Chapter 14, Salinity, Voluntary Estuary Monitoring Manual, March 2006

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Chapter 14, Salinity, Voluntary Estuary Monitoring Manual, March 2006 This document is Chapter 14 of the Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Manual, A Methods Manual, Second Edition, EPA-842-B-06-003. The full document be downloaded from: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/monitor/ Voluntary Estuary Monitoring Manual Chapter 14: Salinity March 2006 Chapter 1Salinity4 Because of its importance to estuarine ecosystems, salinity (the amount of dissolved salts in water) is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring programs. Photos (l to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy, P. Bergstrom Unit Two: Physical Measures Chapter 14: Salinity Overview Because of its importance to estuarine ecosystems, salinity (the amount of dissolved salts in water) is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring programs. This chapter discusses the role of salinity in the estuarine environment and provides steps for measuring this water quality variable. 14-1 Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual Chapter 14: Salinity Unit Two: Physical Measures About Salinity Salinity is simply a measure of the amount of mixing the two masses of water. The shape of salts dissolved in water. An estuary usually the estuary and the volume of river flow also exhibits a gradual change in salinity throughout influence this two-layer circulation. See its length, as fresh water entering the estuary Chapter 2 for more information. from tributaries mixes with seawater moving in from the ocean (Figure 14-1). Salinity is usually Role of Salinity in the Estuarine Ecosystem Salinity levels control, to a large degree, the Non-Tidal types of plants and animals that can live in Fresh Water different zones of the estuary. Freshwater Average (During species may be restricted to the upper reaches Annual Tidal Low Flow Salinity Tidal Limit Fresh Water Conditions) of the estuary, while marine species inhabit the < 0.5 ppt estuarine mouth. Some species tolerate only Oligohaline intermediate levels of salinity while broadly < 5.0 ppt adapted species can acclimate to any salinity Mesohaline ranging from fresh water to seawater. < 18.0 ppt Salinity measurements may also offer clues about estuarine areas that could become afflict­ Polyhaline ed by salinity-specific diseases. In the Chesapeake and Delaware bays, for example, pathogens infecting oysters are restricted to sec­ < 30.0 ppt Euhaline tions that fall within certain salinity levels. OCEAN (Marine) Drastic changes in salinity, such as those due to 0 drought or storms, can also greatly alter the expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) or /00. Figure 14-1. Estuarine numbers and types of animals and plants in salinity slowly increases The fresh water from rivers has a salinity of the estuary. as one moves away 0.5 ppt or less. Within the estuary, salinity lev­ from freshwater sources Another role played by saline water in an els are referred to as oligohaline (0.5-5.0 ppt), and toward the ocean. estuary involves flocculation of particles. mesohaline (5.0-18.0 ppt), or polyhaline (18.0­ Flocculation is the process of particles aggre­ 30.0 ppt). Near the connection with the open gating into larger clumps. The particles that sea, estuarine waters may be euhaline, where enter an estuary dissolved in the fresh water of salinity levels are the same as the ocean at more rivers collide with the salt water, and may floc­ than 30.0 ppt (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). culate or clump together and increase turbidity Generally, salinity increases with water depth (Figure 14-2). unless the estuarine water column is well Salinity is often an important factor when mixed. Salinity, along with water temperature, monitoring many key water quality variables. is the primary factor in determining the stratifi­ For example: cation of an estuary. When fresh and salt water meet, the two do not readily mix. Warm, fresh • Most dissolved oxygen meters require water is less dense than cold, salty water and knowledge of the salinity content in will overlie the wedge of seawater pushing in order to calibrate the meter properly. from the ocean. Storms, tides, and wind, how­ • If you are interested in converting the ever, can eliminate the layering caused by salin­ dissolved oxygen concentration (usually ity and temperature differences by thoroughly expressed as mg/l or parts per million) to 14-2 Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual Unit Two: Physical Measures Chapter 14: Salinity percent saturation (amount of oxygen in the water compared to the maximum it could hold at that temperature), you must Fresh Water take salinity into account. As salinity increases, the amount of oxygen that water can hold decreases. • If you use a meter to measure pH, the Salt Water techniques are the same whether you are testing salt or fresh water. However, if you measure with an electronic colorimeter, you must use a correction factor (available from the Figure 14-2. Turbidity increases when fresh water meets with salt water. manufacturer) to compensate for the effects of salinity. ■ Sampling Considerations Salinity will fluctuate with movement of the chemical methods determine chlorinity (the tides, dilution by precipitation, and mixing of chloride concentration), which is closely the water by wind. There are also seasonal related to salinity. differences in salinity. Conductivity Season and Weather Conductivity is a measure of the ability of Environmental conditions vary with the water to pass an electrical current. seasons, and salinity levels can reflect those Conductivity in water is affected by the variations. During wet weather periods and presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as during the spring thaw in colder regions, more chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate fresh water enters the estuary, so salinity is anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or lower at these times. On the other hand, dry sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and weather periods mean less fresh water aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive entering the estuary, so higher salinity levels charge). As the concentration of salts in the may be found. Another way the seasons water increases, electrical conductivity rises— influence an estuary’s salinity involves the the greater the salinity, the higher the mixing of fresh water and salt water. Seasonal conductivity. Organic compounds like oil, storms help mix estuarine waters and serve to phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct decrease the vertical salinity and temperature electrical current very well and, therefore, gradients in the estuary. have a low conductivity when in water. Conductivity is also affected by temperature: Choosing a Sampling Method the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is Salinity can be measured either by physical extrapolated to a standard temperature (25°C). or chemical methods. Physical methods use Conductivity is measured with a probe and conductivity, density, or refractivity. The a meter. Conductivity meters require physical methods are quicker and more temperature correction and accurate convenient than the chemical methods. The 14-3 Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual Chapter 14: Salinity Unit Two: Physical Measures Figure 14-3. calibration can be difficult. The cost of these specific gravity. The volunteer can calculate Hydrometer. meters ranges from $500 to $1,500. Voltage is salinity by measuring a water sample’s Salt water is 1.0 00 .005 denser than applied between two electrodes in a probe specific gravity. This is done with a .010 fresh water and immersed in the sample water. The drop in hydrometer (Figure 14-3). .015 has a greater voltage caused by the resistance of the water Hydrometers are a fairly simple and .020 specific gravity. is used to calculate the conductivity per inexpensive means of obtaining salinity. .025 Volunteers can .030 calculate salinity centimeter. The meter converts the probe Specific gravity hydrometers cost from $13 to .035 by measuring a measurement to micromhos per centimeter $25 (although professional sets can cost much water sample’s .040 and displays the result for the user. more), and a hydrometer jar costs about $13 specific gravity .045 Some conductivity meters can also be used to $15, although you can also use a large, .050 with a hydrometer. to test for total dissolved solids and salinity. clear jar that is deep enough to float the .055 .060 The total dissolved solids concentration in hydrometer. .065 milligrams per liter (mg/l) can also be Because hydrometers measure specific calculated by multiplying the conductivity gravity, the presence of suspended solids can 1.0 75 result by a factor between 0.55 and 0.9, which raise hydrometer readings and result in a is empirically determined (see APHA, 1998). salinity measurement that is higher than the Meters should also measure temperature true value. This has especially been shown in Specific Gravity and automatically compensate for temperature low salinity areas (Bergstrom, 1997; in the conductivity reading. Conductivity can Bergstrom, 2002). Volunteer programs, be measured in the field or the lab. In most therefore, should consider their accuracy and cases, it is probably better if the samples are precision requirements before electing to use collected in the field and taken to a lab for a hydrometer. testing. In this way, several teams of volunteers can collect samples simulta­ Refractivity neously. If it is important to test in the field, Refractometers (Figure 14-4) are used to meters designed for field use can be obtained measure substances dissolved in water, using for around the same cost mentioned above. the principle of light refraction through liquids. The more dissolved solids in water, Density the slower light travels through it. As water becomes saltier, its Refractometers measure the change in the 100 weight increases although its direction of light as it passes from air into 90 volume does not measurably water. Salinity and temperature both affect 80 rise. Since salt water is denser the index. 70 than fresh water, this change Refractometers use a scale to quantify the 60 of weight results in a greater effect that dissolved solids in water have on Salinity Specific 50 40 Gravity light.
Recommended publications
  • Irrigation Management with Saline Water
    IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT WITH SALINE WATER Dana O. Porter, P.E. Thomas Marek, P.E. Associate Professor and Extension Senior Research Engineer & Agricultural Engineering Specialist Superintendent, North Research Field, Texas Cooperative Extension and Etter Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Texas A&M University Agricultural Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Extension Center Research and Extension Center 1102 E. FM 1294 6500 Amarillo Blvd W. Lubbock, Texas 79403 Amarillo, TX 79106 Voice: 806-746-6101 Voice: (806) 677-5600 Fax: 806-746-4057 Fax: (806) 677-5644 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] INTRODUCTION One of the most common water quality concerns for irrigated agriculture is salinity. Recommendations for effective management of irrigation water salinity depend upon local soil properties, climate, and water quality; options of crops and rotations; and irrigation and farm management capabilities. What Is Salinity? All major irrigation water sources contain dissolved salts. These salts include a variety of natural occurring dissolved minerals, which can vary with location, time, and water source. Many of these mineral salts are micronutrients, having beneficial effects. However, excessive total salt concentration or excessive levels of some potentially toxic elements can have detrimental effects on plant health and/or soil conditions. The term “salinity” is used to describe the concentration of (ionic) salt species, generally including: calcium (Ca2+ ), magnesium (Mg2+ ), sodium (Na+ ), potassium + - - 2- 2- (K ), chloride (Cl ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ), carbonate(CO3 ), sulfate (SO4 ) and others. Salinity is expressed in terms of electrical conductivity (EC), in units of millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm), micromhos per centimeter (µmhos/cm), or deciSiemens per meter (dS/m).
    [Show full text]
  • Salinity Distribution and Variation with Freshwater Inflow and Tide, And
    Salinity Distribution and Variation with Freshwater Inflow and Tide, and Potential Changes in Salinity due to Altered Freshwater Inflow in the Charlotte Harbor Estuarine System, Florida By Yvonne E. Stoker U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Water-Resources Investigations Report 92-4062 Prepared in cooperation with the FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION Tallahassee, Florida 1992 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR MANUEL LUJAN, JR., Secretary U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY DALLAS L. PECK, Director For additional information, Copies of this report may be write to: purchased from: District Chief U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Books and Open-File Reports Section Suite 3015 Federal Center 227 North Bronough Street Box 25425 Tallahassee, Florida 32301 Denver, Colorado 80225 CONTENTS Abstract 1 Introduction 1 Purpose and scope 3 Previous studies 4 Acknowledgments 4 Description of the study area and factors affecting salinity variation Freshwater inflow 4 Tide 7 Water density 8 Study methods 8 Salinity distribution in Charlotte Harbor 9 Salinity variations with freshwater inflow and tide 13 Variations with freshwater inflow 14 Tidal Caloosahatchee River 14 Upper Charlotte Harbor 17 Lower Charlotte Harbor 23 Variations with tide 23 Potential salinity changes due to altered freshwater inflow 24 Summary and conclusions 28 Selected references 29 Figure 1. Map showing study area and drainage basins 2 2. Map showing Charlotte Harbor and subarea boundaries 3 3. Map showing depth of the Charlotte Harbor estuarine system 5 4. Graphs showing daily mean discharge and monthly rainfall in the Peace, Myakka, and Caloosahatchee River basins, June 1982 to May 1987 6 5. Sketch showing generalization of highly stratified, partially mixed, and well-mixed salinity patterns in an estuary 8 6.
    [Show full text]
  • Soil Salinity in Agricultural Systems: the Basics
    Soil Salinity in Agricultural Systems: The Basics Jeffrey L. Ullman Agricultural & Biological Engineering University of Florida Strategies for Minimizing Salinity Problems and Optimizing Crop Production In-Service Training, Hastings, FL March 26, 2013 What is salt? What is Salt? . Salts are more than just sodium chloride (NaCl) . Salts consist of anions and cations . In terms of soil and irrigation water these generally include: Cations Anions Sodium Na+ Chlorides Cl- 2+ 2- Magnesium Mg Sulfates SO4 2+ 2- Calcium Ca Carbonates CO3 - Bicarbonates HCO3 What is Salt? . Other salts in agriculture + Potassium (K ) - Nitrate (NO3 ) Boron (B) • Often as boric acid (H3BO3, often written as B(OH)3) • Can form salts such as sodium borate (borax; Na2B4O7) Photo: Georgia Agriculture What is Salt? H O(l) NaCl(s) 2 Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (aq) indicates that Na+ and Cl- are hydrated ions Sodium sulfate Magnesium carbonate Source: Averill and Eldredge (2007) Types of Salts Some common salts NaCl Sodium chloride Table salt (halite) CO 2- 3 KCl Potassium chloride Muriate of potash Na+ 2- NaHCO3 Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda (nahcolite) SO4 - Cl CaSO4 Calcium sulfate Gypsum + K CaCO3 Calcium carbonate Calcite 2+ Ca MgSO Magnesium sulfate Epsom salt (epsomite) Mg2+ 4 K2SO4 Potassium sulfate Sulfate of potash (arcanite) HCO - 3 Glauber’s salt (thenardite Na SO Sodium sulfate 2 4 and mirabilite) Gypsum Calcite Thenardite Sources of Salt . Dissolution of parent rock material . Irrigation water . Saline groundwater . Fertilizers . Manure . Seawater intrusion Photo: J. Ullman Saline Soils . Accumulation of salts known as salination . Can occur in diverse types of soil with different physical, chemical and hydrologic properties Photo: USDA-NRCS Saline Soils .
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of Saline Water and Exogenous Application of Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) on Soursop (Annona Muricata L.) at Vegetative Stage
    AJCS 13(03):472-479 (2019) ISSN:1835-2707 doi: 10.21475/ajcs.19.13.03.p1583 Effects of saline water and exogenous application of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on Soursop (Annona muricata L.) at vegetative stage Luana Lucas de Sá Almeida Veloso1, Carlos Alberto Vieira de Azevedo1, André Alisson Rodrigues da Silva1, Geovani Soares de Lima1*, Hans Raj Gheyi2, Raul Araújo da Nóbrega1, Francisco Wesley Alves Pinheiro1, Rômulo Carantino Moreira Lucena1 1Federal University of Campina Grande, Academic Unit of Agricultural Engineering, Campina Grande, 58.109-970, Paraíba, Brazil 2Federal University of Recôncavo of Bahia, Nucleus of Soil and Water Engineering, Cruz das Almas, 44.380-000, Bahia, Brazil *Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract Soursop is a fruit of great socioeconomic importance for the northeastern region of Brazil. However, the quantitative and qualitative limitation of the water resources of this region has reduced its production. The objective of this study was to evaluate the growth of ‘Morada Nova’ soursop plants irrigated with saline water and subjected to exogenous application of hydrogen peroxide through seed immersion and foliar spray. The study was conducted in plastic pots adapted as lysimeters, using a eutrophic Regolithic Neosol with sandy loam texture under greenhouse conditions. Treatments were distributed in randomized blocks, in a 4 x 4 factorial arrangement, corresponding to four levels of irrigation water electrical conductivity – ECw (0.7; 1.7; 2.7 and 3.7 dS m-1) and four concentrations of hydrogen peroxide – H2O2 (0, 25, 50 and 75 µM), with three replicates and one plant per plot. Foliar applications of H2O2 began 15 days after transplanting (DAT) and were carried out every 15 days at 17:00 h, after the sunset, by manually spraying the H2O2 solutions with a sprayer in such a way to completely wet the leaves (spraying the abaxial and adaxial faces).
    [Show full text]
  • Aquarius Salinity & Density Bead Activity
    Floating in a Salty Sea JPL Aquarius Workshop Background If there is one thing that just about everyone knows about the ocean, it’s that it is salty. The two most common elements in sea water, after oxygen and hydrogen, are sodium and chloride. Sodium and chloride combine to form what we know as table salt. If you allow the wind to dry your skin after swimming in the ocean, you will see a light coasting of salt that has been left behind when the water evaporated. Salinity is a measure of how much salt is in the water. Sea water salinity is expressed as a ratio of salt (in grams) to liter of water. In sea water there is typically close to 35 grams of dissolved salts in each liter. Scientists describe salinity using Practical Salinity Units (PSU) which defines salinity in terms of a conductivity ratio, so it is dimensionless. Salinity was formerly expressed in terms of parts per thousand or by weight (written as ppt or ‰). That is, a salinity of 35 ppt meant 35 grams of salt per 1,000 ml (1 liter) of sea-water. The normal range of open ocean salinity is between 32-37 grams per liter (32‰ - 37‰). Salinity affects density. Density is the mass per unit volume (mass/volume) of a substance. Salty waters are denser than fresh water at the same temperature. Both salt and temperature are important influences on density: density increases with increased salinity and decreases with increased temperature. As you might expect, in the ocean there are areas of high and low salinity.
    [Show full text]
  • DESALINATION: Balancing the Socioeconomic Benefits and Environmental Costs
    DESALINATION: Balancing the Socioeconomic Benefits and Environmental Costs www.research.natixis.com https://gsh.cib.natixis.com executive summary Chapter 1 Making sense of desalination: technological, financial and economic aspects of desalination assets Chapter 2 Sustainability assessment of desalination assets: recognizing the socioeconomic benefits and mitigating environmental costs of desalination Chapter 3 Desalination sustainability performance scorecard acknowledgements appendix biblioghraphy TABLE OF CONTENTS OF TABLE 1. Making sense of desalination: technological, financial and economic aspects of desalination assets 1. DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES 2. FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF DESALINATION ASSETS 1.1. AN OVERVIEW OF DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES 2.1.THE DEVELOPMENT AND FINANCING OF DESALINATION ASSETS Thermal desalination: Multistage Flash Distillation and Multieffect Distillation Building and operating desalination assets: complex and evolving value chain Membrane desalination: Reverse Osmosis Project development models: fine-tuning Hybridization of thermal and the appropriate risk-sharing model membrane desalination Bringing capital to desalination assets: A set of parameters to assess the performance an increasingly strategic issue and efficiency of desalination assets Case study of desalination in Israel: innovative 1.2. A BRIEF HISTORY AND financing schemes achieving some of the GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF lowest desalinated water costs worldwide DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES Case study of desalination in Singapore: The market
    [Show full text]
  • Anguelova, M.D. and Huq, P., 2018. Effects of Salinity on Bubble Cloud
    Journal of Marine Science and Engineering Article Effects of Salinity on Bubble Cloud Characteristics Magdalena D. Anguelova 1,* ID and Pablo Huq 2 1 Remote Sensing Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA 2 College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-202-404-6342 Received: 13 November 2017; Accepted: 26 December 2017; Published: 29 December 2017 Abstract: A laboratory experiment investigates the influence of salinity on the characteristics of bubble clouds in varying saline solutions. Bubble clouds were generated with a water jet. Salinity, surface tension, and water temperature were monitored. Measured bubble cloud parameters include the number of bubbles, the void fraction, the penetration depth, and the cloud shape. The number of large (above 0.5 mm diameter) bubbles within a cloud increases by a factor of three from fresh to saline water of 20 psu (practical salinity units), and attains a maximum value for salinity of 12–25 psu. The void fraction also has maximum value in the range 12–25 psu. The results thus show that both the number of bubbles and the void fraction vary nonmonotonically with increasing salinity. The lateral shape of the bubble cloud does not change with increasing salinity; however, the lowest point of the cloud penetrates deeper as smaller bubbles are generated. Keywords: bubbles; bubble clouds; seawater salinity; surface tension; whitecaps; breaking waves; plunging water jet; air entrapment; gas exchange; energy dissipation 1. Introduction Bubble clouds arising from waves breaking at the ocean surface play an important role in the transport of momentum and scalars between the atmosphere and the ocean [1,2].
    [Show full text]
  • Water Quality Salinity Standards
    Water quality standards Electrical conductivity is a measure of the saltiness of the water and is measured on a scale from 0 to 50,000 uS/cm. Electrical conductivity is measured in microsiemens per centimeter (uS/cm). Freshwater is usually between 0 and 1,500 uS/cm and typical sea water has a conductivity value of about 50,000 uS/cm. Low levels of salts are found naturally in waterways and are important for plants and animals to grow. When salts reach high levels in freshwater it can cause problems for aquatic ecosystems and complicated human uses. μS/cm Use 0 - 800 • Good drinking water for humans (provided there is no organic pollution and not too much suspended clay material) • Generally good for irrigation, though above 300μS/cm some care must be, particularly with overhead sprinklers, which may cause leaf, scorch on some salt sensitive plants. • Suitable for all livestock 800 - 2500 • Can be consumed by humans, although most would prefer water in the lower half of this range if available • When used for irrigation, requires special management including suitable soils, good drainage and consideration of salt tolerance of plants • Suitable for all livestock 2500 -10,000 • Not recommended for human consumption, although water up to 3000 μS/cm can be consumed • Not normally suitable for irrigation, although water up to 6000 μS/cm can be used on very salt tolerant crops with very special management techniques. Over 6000 μS/cm, occasional emergency may be possible with care • When used for drinking water by poultry and pigs, the salinity should be limited to about 6000 μS/cm.
    [Show full text]
  • Urban-Salinity-Groundwater-Basics.Pdf
    First published 2005 © Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources Groundwater Basics for Understanding Urban Salinity Local Government Salinity Initiative - Booklet No.9 ISBN: 07347 5441 8 Contents 1. Introduction 3 2. What is Groundwater? 3 3. The Importance of Groundwater 5 4. The Hydrological Cycle 6 5. Water Table Changes 7 5.1 Changes Over Time 7 5.2 Regional Shape of the Water Table 9 5.3 Water Balance and Water Table Rises 9 6. Porosity 10 7. Porosity in Sediments and Different Rock Types 11 7.1 Primary Porosity 11 7.2 Secondary Porosity 12 8. Permeability 13 8.1 Non-Porous Permeable Materials 13 8.2 Porous Impermeable Materials 13 8.3 Poorly Connected Pores 14 9. Aquifers 14 10. Salt Accumulation, How Does it Happen? 18 11. How does the Groundwater Reach the Earth’s Surface? 19 11.1 Capillary Rise 19 11.2 Faults 20 11.3 Restrictions to Groundwater Flow 20 11.4 Contrasts of Permeability 21 12. The Development of Urban Salinity 23 13. Managing Urban Salinity 24 14. References 25 1 2 dug, water from the saturated soil will flow 1. Introduction into the excavated hole. This booklet is part of the “Local Government Salinity Initiative” series and presents some basic groundwater concepts necessary for understanding urban salinity processes. Other booklets in the series contain information on urban salinity identification, investigation, impacts and management. 2. What is Groundwater? If a hole is dug in loose earth material such as soil or sand, we may find that just below the surface the earth feels moist.
    [Show full text]
  • Salinity Experiment Teacher Notes
    Teacher’s Notes EXPERIMENT 1 THE EFFECTS OF SALT ON CUT VEGETABLES AIM: To see what happens to cut vegetables in water when salt is added to the water. MATERIALS: You will need – • 4 cups, jars or bowls of water — big enough to hold 500 ml • 2 Litres of water • 4 bunches of spinach (baby spinach with roots is best) • 7 teaspoons of salt METHOD: Step 1 — Label each of the 4 containers with the numbers 1, 2, 3 & 4. Step 2 — Pour 500 ml of water into each container. Step 3 — Add 1 teaspoon of salt (approx. 5 ml) to container 1 Add 2 teaspoons of salt (approx. 10 ml) to container 2, Add 4 teaspoons of salt (approx. 20 ml) to container 3, Do not add any salt to container 4. It should hold water only. Step 4 — Place one bunch of spinach into each of the 4 containers. RESULTS: Write down what each bunch of the spinach looks like. Describe its position, colour and any other observations you make. Bunch 1: Some wilti ng of spinach Bunch 2: Wilti ng of spinach – more than bunch 1 Bunch 3: A lot of wilti ng of spinach – more than bunch 1 & 2 Bunch 4: Litt le wilti ng of spinach if any at all EXPERIMENT 1 : THE EFFECTS OF SALT ON CUT VEGETABLES EXPECTED RESULTS: Each bunch of spinach, apart from the fi rst one in freshwater, will show some sign of wilti ng and/or discolourati on. The bunch in the highest concentrati on of salt will show greatest signs of damage.
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of Alternating Irrigation with Fresh and Saline Water on the Soil
    water Article Effects of Alternating Irrigation with Fresh and Saline Water on the Soil Salt, Soil Nutrients, and Yield of Tomatoes Jingang Li 1 , Jing Chen 2,*, Zhongyi Qu 3,*, Shaoli Wang 4, Pingru He 5 and Na Zhang 6 1 College of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China 2 College of Agricultural Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China 3 Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering College, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China 4 State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycle in River Basin, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100038, China 5 Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semiarid Areas of Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China 6 Ningxia Institute of Water Resources Research, Yinchuan 750021, China * Correspondence: [email protected] (J.C.); [email protected] (Z.Q.); Tel.: +86-139-1298-0055 (J.C.); +86-150-4910-9708 (Z.Q.) Received: 1 July 2019; Accepted: 13 August 2019; Published: 15 August 2019 Abstract: Saline water irrigation has become extremely important in arid and semi-arid areas in northwestern China. To study the effect of alternating irrigation models on the soil nutrients, soil salts, and yield of tomatoes with fresh water (total dissolved solids of 0.50 g L 1) and saline water · − (total dissolved solids of 3.01 g L 1), a two-year field experiment was carried out for tomatoes in the ·
    [Show full text]
  • Increasing Salinity Affects on Heavy Metal Concentration
    INCREASING SALINITY AFFECTS ON HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION CHEYENE KENISTON California State University of Sacramento, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA 95819 USA MENTOR SCIENTIST: DR. STUART FINDLAY Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545 USA Abstract. Global climate change is being accelerated because of many anthropogenic reasons. This contributes to many ecosystems alterations throughout the world. Warmer temperatures and melting sea ice are two factors that contribute greatly to sea level rise, which is causing salt-water intrusion into many ecotones. The Hudson River wetland ecosystems will potentially experience this salt intrusion phenomenon. Salinity is increasing within tidal freshwater wetlands, altering these important ecosystems and their functionality. Wetlands along the Hudson River have also historically experienced high levels of heavy metal pollution; therefore, the sediments have stored heavy metals. The questions that I addressed are: 1) Will an increase in water salinity within the Tivoli wetlands draw stored lead out of the sediment? 2) Will the increase in salinity affect the lead absorption properties of the sediment? My hypothesis is that an increase in water salinity at the Tivoli wetlands will displace the lead stored in the sediment, increasing the heavy metal concentrations in the water and also decreasing the sediment’s capacity to absorb lead from the overlaying water. Through a manipulative experiment, I tested the effects of multiple saline and lead solutions on Tivoli wetland sediment cores. There was not a significant increase of lead, within the overlaying water, that leached out of the sediment exposed to different salinities. Although all sediment cores continued to have lead absorption properties after the saline soak, there was a significant relationship between an increased saline water level and less absorption of lead from the overlaying water.
    [Show full text]