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Causes and Correlations of Happiness and Mental Health Among Adolescents CAUSES AND CORRELATIONS OF HAPPINESS AND MENTAL HEALTH AMONG ADOLESCENTS Helen L. Cheng Department of Psychology University College London December 2000 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science of the University of London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ProQuest Number: U644073 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest U644073 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 For My Parents Acknowledgements First, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my Supervisor Professor Adrian Fumham for his continuous support and insightful scientific guidance. He is ever present (seven days per week) with his door open while he is in the UK and I know that whenever I have questions I could always go to him and get prompt help. I am greatly indebted to Regis. S. T. F. Ltd. for the financial support throughout my degree studies. I am also indebted to all the pupils and students who participated in my studies with their time. I would like to thank particularly to Professor Chris McManus for specialist help with statistical analysis. I also would like to thank Ms Yasuko Shirasu for the Japanese translating work prepared for the cross­ culture study. Finally, I would like to thank the Department of Psychology UCL for the sound academic atmosphere and the excellent facilities provided. IV Abstract This thesis concerns the causes and correlations of happiness and mental health in adolescents. It contains six independent but related studies. Chapter one is a review of the literature in the area. In study 1, personality, self-esteem, “aspects of life”, affect, depression, and happiness were all measured and the data fully explored through using path analysis. Results revealed that although positive and negative affect were independent as found in the previous studies, general happiness and unhappiness which contain both cognitive judgements and affective responses are two extremes of one continuum and mirror each other to some extent though differ in relating to other variables. Study 2 set out to investigate the lay beliefs on the causes of happiness and its relation to other variables. A questionnaire was specially designed for the purpose of the study. Six clearly interpretable factors emerged from lay theory questionnaire, which were related to the other dimensions. Study 3 examined the relations between attributional style, personality, happiness, and mental health. It used two measures of attributional style. Results revealed that attributional style was a predictor of both happiness and mental health. Study 4 is a two-part study which set out to look at the perceived parental rearing styles and happiness in adolescents. The first part measured parental authority and the second part measured parental bonding. Results indicated that maternal authoritativeness and care were direct predictors of happiness whereas paternal authoritarian style and discouragement of behavioural freedom predicted happiness mediating through self-esteem. Study 5 looked at school setting, self-confidence, loneliness, and happiness. Results showed that friendship and self-confidence in academic performance but not actual grades were the predictors of adolescents’ self-reported happiness whereas psychoticism and self-confidence in social interactions were predictors of loneliness. Study 6 is a comparison study between China, Japan, and Britain which measured personality, happiness, and mental health. A general pattern was obtained in terms of causes and correlations of happiness and mental health from all three samples. Note: Study 6 has been published in Personality and Individual Differences, 1999, 27, 395-403. Study 2 has been published by the Journal of Happiness Studies, 2000, 1, 227-246. The first part of study 4 has been published by the journal of Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 2000, 35, 463-470. Although my Supervisor Professor Furnham is the first author in these published papers, the work of which these papers generated from was done by myself independently under my Supervisor’s guidance. Another two small scale studies which originally were part of study 3 but eventually were decided not to be included in the thesis have also been published in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1995, 34, 731-733 and Psychological Reports, 1997, 80, 761-762. Currently another three papers are under editorial review: study 3 by the journal of Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology', the second part of study 4 by the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and study 5 by the Journal of Adolescence. In each of these papers I am the first author. VI Contents Acknowledgement IV List of figures X List of tables xii Chapter 1: Introduction: review of the literature 1.1 History of research on happiness and positive affect 1 1.2 Definitions of happiness or psychological well-being 9 1.3 Theories on happiness and mental health 12 1.4 Methodological issues 19 1.5 Correlates of happiness and positive affect 22 1.6 Design of the studies in this thesis 48 Chapter 2: Exploratory study on personality, self-esteem, social network, and demographic variables as predictors of happiness and depression 2.1 Introduction 53 2.2 Method 62 2.3 Results 66 2.4 Discussion Chapter 3: Lay theories on causes of happiness 3.1 Introduction 95 3.2 Method 98 3.3 Results 102 Vll 3.4 Discussion 109 Chapter 4: Attributional style and personality as predictors of happiness and mental health 4.1 Introduction 115 Study 1 4.2 Method 122 4.3 Results 124 Study 2 4.4 Method 133 4.5 Results 135 4.6 Discussion 140 Chapter 5: Perceived parental behaviour, personality, and self­ esteem as predictors of happiness 5.1 Introduction 145 5.2 Method 152 5.3 Results 154 5.4 Discussion 167 Chapter 6: Perceived parental bonding, self-esteem and self-criticism as predictors of happiness 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 Method 175 Vlll 6.3 Results 177 6.4 Discussion 194 Chapter 7: Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness 7.1 Introduction 198 7.2 Method 204 7.3 Results 206 7.4 Discussion 218 Chapter 8: Personality as predictor of mental health and happiness in the East and West .1 Introduction 225 8.2 Method 228 8.3 Results 229 8.4 Discussion 234 Chapter 9: General discussion and conclusion 9.1 General discussion on the main findings of the present study 236 9.2 A model of happiness continuum 258 9.3 Conclusion 260 References 266 Appendices 295 IX Figures 2.1 Path model. Predicting happiness from aspects of life, self-esteem, personality, and demographic variables 76 2.2 Path model. Predicting depression from aspects of life, self-esteem, personality, and demographic variables 77 2.3 Path model. Predicting happiness (factors) from aspects of life, self­ esteem, personality, and demographic variables 79 2.4 Path model. Predicting depression (factors) from aspects of life, self­ esteem, personality, and demographic variables 80 2.5 Path model. Predicting happiness (factors) from self-esteem (subscales), personality, and demographic variables 83 2.6 Path model. Predicting depression (factors) from self-esteem (subscales), personality, and demographic variables 84 2.7 Path model. Examining the possibility of happiness (factors) as “causes” of self-esteem (subscales) with personality and demographic variables held constant 86 2.8 Path model. Examining the possibility of depression (factors) as “causes” of self-esteem (subscales) with personality and demographic variables held constant 87 3.1 Path model. Predicting happiness from lay believes, self-esteem, personality, and demographic variables 108 5.1 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, personality, parental (both paternal and maternal) authority, and demographic variables for both boys and girls 158 5.2 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, personality, paternal authority, and demographic variables for both boys and girls 160 5.3 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, personality, maternal authority, and demographic variables for both boys and girls 161 5.4 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, personality. parental (both paternal and maternal) authority, and demographic variable for boys 165 5.5 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, personality, parental (both paternal and maternal) authority, and demographic variable for girls 166 6.1 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, self-criticism, and separated parental behaviour, and demographic variables for both boys and girls 185 6.2 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, self-criticism, and combined parental behaviour, and demographic variables for both boys and girls 186 6.3 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, self-criticism, and separated parental behaviour for boys 188 6.4 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, self-criticism, and combined parental behaviour for boys 189 6.5 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, self-criticism, and separated parental behaviour for girls 191 6.6 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, self-criticism, and combined parental behaviour for girls 192 7.1 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-confidence, friendship, personality, and demographic variables 212 7.2 Path model. Predicting loneliness (subscales) from self-confidence, friendship, personality, and demographic variables 213 7.3 Path model. Predicting happiness from self-confidence (subscales), personality, and demographic variables 215 7.4 Path model. Predicting loneliness (subscales) from self-confidence (subscales), personality, and demographic variables 216 7.5 Path model.
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