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This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights and duplication or sale of all or part is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for research, private study, criticism/review or educational purposes. Electronic or print copies are for your own personal, non- commercial use and shall not be passed to any other individual. No quotation may be published without proper acknowledgement. For any other use, or to quote extensively from the work, permission must be obtained from the copyright holder/s. MODES OF INFORMATION PERCEPTION AND TRANSFORMATION IN SCIENCE STUDENTS A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Keele August 1980 J.N. King IMAGING SERVICES NORTH Boston Spa, Wetherby West Yorkshire, LS23 7BQ www.bl.uk Original copy tightly bound. Some text is bound into the spine. IMAGING SERVICES NORTH Boston Spa, Wetherby West Yorkshire, LS23 7BQ www.bl.uk mry an mry BRITISH The following has been redacted from this digital copy of the original thesis at the request of the awarding university: Quote on page 33 Quote on page 47 Appendix F This work is dedicated to my family in gratitude for endless forbearance. "Science is knowledge. Knowledge is not wisdom. Wisdom is knowledge tempered by judgement." Lord Ritchie-Calder ABSTRACT A model is proposed in which the learning of a physical science is related to the reception and perception of information through behaviour expressed in terms of cognitive preference and to the transformation of information which is examined in terms of judgement ability. The nature of cognitive preference and of judgement is defined, and the validity and other statistical credentials of the instruments used to measure these concepts is reported. The nature, stability and structure which is found to underlie cognitive preference supports the contention that cognitive preference may be classified correctly as a cognitive style. The relationships between cognitive preference and the usual parameters of psychological measurement are examined and the whole body of data is related to a tentative model of learning behaviour in order to determine whether deeper insight is available than is possible without the model. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is with much gratitude that I acknowledge my debt to Professor R.F. Kempa of the Department of Education at the University of Keele, Keele, Staffordshire, U.K. He initiated the work and sustained it with much inspiration. He was invariably patient and encouraging. I am indebted, too, to the students, Head Teachers and Departmental Teachers of the following ten secondary schools Colliers School, Horsham, Sussex. Hurstpierpoint College, Haywards Heath, Sussex. The Judd School, Tonbridge, Kent. Kent College for Girls, Pembury, Kent. Maidstone Grammar School for Girls, Maidstone, Kent. The Skinners' School, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Tonbridge Grammar School for Girls, Tonbridge, Kent. Tonbridge School, Tonbridge, Kent. Walthamstow Hall, Sevenoaks, Kent. Weald of Kent School, Tonbridge, Kent. They gave generously of their time and energy. I am profoundly grateful to the Directors of the Reed International Paper Co. Ltd. and to Mr. J.A. Lewis and particularly to Mr. B.E. Blythe, both of that company. I was permitted to make unlimited use of the computing facilities at Aylesford, Nr. Maidstone, and the care and tolerance of all the staff made this research possible. I was given much valuable help by my colleagues in both the Chemistry Department and Mathematics Department at Tonbridge School. Mr. B.W. King's help with some of the computing was much appreciated. Finally, I must thank Mrs. A.D. Braithwaite for typing the manuscript; her care created a fine manuscript from a difficult draft. INDEX Page Chapter 1 : Learning Activities Section 1.0 : Introduction 1 1.1 : Information Reception and Perception 3 and Cognitive Preference 1.2 : Information Transformation and Judgement 7 1.3 : The Research Problems 10 Chapter 2 : The Nature of Cognitive Preference Section 2.0 : Introduction 13 2.1 : The Principles of Cognitive Preference Testing 13 2.2 : Methods of Responding and Scoring 17 2.3 : Evaluation of Cognitive Preference Data 18 Part (A) : Validity and Reliability 18 Part (B) : Statistical Evaluation 19 2.4 : A Review of the Studies of Cognitive Preference 21 Tests Part (A) : Stability 22 Part (B) : The Structure of Cognitive Preferences 24 and their Measurement (i) Structure of Cognitive Preference 24 (ii) Measurement 25 Part (C) : Pupil Assessments and Treatments 27 (i) Academic Ability 27 (ii) The Origin of Cognitive Preference . 28 Testing (a) Curricular Influence 28 (b) Influence.of Teacher 30 (iii) Interests and Occupational Choice 31 (iv) Sex 31 2.5 : Cognitive Styles, a brief review of their nature 32 and of the Literature 2.6 : Problems for Investigation 35 Chapter 3 : Judgement Section 3.0 : Introduction 37 3.1 : The term 'Judgement' as it is understood in this 38 study 3.2 : A survey of the literature on Judgement and 40 - Critical Thinking 3.3 : A Measure of Judgement 47 3.4 : Problems for Investigation 49 Chapter 4 : The Research Problems and Strategy Section 4.0 : Introduction 51 4.1 : Information Perception 53 Part (A) : Measurement Aspects of Cognitive 53 Preference Part (B) : The Measurement of Cognitive Preference 56 and the Evaluation of Pupils Part I : Structure 56 Part II: The Evaluation of Pupils 56 Part (C) : Stability and Style 58 4.2 : Information Transformation 60 4.3 : Multivariate Analysis 64 4.4 : The Test Samples and Research Programme 65 4.5 : The Test Instruments 67 Part (A) : Cognitive Preference Tests 67 Part (B) : Judgement Tests 72 Part (C) : Achievement Tests 84 Part (D) : Test of Intellectual Abilities 86 Part (E) : Bristol Achievement Test, Study Skills, 86 Level 5 Part (F) : Science Orientation 89 Part (G) : Test of Intellectual Development 90 Chapter 5 : Cognitive Preference - Measurement Aspects Section 5.0 : Introduction 92 5.1 : Cognitive Preference Modes and Items 92 5.2 : The Evaluation of Cognitive Preference Data 98 5.3 : The 'Subject-Specific' Element of Cognitive 108 Preference Behaviour 5.4 : Conclusions H 6 Chapter 6 : The Structure of Cognitive Preference and the Evaluation of Pupils Section 6.0 : Introduction 117 6.1 : The Alternative Methods of demonstrating the 118 structure of cognitive preference behaviour Part (A) : Mackay's method 118 Part (B) : R- and Q-type Factor Analysis 124 Part (C) : Cluster Analysis 126 6.2 : The Evaluation of Pupils 129 Introduction to Section 6.2 129 Part (A) : Academic Achievement 130 Part (B) : Aptitude for Science 133 Part (C) : Class Levels 134 Part (D) : Orientation Bias 136 Part (E) : Sex 139 6.3 : The Curiosity and Application Scales 139 6.4 : Conclusions 143 Chapter 7 : The Stability of Cognitive Preference Behaviour Section 7.0 : Introduction 147 7.1 : Mode Reliability - 148 7.2 : Mode Stability 149 Part (A) : Correlation Coefficients 151 Part (B) : Banding 151 Part (C) : Cluster Analysis 153 Part (D) : Link Data 155 7.3 : Mode Consistency 158 7.4 : Relationship Stability 164 Part (A) : Successive Cognitive Preference Tests 164 Part (B) : Sample Populations 167 7.5 : Conclusions 171 Chapter 8 : The Judgement Exercises Section 8.0 : Introduction 174 8.1 : Validity of the Judgement Exercise 174 8.2 : The Quality of Respondents' Hypotheses 178 8.3 : Measurement of Judgement 185 8.4 : The Judgement Exercise related to Academic 193 Achievement and other variables 8.5 : Conclusions 195 Chapter 9 : Information Perception and Information Transformation Section 9.0 : Introduction 198 9.1 : CP Scores, as four separate modes, related to JE 199 Scores 9.2 : CP Scores used dichotomously for the purpose of 201 grouping JE scores 9.3 : CP Scores treated as 'trait scores’ 204 9.4 : Cluster Analysis 206 9.5 : Conclusions 209 Chapter 10 : Cognitive Preferences. Judgement Behaviour and Classroom Learning Behaviour Section 10.0 : Introduction 211 10.1 : Correlation and Factor Analysis 212 10.2 : Interaction between Perception of Information, 214 Information Transformation and Academic Achievement by x2 Tests 10.3 : Interaction between Perception of Information, . • 220 Information Transformation and Academic Achievement by Analysis of Variance and by 'Trait' Score 10.4 : The Sample of Younger Students 222 10.5 : The Distribution of Student Type within one Level 226 10.6 Conclusions 229 CHAPTER 1 : LEARNING ACTIVITIES Section 1.0 : Introduction Learning concerns the incorporation of information into existing cognitive structure; cognition refers to the processes by which knowledge is acquired. It has been customary in psychological research to relate and evaluate learning against constructs like ability (i.e. levels of skill), personality and valuing. Cognition is intimately concerned with innate capacity and information processing habits but its study has been essentially theoretical and far removed from classroom learning. A fruitful and important area for research was seen to lie in the relationships between practical classroom learning and the manner and form of the cognition. The principal purpose was to study both learning and cognition in adolescent minds while they were actively engaged in learning-in an academic discipline. Throughout this study the term •learning' is considered to be the acquisition of knowledge. A three- stage sequence of classroom learning was hypothesised. In this sequence a stimulus statement was thought to initiate a reception response. Reception was thought to be followed by a perception response and then by transformation. It was further postulated that the three stages occur before incorporation into existing cognitive structure is possible. This research is a logical development of the work which has already been done on cognitive styles. These have been variously defined. Messick (1970) defined them as "information processing habits"; Scott (1973) preferred "the patterns that an individual may use in coping with environmental stimuli" and Field (1972) simply described them as "the pattern of thinking". In each case, the pattern is assumed to be relatively stable and consistent within an individual.