribution ability to find and establish channels to transfer the ownership of a product synergies between different from one person to another, often through digital parties. For instance, from waste platforms such as Blocket and eBay. Finally, the third service-based business model you generate electricity and concerns collaborative lifestyles, which refers to district heating. people sharing non-products, such as knowledge, JONAS TÖRNBLOM, DIRECTOR MARKETING AND space and capital, through collective workplac- COMMUNICATION AT ENVAC GROUP AB es. Function-based business models in a sharing economy try to create the highest possible use ogas production, which can then be used in public value for the longest possible time while consum- transport. In Stockholm, park and garden waste ing fewer material resources and less energy. This is used to produce biochar (soil conditioner) and shift advocates the development of more durable renewable energy, and Copenhagen has recently products and the extended service life of goods announced its commitment to produce plastic (e.g. repair and reuse networks) (Stahel, 2010). packaging from its waste streams by improving The Vigga retail company in Denmark produces the capture of plastics (Resource, 2016; Stockholm high-quality baby clothes designed to be function- Vatten och Avfall, 2017). al and long-lasting. They even created a subscrip- A CE is also promoted by innovative policy tion service to prolong the life of baby clothes. measures, such as deposit refund schemes for beverage containers, ambitious fossil fuel substi- Future opportunities for the CE in Nordic cities tution targets and the use of tools such as public According an Ellen MacArthur Foundation study procurement. In 2016, Sweden reduced taxation (EMF, 2015), the reduction of avoidable food waste on the repair of clothes, bicycles, refrigerators and in Denmark is estimated to generate a net value of washing machines, thereby stimulating repair ser- EUR 150–250 million by 2035. Significant oppor- vices and combating the “throwaway consumer tunities are also available in the construction and culture” (The Guardian, 2016). real estate sectors. For example, the sharing and (iii) Bottom-up actions by citizens’ networks multi-purposing of buildings could create value of and groups, and the involvement of businesses in EUR 300–450 million by 2035 in Denmark. In addi- the creation of innovative solutions for sustain- tion to the economic gains, moving toward a circu- able urban environment, play central roles in ac- lar/performance-based economy has positive net celerating the transition to circular cities. Exam- effects on employment in cities because service ples include community-driven energy programs, sector businesses (e.g. repair, maintenance, up- local food initiatives, participation in the sharing grading and remanufacturing) are more labour- economy and so-called collaborative consumption. intensive than mining and manufacturing activi- The sharing economy and collaborative consump- ties (Wijkman and Skånberg, 2016). tion are based on principles of individuals sharing access to products and services instead of main- International Outlook taining private ownership (Schor, 2016). By shift- The CE is rather well-researched across different ing the focus from ownership to leasing, the shar- sectors, particularly mobility, waste management, ing economy changes consumption patterns and food and the built environment (e.g. EMF et al., contributes to the reduction of structural waste. 2015; Geng et al., 2009). However, there is a lack In response to the growing popularity of the of attention to CE cities in the literature (Prendev- sharing economy, new business models focused ille et al., 2017), a lack of research into how the on service and function have sprung up in recent concept can be implemented in cities and what a years in Nordic cities. There are three types of ser- fully “circular” city entails, and a lack of knowledge vice-based business models. The first type includes about whether CE is being implemented strategi- product and service systems, which refers to shar- cally in cities (Lindner et al., 2017; Prendeville et al., ing or renting a product or service, such as cars, 2017). Nevertheless, some research on CE cities bikes, clothes and tools. For example, the Swedish has been conducted, mainly by Chinese research- retail company Houdini offers sports equipment ers, with a focus on industrial eco-parks (Prendev- for rent, not for sale. The second type of service- ille et al., 2017). white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 47 In a recently published paper titled, “Cities in edged for its Climate Resilient Neighborhood pro- the Circular Economy: An Initial Exploration”, the ject (ICLEI, 2016). Moreover, the city is developing Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017:12) states that a decision tool for circular economic public pur- “the research on the ‘circular city’ has just begun”. chasing and procurement (Greater Copenhagen, Another example of increasing interest in this 2017). Other good practice examples include the area is the newly launched Horizon 2020 project Producer Partnership in Oslo, which is an innova- FORCE, which stands for “Cities Collaborating for tive collaboration between Oslo and a plastics Circular Economy”, and involves the cities of Co- manufacturer, and the municipality-run internal penhagen, Hamburg, Lisbon and Genoa working furniture circulation platform and Alelyckan Recy- towards a CE (CE FORCE, 2016). cling Park in Gothenburg (Lindner et al., 2017). Hel- CE cities appeared on the EU agenda in 2016 sinki (Sitra 2017) and Tampere (Guangzhou Award with the launching of the Partnership on CE as 2017) have also been acknowledged for their CE one of the themes of the Urban Agenda for the practices. EU. The objective of the partnership was to iden- Nordic cities are at the forefront of adopting tify innovative and feasible solutions in the field CE solutions, but they could benefit from a sys- of waste management, sharing economies and temic and strategic implementation of a CE in cit- resource efficiency in cities (EC, 2016). Several cities, and from research on circular cities that would ies have taken a strategic approach to a CE. For promote understanding of the concept and facili- instance, London’s Waste and Recycling Board has tate its implementation in practice. developed London’s Circular Economy Route Map (LWARB, 2015), and the French environmental 4.9. The Smart City agency ADEME has produced a white paper on the Implementing intelligent technologies CE of greater Paris (ADEME, 2016). The Nordic countries are the most digitalized coun- In Europe, Amsterdam is referred to as a cir- tries in Europe. Particularly in Sweden and Finland, cular hotspot, and a CE is written into the city’s historically strong development in the mobile te- sustainability agenda (Prendeville et al., 2017). lephony sector has created a strong internation- Amsterdam set up an innovation program on the al position in the field of smart cities. Solutions CE and is planning to redesign 20 product or ma- include smart transportation, energy systems terial chains in the city (ASM 2017). Among other (smart grids) and waste and water management. prominent European cities that have large com- Nordic cities use smart solutions to empower its mitments to developing a CE include Rotterdam, residents by providing information and education where a CE is seen as a tool to create sustainable that enable them to use smart technologies. and innovative businesses, and Glasgow, which is The digital and smart city approaches play completing the Circle City Scan, an extensive re- a key role in implementing sustainable urban de- search project on urban material flows and the po- velopment. The digital city mainly contributes to tential of the CE (Prendeville et al., 2017). this process by integrating new technological fea- Launching the EMF Circular Cities Network in tures and infrastructure into urban strategies. The 2016 was an important milestone in advancing the smart city approach concerns the management circular city concept. Of the 12 “pioneering circular and governance of innovative technologies for cities”, four are European (Copenhagen, London, better urban environments, including transport Ljubljana, Peterborough) and six are North Ameri- and communication infrastructures, energy sav- can (Austin, Boulder, New York, Phoenix, Vancou- ings, the maintenance of urban green areas, the ver, Toronto). The remaining two cities are Rio de reduction of air pollution and sustainable growth, Janeiro and Tel Aviv (EMF, 2016). Outside the EU, with the goal of improving citizens’ quality of life Vancouver has attracted attention for its CE ef- (D’Auria et al., 2014). Digital city solutions are ex- forts, as the CE is seen as a solution to the grow- pected to not only improve the efficiency of urban ing problem of waste (VEC, 2016). systems and better the environment, but also, with As a member of the EMF Circular Cities Net- smart management and support from open data, work and a partner in the FORCE project, Copen- enable a new era for citizen engagement and gov- hagen is the forerunner in the Nordic Region in ernment transparency. Digitalization also has the incorporating a CE into its urban operations. In potential to improve co-operation in government 2016, Copenhagen was internationally acknowl- networks and multi-stakeholder partnerships, as white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 48 Young women with mobile phones. Source: Benjamin Suomela / Norden.org well as to enable the integration of different urban ters of sound information and communication functions (energy, buildings, infrastructure, trans- technology (ICT) infrastructures in cities, and of port and provision of services), thereby improving knowledge expansion through the implementa- the efficiency of these functions (Demos Helsinki, tion of smart city solutions. This builds on a long 2016). Examples of key ingredients in the Nordic tradition of developing infrastructure to support digital city are smart grid solutions for more ef- the digitalization of public services in the public ficient energy systems, digital tools for citizens’ sector. For example, Finland was the first country development and improved government systems, intelligent public transport systems to reduce car- Utilizing the Nordic compe- bon emissions, and public support for open data tences in the gaming industry solutions to improve quality of life. for the digitalisation of planning, According to the European Commission’s index (DESI11) the Nordic countries are the most dig- e.g., in making 3D models and italized in Europe. The commission attributes this game-like participation methods. performance to the following five key aspects: a KARI TUUKKANEN, BUSINESS AREA well-established broadband infrastructure; strong DIRECTOR, SITO DIGITAL SERVICES, HELSINKI digital skills in human capital; a high degree of internet usage; the integration of digital technolo- to declare that broadband access is a legal right gies in businesses; and the digitalization of public for every citizen, and Sweden ranks fourth in the services (European Commission, 2017). These gen- world in the percentage of fixed broadband sub- eral aspects have also enabled Nordic cities to be scriptions on fibre-optic networks. The Swedish forerunners in various smart technology solutions, government is also committed to providing ex- including the management of urban systems and panded high-speed internet to rural areas, and environments. Nordic cities have been early adop- Stockholm will be the first city in the world with a 5G network in 2018. However, there are challenges associated with 11 The Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) is a composite index that summarizes Europe’s digital performance and competitiveness by digitalizing cities and implementing smart city so- measuring relevant societal and economic indicators. lutions on a global scale; collectively, this is known white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 49 as the digital divide. A large percentage of citizens residents are encouraged to share their thoughts in urban areas do not have the infrastructure and and ideas in a fun way to influence how their local competencies for full participation in a digital ur- surroundings will look in the future (Svensk byg- ban life. This includes limited access to communi- gtjänst, 2016). This concept has been used in mul- cation technologies, including broadband connec- tiple urban planning projects in Sweden, including tivity (Ragnedda & Muschert, 2013). However, the the relocation of the mining city Kiruna in northern challenges of digitalization are not strictly related Sweden. The Kiruna project solicited input from to technological issues. There are also challenges 50 schools around Sweden that used Minecraft to associated with changing behaviour and improv- contribute urban proposals for new city centre de- ing knowledge about how to develop and use digi- velopment in Kiruna. tal urban services. Nordic cities have extensive experience in developing high-quality public transport systems Innovation leaders in Smart Grid with intelligent digital features. This enhances Development the efficiency of public transport in terms of both Smart grid solutions offer the possibility of trans- service provision and user experiences. The Finn- ferring electricity from many different power sup- ish company PayiQ is a leading Nordic example of pliers to consumers using state-of-the-art tech- smartphone payment solutions, and it has devel- nologies and intelligent monitoring systems that oped the world’s first cloud-based mobile ticket- keep track of all electricity flowing in the system. ing solution for public and private urban mobility Smart grids guarantee interoperability at all times services. The focus is on mobile tickets, security of the day, thereby enabling the flexible use of dif- and safety for all means of travel, including vari- ferent renewable energy resources. There are many ous services to support a shared economy. PayiQ innovative development projects in the Nordic Re- is also a Microsoft CityNext Partner and an ac- gion that are centred on smart grid development, tive member in the Global MaaS Alliance (TEKES, including an interesting Finnish project involving 2015). This project underscores the strengths Empower IM, Elenia, There Corporation, Helen of the Nordic cities in developing new solutions Oy, Fortum, Lappeenranta and Tampere Univer- through strong partnerships between the public sities of Technology, and VTT Technical Research and private sectors. Centre of Finland. These partners are developing a system that will enable energy consumption to Digital tools for implementing the smart city follow market signals and be able to maximize the Open data is a key component for implementing benefits of renewable energy generation by con- a digital city, but the challenge is to use the avail- trolling and adjusting consumption to time-of-day able data in innovative and productive ways. The fluctuations in renewable energy production, such added value of open data cannot be realized un- as wind and sun. Thus, it will allow for the full use less the data are applied in practical and market- of solar and wind potentials at all times of the day able solutions in both the public and private sec- (TEKES 2016). tors. However, Nordic cities also have a strong tradition of collaboration through public–private Exploiting open data through strong partner- partnerships. An interesting example of using ship between public and private sector new digital solutions based on open data is Hel- Digital tools for citizens’ engagement is also an sinki Loves Developers (Hel<3Dev). Hel<3Dev is a area in which Nordic countries have developed ex- concept to enhance open dialogue and developer cellent knowledge and competence. One promising co-operation by providing an open platform and case is the so-called “block by block” project, which meet-ups for discussion and co-creation. One so- was initiated by Mojang (the makers of Minecraft), lution developed with Hel<3Dev is a mobile appli- UN-Habitat and Swedish Building Services (Sven- cation (MOOSE) to help exchange students easily sk Byggtjänst). These actors have been collabo- find relevant information about housing, study- rating on an innovative programme in which Mi- ing and events. MOOSE is based on open data, is necraft is used as a community participation tool freely available to download, and already has one for the design of urban public spaces. The concept paying customer. Another interesting digital solu- focuses on gathering ideas from residents to im- tion developed using Hel<3Dev is the Env&You pro- prove their neighbourhoods. Within My Blocks, ject, which has developed a new model for calcu- white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 50 A high level of trust is also during the 1990s and 2000s, there were very few an important precondition papers on all continents on the topic until 2010, for open data; trust that the open when the EU relaunched the term in the EU2020 strategy to boost urban sustainability projects data will be used for common throughout the union. Since then, the number of good. It is easier to build co-opera- reviewed papers and urban policies focusing on the tion and to create new innovations smart city has increased tremendously (D’Auria et when data is open’. al., 2014). Outside of the EU, the trend is similar, with an increased focus on developing cities based TIINA KÄHÖ, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, HELSINKI METROPOLITAN SMART & CLEAN FOUNDATION on the smart city concept. In recent years, large- scale city development projects have increased lating more accurate air quality forecasts for the along with increasing urbanization, and the smart benefit of both citizens and city authorities. The city concept has been a key strategy for cities. In Env&You project shows how digital solutions can particular, megacities in Asia provide some inter- benefit sustainable urban development by map- esting examples, including China’s launch of a na- ping out pollution on individual, local and daily tional smart city strategy for all city regions. Other levels. It gathers accurate information about the Asian examples include projects that are using the environment to support the well-being of the city’s smart city approach, such as Smart Hong Kong, citizens (Helsinki Loves Developers). Shanghai Municipality for Building Smart City and A key strength of Nordic cities is the well-de- the Taipei Smart City Project Management Office. veloped ICT infrastructure throughout the region. A similar example in the Middle East is the massive This continues to give Nordic cities a head start in new city development being done for the Sustain- digitalization, leading to many promising solutions able Masdar Smart City (UAE) project. There has for smart city implementation. However, to fully also been an increased use of the smart city con- exploit the advantages of a digitalized city, more cept on the North American continent in both Ca- large-scale testing is needed, and the solutions nadian and American cities. A few examples of cit- need to become even more user-friendly. Thus, ies with ambitions to be smart include Smart City there is a need for increased Nordic support and New York, Seattle City Initiative, Edmonton Smart joint strategies between public and private ac- City and Montreal Smart City. Additionally, there tors in the Nordic cities for upgrading technologies are some examples in Australia, Latin America and globally, as well as support for the internationali- South America, such as City Smart Brisbane and zation of Nordic solutions. Furthermore, the users Smart City Panama. of these solutions need to be educated, informed The primary European research cluster seems and transformed into “digital citizens” in order to be concentrated in the North Sea region, in- for the solutions to be mainstreamed. Therefore, cluding the Netherlands, Belgium, the UK and tools, campaigns and other methods of changing the Nordic countries, with a second cluster in the user behaviour is a key aspect to be developed in Mediterranean region, including Spain, France and the future. Italy (Cocchia, 2014; D’Auria et al., 2014). In the Eu- ropean arena, Amsterdam is one of the forerun- International outlook ners in digital solutions with the Smart City Am- The research on smart cities is dominated by re- sterdam initiative. This last example emphasizes searchers from Asia, mostly from China, Japan the efforts to develop a smart city that focuses on and Taiwan. According to a 2014 literature review, living, working, mobility, public facilities and open 49% of papers were from Asia, with Europe as the data through the engagement of innovative busi- second most productive continent, with 36% of nesses, authorities, research institutions and peo- the papers. North America had 9% of the papers, ple of Amsterdam. and the remaining continents of Oceania, Africa According to Cocchia (2014) and D’Auria et al. and Middle/South America had 3%, 2% and 1%, (2014), the research on smart cities in the Nordic respectively (Cocchia, 2014; D’Auria et al., 2014). countries has made an important contribution to One interesting aspect of the Smart City con- the field, but it is not prominent. However, in recent cept is that use of the smart city in research can years the research projects and funding available be traced back to its origin, around 1994. However, for smart city projects has increased in the Nordic white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 51 countries, especially considering that the Nordic city at the time of their realization. Urban and in- countries are among the most digitalized coun- terior and product design played an important role tries on the globe. Research on the smart city has in branding the Nordic countries and building the been prioritized, as the concept has broad political Nordic national identities, especially in the dec- support in all of the Nordic countries. The larger ades after the Second World War. city regions in the Nordic countries all have well- developed smart city strategies and advanced Closeness to nature technological solutions for urban planning. One Generalization is necessary to see the values that of the more well-known smart city initiatives in form the basis for Nordic cities, but there are the Nordic countries is in Helsinki, which has been some specific Nordic urban design traits. First, the a forerunner in this area. The Helsinki Smart City dominant natural resources and the dominant in- initiative has developed into a strong innovation dustries have shaped the development of Nordic cluster supported by local and regional authori- cities. For example, in Norway, the oil, the water ties. This includes various living lab and mobile ap- and the fisheries have influenced the location of plication clusters on urban issues, as well as larger settlements, economic development and energy flagships projects, such as the Smart Kalasatama systems. In Sweden, the historically strong auto- district and the co-creation platform called Hel- mobile industry has been an influential lobbyist for sinki Loves Developers. Helsinki also co-organizes the importance of transportation planning and hackathon programming marathons and open car use, whereas the forestry industry has been data apps competitions. important for the use of wood as a building ma- With a history as early adopters of digital ur- terial, which has influenced the physical design of ban solutions, a long tradition of creative urban Swedish cities and towns. planning and major contributions to Smart Cities Second, Nordic urban design should be under- research, the Nordic countries are in a strong posi- stood in the context of comparatively late urbani- tion internationally in terms of both practice and zation and small cities. The international style and research. its ideas of building minimalist functional homes and urban environments, as well as the ideas of 4.10. The Design City preserving nature and safeguarding light and Placing people and nature in the centre heat in the home in a relatively cold and dark cli- It is clear that both urban and interior or product mate, were influential (Arkitekturmuseet, 1980; design create a material basis for social life in cit- Saarikangas, 2002). During the post-war era, the ies. The physical environment and its design reflect cities expanded in terms of both population and the strong values and developmental paths of the the built environment, and the design and plan-

Nordic House, Reykjavík. Source: http://nordichouse.is/en/event/umhverfismatsdagurinn-2017/ white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 52 When we build, we make use and Scandinavian are often used interchangeably of the light, bringing daylight to refer to the same geographic region, although into the building. We understand formally, they do not) of furniture and homewares, the value of it, as we spend so for example, is internationally famous as repre- much time in buildings in the Nordic senting good quality, good craftsmanship and good Region due to the cold climate. use of local materials such as wood and metal (Skou & Munch, 2016). This is a result of both a TINA SAABY, CHIEF CITY ARCHITECT few strong individuals networking and succeeding AT COPENHAGEN MUNICIPALITY internationally during the decades after the Sec- ond World War and the work of craft and design ning ideals of the 1940s–1960s continue to shape organizations such as Svensk Form, Norsk Form, the outline of many Nordic cities. This was also the Danish guilds, etc., over more than a century. an era of fame for Nordic architecture and urban They created arenas for education and debate planning, with designers such as Alvar Aalto and and brought Nordic design out into the world. The Eero Saarinen from Finland and Jörn Utzon from success is also related to the scaling-up of small Denmark receiving international attention, along craft-based businesses, as well as the persistence with international visits to the Stockholm suburban development in Vällingby. Suburbanization Danish architects are during the post-war decades can be character- respected (…) We have a ized as neighbourhood-oriented and rather small scale (Engfors, 1987); however, it became bigger strong selling point here when it during the 1960s and 70s. In some respects, this comes to education for landscape development reflects the values of the Nordic wel- architects who focus on fare state, such as equality, closeness to nature, sustainability. collectivism and community, including emphases TINA SAABY, CHIEF CITY ARCHITECT on collective spaces, public transportation and lo- AT COPENHAGEN MUNICIPALITY cal services, making a well-functioning everyday life possible (Saarikangas, 2002). In the contem- of the natural material tradition that originated in porary era, the international reputation of Nordic the local production (as in regional, national, Scan- architecture is represented by the Norweigan of- dinavian, Nordic or Baltic) of design products. To- fice Snøhetta or the Danish Bjarke Ingels Group, day, the design sector in the Nordic countries is an among others. important growth industry, but it remains small and dominated by small firms, usually one-person Nordic design equals quality companies (Power, 2005; Power et al., 2006); of If urban design during the decades after the Sec- course, there are larger brands, such as the Finnish ond World War focused on growth through expan- Iittala and Marimekko, and internationally famous sion and building on previously undeveloped land, products, such as Poul Henningsens PH lamps or the contemporary post-industrial Nordic vision is Arne Jacobsen’s chair Myren (The Ant). to densify these sparse structures and regenerate There are those who see the dominant “Scan- old industrial land close to city centres. The goal is dinavian design” narrative about quality, crafts- to decrease the dependency on cars and the need manship and “blonde” materials as limiting and for transportation by creating more compact cit- apolitical. They prefer alternative stories of more ies. However, even though there is a strong inter- explicit political activism in the field of design, or of est in and focus on the compact city, there remains the “nonbranding” of products (Fallan, 2012). Nev- a strong desire to live just outside the city centre, ertheless, these alternative narratives still assume with easy access to green spaces and public trans- that there is something that can be conceptual- port, and some (today, often limited) services ized as Scandinavian design. nearby. If Nordic urban design is primarily known for The importance of norms post-war examples of high-quality, functionalist, As in urban development, there has been a focus in close-to-nature suburban developments, Nordic the design sector on functional everyday life prod- or Scandinavian product design (the terms Nordic ucts that are accessible to broad groups of people. white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 53 Nordic architecture is low the field of design research, we need to add the key, clean and modest experimental approach of “research through design”, which uses design as a method rather than MADELEINE NOBS, BUSINESS DEVELOPER SUSTAINABLE analysing its result, i.e. a kind of action research BUSINESS AT NCC BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION COMPANY (Laurel, 2003). Research for urban design that formulates ad- The idea of the “good home” paired with develop- vice and principles for practice has a long history ments in the construction and furniture industries and is perhaps the core of urban design research during the 1900s, as well as the standardization (see, e.g. Larice and Macdonald, 2013). Danish efforts in the 1940s by organizations such as Hem- architect Jan Gehl has influenced the field by fo- mens Forskningsinstitut (a Swedish institute that cusing on the spaces between the buildings and researched rational home design), connects urban their impact on social life. Bill Hillier’s space syn- design and the design of objects in the Nordic con- tax theory is also often used to analyse degrees text. The home is an expression of identity, and it of publicness and accessibility of streets and pub- is supposed to be safe, well-designed and filled lic spaces, which are measured in flows of people with objects that have certain meanings, such as and movement patterns. Other current arenas in memories and symbols of status or function. The which research and practice meet are in the Amer- standardization of interior design elements such as ican New Urbanism movement (Congress for the kitchen cabinets makes the Nordic home relatively New Urbanism, 1996) and in Landscape urbanism easy to refurnish and renovate, but it has also es- (Waldheim, 2006). Research on urban design often tablished a quite strict and normative framework comes from the social sciences and deals with the for everyday life. With respect to inclusiveness and intersection of the social and the material in such “design for all”, it should be mentioned that pres- areas as the use of public space (Mitchell, 2003), ently, there is a Nordic declaration of universal de- gentrification (Zukin, 2010) and issues related to sign (Björk, 2014), and in Sweden, there has been disabilities and accessibility (Boys, 2014). So-called an emphasis on “design for all” since the 1990s tactical urbanism is a recent example of research (www.designforalla.se). through design, in that it uses actual interventions Even though both urban and interior design in the urban space as a means of experimenta- during the post-war decades were normative in tion (Lydon and Garcia, 2015). Doing research the sense that they were oriented toward the het- through design can also involve designing objects erosexual nuclear family and the housewife, this that make social norms visible or encourage cer- norm did acknowledge the housewife’s (unpaid) tain types of social interactions (Ehrnberger, 2017; work. She was the user of practical and hygienic Grillner, 2013), or it may focus on using “design homewares, of hot water and laundry machines; thinking” in developing a project (Curedale, 2016). she was the one taking her children to the neigh- In very general terms, contemporary urban de- bourhood playground or the local shopping cen- sign practice in Europe can be said to have similar tre. The Swedish interior decorator Lena Larsson ambitions as design practice in the Nordic Region: revolutionized home life and interior design in the densification, adoption of new environmental 1950s by introducing the idea of the family room technology and a focus on public transportation. to replace the formal salon, again with the focus The development of the polders in Amsterdam on the rational and practical everyday life of the and the Rieselfeld and Vauban neighbourhoods in family. Of course, this is an historical heritage, but Freiburg, Germany are often cited as good Euro- it continues to influence Scandinavian and Nordic pean examples. Regarding the design of objects, design practice and marketing to this day. sustainability concerns started to be incorporated in the 1960s, after Rachel Carson’s book Silent International outlook Spring was published (Houze, 2010). Today recy- As is the case with urban and regional planning cling, reuse and sustainable production and con- research, it is possible to distinguish between re- sumption are central to the industry, despite the search for (urban) design and research about (ur- parallel mass consumption of clothing, furniture, ban) design—that is, there is applied research that housewares, etc. “Scandinavian design” is a well- tries to change practice, and theoretical research known phenomenon outside the Nordic countries that has design practice as its object of study. In and “[d]esign has long been an integral part of white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 54 cultural life in the Nordic countries” (Power et al of designers (Moultrie and Livesey, 2009). Among 2006). The UK Design Council commissioned a re- the indicators of Nordic success are public invest- port in 2009 comparing a number of countries with ment levels, trademark registrations, design firms respect to “design capabilities”, and the Nordic and design graduates. This means that design is countries rank rather well overall, although there measured as a business sector and thus important is room for improvement, such as in the education for national competitiveness.

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 55 5. THE NORDIC SUSTAINABLE CITY Core narrative

Figure 4: Nordic Sustainable City – framework white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 56 5.1. Final considerations plementation of sustainable measures in the cities To create a common platform where the compe- of the Nordic Region are thus grounded in historical tences of various sectors and actors in the Nordic processes that are unique in the Nordic Region. Region are acknowledged, this white paper pro- Therefore, communicating this story to other poses a framework in which stories of the Nordic audiences outside the Nordic Region requires shift- Sustainable Cities can be told. ing the perspective from which the story can be A combination of Nordic values and Nordic told. Rather than departing from the Nordic values, tools has resulted in Nordic practices that deliver the story should focus on the Nordic practices. sustainable urban solutions in different fields. The Thus, the core story could have two narratives: test of this framework in workshops suggested one of enhancing cohesion among diverse actors that this story can function as a platform that, in by highlighting the added value of the Nordic coun- addition to describing the overall scope of Nordic tries working together, and the other of commu- solutions for sustainable cities, also allows an ex- nicating good practices and sharing experiences ploration of multiple paths by which sustainable with audiences outside the Nordic Region that urban development may be realized. could contribute to ‘making cities inclusive, safe, In these workshops, diverse actors engaged in resilient and sustainable’. The figures 5 and 6 illus- discussions and developed ideas about the feasibil- trate both possibilities. ity of implementing solutions in various contexts. While some participants highlighted the value of the story as a checklist of competences in relation to urban sustainable initiatives or projects, others discussed the opportunity for joint action and the opportunity to deliver further sustainable solutions. The simplification needed to maintain a core narrative was also often discussed. This prompted debate on the specific challenges that many cities in the Nordic Region face (such as segregation and housing shortages). In regard to the Figure 4, it is worth noting that although it represents practices (inclusive, healthy, smart, etc.) as pieces that seem to be contained within boundaries, it is acknowledged that there is a clear interaction between them. For example, the ‘circular economy city’ certainly has syner- Figure 5: Telling the story to build cohesion among actors in the Nordic Region gies with the ‘smart city’, considering that digital platforms provide a means of mediating collaborative consumption. Therefore, the story has the ambition to be holistic and dynamic, and one in which the parts (values, tools, practices) can be combined.

Communicating the story of the Nordic Sustainable Cities to other audiences The double and conflicting task of telling the same story to different audiences deserves some- at tention here. In this respect, we emphasize that the actors of the Nordic Region are the exclusive target group of this story. As argued above, the standards achieved by some cities in the Nordic Region are the result of long-standing processes whereby societal values have influenced governance Figure 6: Telling the story to other audiences outside tools and practices. The preconditions for the im- the Nordic Region white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 57 Although they have overcome challenges, Nor- tices, institutional settings and informal values. dic cities will probably face many others in the near Understanding different urban realities will also future, especially in relation to changing climate inform and help Nordic cities prepare for future and demography. Thus, telling the story of Nordic uncertainty. Sustainable Cities to other audiences seems to be Despite challenges, telling this story outside a remarkable opportunity to co-create knowledge the Nordic Region may be an enlightening process, about sustainability with and in different socio- in which cities with different preconditions can economic and political contexts. Exploring the via- learn from each other, while attempting to mini- bility of implementing Nordic solutions in different mize urban environmental and social problems. circumstances will probably require negotiation Such exchanges and knowledge adaptation are and adjustments of the ‘Nordic way’, which should fundamental requirements for achieving a more account for other cultures’ distinct social prac- sustainable global urban future.

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 58 References

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white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 69 Appendix 1

List of interviewees and participants in the focus groups

Denmark Finland Iceland Sweden Norway Greenland Other countries

Neel Strøbæk, Anni Sverrir Jonas Törnblom, Herbjørn Mats Hjerpe, Giselher Civil and Sinnemäki, Bollason, Director of Tjeltveit, Director of Shultz- Structural Deputy Mayor Environment Marketing and CEO at Nordic the Nordic Berndt, Eng., Group of Real Estate and Planning Communications Edge Institute in Managing Market and City at VSO at Envac Group Greenland Director of Director at Planning at Consulting AB HafenCity, Rambøll City of Helsinki Hamburg, Germany

Anna Louise Juha Ólöf Östen Ekengren, Frode Vattum, Larry Beasley, Højbjerg Kostiainen, Örvarsdóttir, Vice General Head of Professor Henrichsen, Senior Vice Head of Manager at Strategy for of Planning, Public Affairs President, Division, IVL – Svenska Oslo’s public University Manager at Sustainable Reykjavik Miljöinstitutet transport of British Danfoss Urban Environmental (Swedish authority Ruter Columbia. Development and Planning Environment Former Co- at YIT Department, Research Director of Corporation Reykjavik City Institute) Planning for – YIT – the City of Building and Vancouver – Construction Canada Company

Tina Saaby, Kari Kankaala, Anders Sundvall, Tor Inge Chief City Director of Executive Direc- Hjemdal, Architect at Economic tor of Environ- Director of Copenhagen and Urban mentally-driv- Architecture Municipality Development en Business at Design and with the City of Development at Architecture Tampere Dalarna Science Norway – Park DogA Asset (Associa- tion of Swedish Environment Technology)

Klaus Lehn Kari Tuukkanen, Göran Cars, City Rainer Stange, Christensen, Business Area Developer at Partner/ Danish Director, Digital Kiruna Kommun Professor/ Cleantech Hub, Services at Landskaps- NYC SITO arkitekt MNLA, DRONNINGA LANDSKAP

Holger Karin Wikman, Lars Marcus, Tonje Værdal Bisgaard, Programme Professor of Frydenlund, Nature Agency Director of Urban Design Managing (Naturstyrelsen) the Witty City and Planning Director at Smart Cities at at Chalmers Snøhetta Tekes (Finnish University in Innovation Gothenburg Agency)

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 70 Denmark Finland Iceland Sweden Norway Greenland Other countries

Continued.

Peter Baltzer Marko Björn Hugosson, Ellen Husaas, Nielsen, ‎City Forsblom, CEO Head of Climate Senior Adviser, Architect, Region at ITS Finland Unit at City of Contact for Nordjylland, (Intelligent Stockholm Better City Danmark, Transport Environment, Municipality of Systems Cities of the Aalborg Finland) Future

Stig Anderson, Tiina Kähö, Anna Olofsson, Landscape Executive SWECO Architect, Director Founder and at Helsinki Creative Metropolitan Director at Smart & Clean SLA Foundation

Peder Baltzer, Jarmo Ulf Johansson, City Architect, Eskelinen, Chief Innovation Municipality of Innovation and Manager at Aalborg, DK Technology Camfil AB, Officer at Research and Future Cities Development Catapult Department

Helle Søholt, Madeleine Nobs, Founding Developer in Partner, CEO Sustainable Architect, Gehl Business at Architects NCC Building & Construction Company

Jens Kvorning, Monica von Architect, Schmalensee, Professor of CEO at White urban planning, Arkitekter Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture

Flemming Borreskov, President and Founder at Catalytic Society

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 71 Nordic City Network – NCN n Anna Maria Bogadottir, Architect FAÍ at ÚRBAN- n Christer Larsson, Chairman, ISTAN, Iceland n Per Riisom, Director n Rainer Stange, Landscape architect and partner, n Hannah Wadman, Head of Secretary Dronninga Landskap, Norway n Henrik Poulsen, Analyst and communicator n Peter Örn, Independent management consulting n Uffe Steiner Jensen, Political Advisor professional, Sweden n Louise Vogel Kielgast, Member Network Secretary n Larry Beasley, Former Co-Director of Planning n Eva Engquist, Member Network Secretary for the City of Vancouver, Canada n Jerry Lanka, Intern n Gieselher Schultz-Berndt, Managing Director of HafenCity, Hamburg, Germany Nordic Built Cities – Jury Members n Flemming Borreskov, President and founder at Branding representatives from Catalytic Society, Denmark the Nordic Region n Birita Wardum, City architect at Tórshavnar n Homanen Ilkka, FinPro, Finland kommuna, Faroe Islands n Andri Marteinsson, Promote Iceland, Iceland n Jarmo Eskelinen, CEO of Forum Virium Helsinki, n Anette Brænder, State of Green, Denmark Finland n Annie Ross, Business Sweden, Sweden n Hanna Rehling, Planner at at Orbicon, Greenland n Oscar Kipperberg, Innovation Norway, Norway

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 72 Appendix 2

Questionnaire used during the 3. Do you see these preconditions as possible ex- workshops and phone interviews port goods to other countries? If so, what could be Interview about Nordic city characteristics exported? Is it already happening? (Q3 leads over and qualities: to Q4, about cases, examples, etc.) We are interested in your knowledge and reflections about sustainable urban development in the Nordic 4. Where do we find the best showcases of Nor- countries: Nordic qualities, policies and cases. dic good practice in the Nordic countries as well as abroad? Could you give examples of places, plan- 1. First, if you were to tell a non-Nordic visitor a ning cases, innovations, companies, products, etc., story about the most important characteristics/ that you think embody or practice the values of qualities of Nordic cities, what would you empha- “Nordic cities” that we have discussed, or that are size? What are the main characteristics and quali- good examples of urban development in the Nordic ties of a Nordic city? (any particular characteristics context, representing good Nordic urban develop- in the built environment/urban life/mobility, etc.) ment practice?

2. What are the preconditions for these character- 5. Are you familiar with any existing collaborations istics and qualities? The central planning tools, pol- between Nordic cities and cities in China, India or icies, values, ways of doing things, etc., that result the U.S.? Existing networks? Successful export in “the Nordic city”? (For example, these could be a products? planning system that invites citizen participation, an innovative energy sector, strong advocacy for 6. Are there any other issues that should be included public transportation, active lobbyists for disabil- in this story? ity issues, a municipal planning monopoly, distributive regional policy, etc.)

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 73

P.O. Box 1658 SE-111 86 Stockholm, Sweden [email protected] www.nordregio.se www.norden.org

white paper on nordic sustainable cities developed by nordregio 76