Las Adaptaciones Cinematográficas De Cómics En Estados Unidos (1978-2014)

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Las Adaptaciones Cinematográficas De Cómics En Estados Unidos (1978-2014) UNIVERSITAT DE VALÈNCIA Facultat de Filologia, Traducció i Comunicació Departament de Teoria dels Llenguatges i Ciències de la Comunicació Programa de Doctorado en Comunicación Las adaptaciones cinematográficas de cómics en Estados Unidos (1978-2014) TESIS DOCTORAL Presentada por: Celestino Jorge López Catalán Dirigida por: Dr. Jenaro Talens i Dra. Susana Díaz València, 2016 Por Eva. 0. Índice. 1. Introducción ............................................................................................. 1 1.1. Planteamiento y justificación del tema de estudio ....................... 1 1.2. Selección del periodo de análisis ................................................. 9 1.3. Sinergias industriales entre el cine y el cómic ........................... 10 1.4. Los cómics que adaptan películas como género ........................ 17 2. 2. Comparación entre los modos narrativos del cine y el cómic .......... 39 2.1. El guion, el primer paso de la construcción de la historia ....... 41 2.2. La viñeta frente al plano: los componentes básicos esenciales del lenguaje ........................................................................................... 49 2.3. The gutter ................................................................................. 59 2.4. El tiempo .................................................................................. 68 2.5. El sonido ................................................................................... 72 3. Las películas que adaptan cómics entre 1978 y 2014 ........................... 75 3.1. Relación por orden cronológico. Ficha básica de cada película 75 3.2. Organización por contenidos. .................................................. 144 3.2.1. El Universo DC en el cine ............................................ 144 3.2.1.1. Superman ........................................................... 149 3.2.1.2. Batman ............................................................... 167 3.2.1.3. Otros personajes, series y novelas gráficas de DC en el cine .............................................................................. 196 3.2.2. El Universo Marvel en el cine ...................................... 227 3.2.2.1. Blade .................................................................. 233 3.2.2.2. X-Men ................................................................ 235 3.2.2.3. Spider-Man ........................................................ 250 3.2.2.4. Hulk .................................................................... 256 3.2.2.5. Fantastic Four .................................................... 259 3.2.2.6. Punisher.............................................................. 262 3.2.2.7. Ghost Rider ........................................................ 263 3.2.2.8. Otros personajes de Marvel en el cine ............... 264 3.2.2.9. El Universo Cinematográfico Marvel ............... 266 4. Modelos de análisis para la adaptación de cómics al cine .................. 273 4.1. Análisis cuantitativo de las adaptaciones ................................. 273 4.2. Modelos de análisis temáticos y estructurales ......................... 277 4.3. Estudio de caso. La adaptación de “Ghostworld”.................... 297 5. Conclusiones ....................................................................................... 319 Bibliografía. ............................................................................................. 331 1. Introducción. 1.1. Planteamiento y justificación del tema de estudio. Desde sus primeras proyecciones a comienzos de la década de los 90 del siglo XIX, el cine ha utilizado obras creadas originalmente en otras fuentes como base a partir de la cual desarrollar sus propias producciones. No ha despreciado ninguna de las formas de expresión artística que se han desarrollado a lo largo de la historia de nuestra cultura, y tales traslaciones, denominadas de manera genérica adaptaciones, han compuesto una parte esencial, especialmente significativa y extraordinariamente numerosa, del conjunto de producciones cinematográficas que se han estrenado hasta nuestros días, y –sin ninguna duda– seguirán siéndolo de las que se estrenen durante los próximos años. Una de las frases más frecuentes que puede encontrarse entre la crítica cinematográfica es que se recurre a las adaptaciones de obras producidas en otros medios debido a la falta de imaginación actual de los guionistas de Hollywood (utilizaremos la localización del principal núcleo de producción cinematográfica de Estados Unidos para referirnos al conjunto de las producciones realizadas en dicho país, puesto que es a partir de una selección de las películas norteamericanas estrenadas en un determinado periodo temporal sobre las que vamos a desarrollar nuestro trabajo), cuando tales adaptaciones no son un fenómeno precisamente contemporáneo. En la apertura de la Cuarta Conferencia de la International Association of Adaptation Studies celebrada en Southbank (Reino Unidos) a finales de septiembre de 2009, Timothy Corrigan identificó las tres tendencias que se pueden apreciar en las adaptaciones cinematográficas modernas: 1 “La primera era el incremento de las adaptaciones de “textos clásicos” (por ejemplo, de Shakespeare y de Austen), el segundo era la adaptación blockbuster como las de Harry Potter y el Señor de los Anillos, y el tercero era la adaptación fílmica de novelas gráficas, comic-books y videojuegos. Corrigan anotó que esta era tercera tendencia era la más distintiva, sugiriendo que se habían convertido en ‘al mismo tiempo depositarios de adaptaciones que responden a una superposición única entre la fuete y su adaptación, puesto que reciclan tanto imágenes visuales como puesta en escena gráficas‘.”1 Sirva la referencia como presentación de las similitudes formales entre el cómic y el cine, que han supuesto una fuente inagotable de discusión acerca de las interrelaciones estéticas entre ambos medios, así como vehículo para plantear las influencias que el uno ha tenido en el otro a lo largo de una historia que se ha desarrollado en paralelo desde que, tanto el cine como el cómic, adquirieron carta de naturaleza como medios de comunicación de masas. No es extraño, puesto que los trasvases del uno al otro medio se han producido desde (literalmente) el primer momento, ya que entre los cortos que se mostraron en la exhibición pública del Cinématographe que 1 The first was the increase in the adaptation of ‘classical texts’ (e.g. Shakespeare and Austen), the second was ‘blockbuster adaptations’ such as Harry Potter and The Lord of the Rings, and the third was the film adaptation of graphic novels, comic books and video games. Corrigan felt this third trend was the most distinctive, suggesting they have become, ‘repositories themselves for adaptations that respond to the unique representational overlap between source and adaptation, as they recycle both visual images and graphic mise-en-scènes”. Burke, 2010. 2 realizaron los hermanos Lumière en París en la Navidad del año 1895, y que se tiene como la primera presentación ante el público del cinematógrafo, se puede encontrar uno que, bajo el título “L’arroseur arrosé” es, en realidad, la adaptación de una muy popular historieta francesa que tuvo incluso varias versiones, ya que dicho momento cómico se puede rastrear de una manera más o menos semejante en el trabajo de Hermann Vogel en Imagerie Quantin, en una secuencia de Uzés en Le Chat Noir o en un dibujo de Christophe en Le Petit Français Illustré (entre otros, como puede comprobarse en el artículo publicado en Töpfferiana 2), y que, según expone Lance Rickman 3 es la primera adaptación de un cómic al cine. Esos intercambios se han producido en todos los periodos históricos de la evolución de ambos medios, así como en todos los países en los que se han creado cómics y en los que hay algún tipo de industria cinematográfica. El recurso a la narrativa dibujada como fuente de inspiración para el desarrollo de películas estrenadas en las salas de cine sigue siendo uno de los más usuales, y en este comienzo de la segunda década del siglo XXI no ha hecho sino aumentar, puesto que, como dice Gubern, cómic y cine tienen muchos elementos en común “como fenómenos de la industria cultural de masas de cuño norteamericano” 4. Sin embargo, esta traslación actualmente muy dinámica de los personajes de las viñetas a las pantallas de las salas no ha sido igual a lo largo de los casi 120 años de historia del medio cinematográfico, sino que ha pasado por 2 Arroseurs arrosés, publicado el 27 de octubre de 2010. http://topfferiana.free.fr/?p=2581 3 Rickman L. (2008). Bande dessinée and the Cinematograph: Visual Narrative in 1895, European Comic Art volumen 1, número 1, junio, Liverpool University Press. 4 Gubern, R. (1987). La mirada opulenta, Barcelona, Gustavo Gili, p.251. 3 diferentes etapas en los que el modo, la cantidad e incluso el modelo escogido para realización de tales adaptaciones ha ido evolucionando, principalmente en el país que hemos escogido para elaborar este trabajo: Estados Unidos. Es en el país norteamericano donde se ha desarrollado la industria cinematográfica más influyente de nuestro entorno cultural. Y también es en el que se han creado muchos de los cómics que más han contribuido a la internacionalización de esta forma de expresión, así como algunos de los que más se han exportado al resto del globo y que más han influido en nuestro modo de creación de narrativa dibujada. La presencia de las películas norteamericanas es hegemónica en nuestras pantallas, y los personajes
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