• Student Power In Medieval Universities V. R. CARDOZIER Current student power efforts have precedent in medieval universities, pri­ marily at Bologna, which was a completely student-dominated university. The university government was composed of students only, except for the chancellor, a church appointee whose power was limited largely to awarding degrees. Professors were required to abide by student-approved regulations, to swear obedience to the (student) rector, and to follow procedures pre­ scribed by students in conduct of classes. Either by church or royal decree, students enjoyed privileges unknown today, such as freedom from taxation and military service, often freedom from arrest and trial in civil courts, and other considerations. URRENT A'ITEMPTS by university stu­ UNIVERSITY GOVERNMENT C dents to gain more control over their own affairs and over university govern­ Student power at Bologna evolved ment in general are not a new phenomenon. naturally from the circumstances under Their desire to influence curricula. course which the university developed. It began content, teaching methods, grading, selec­ as a collection of teachers who practiced tion and promotion of professors, to gain essentially as independent entrepreneurs. student representation on university gov­ Although the teachers formed guilds quite erning bodies, freedom from police inter­ early, these were informal and without vention in campus demonstrations, and power. complete self-determination of non-aca­ While almost all of the teachers were demic student life, all have precedents in Bolognese, most of the students were for­ medieval universities. eigners. To protect themselves from in­ The most complete student control of justices by the city and to provide other universities occurred at Bologna during services cooperatively, the students began the 13th and 14th centuries. Most of the in the early part of the 13th century to student control at other European uni­ form societies, referred to as "nations," versities was adopted from Bologna but at based on their places of origin (Rashdall, no other university did this control equal 1936). In order to gain public ac­ or even approach that at Bologna. ceptance, these nations were patterned after the trade guilds which shortly be­ fore had come into vogue. V. R. CARDOZmR is Visiting Scholar, Center Each of the nations elected a coun­ for the Study at Higher Education, University cilor who, together, elected the university of Michigan. Ann Arbor. rector. All councilors and rectors were 944 Personnel and Guidance Journal students. The rector was required to be courses to be offered, through an annual at least 24 years of age, have completed meeting of all faculty and students. at least five years' study of law, be unmar­ At Toulouse, in the early 14th century, ried and be a secular clerk, i.e., bear that we find that the rector must be a master, designation from the church. but he was elected by the students. Students from all of the nations con­ Students also enacted university rules but stituted the congregation of the university, had little influence upon their administra­ which established rules and regulations tion. Student rioting at Angers and Or­ that applied not only to themselves but leans during the last half of the 14th also to professors and, indeed, to the ser­ century led to increased student represen­ vants, landlords, and others who did busi­ tation in university government. But at ness with the students. Professors, who Avignon, where church influence was were not permitted to be members of the strong, riots and rebellion had little effect congregation nor to vote, opposed the during the 14th century. In 1459, how­ growth of student power but were unable ever, students prevailed on Pope Pius II to check it. In time, the faculty came to support them, which led to their gain­ to be dominated almost completely by ing two student seats on the university's the students. ruling council. While Bologna was a student-controlled At Prague, students who were elected university, the university of Paris was a proctors of their nations sat with the university of masters. At Paris both teach­ faculty on the university council. The ers and students were non-Parisian, thus law students insisted on privileges com­ the masters had need for a guild to protect parable to those at Bologna and were per­ them from the citizens. In addition, stu­ mitted to withdraw and form a university dents at Paris were much younger-usually of their own. between 13 and 16 when they entered­ At Salamanca, the Bologna pattern was than those at Bologna, who were often adopted (Kibre, 1948). The rector was well past 20 when they entered and, due a student, elected annually, who was as­ to a longer period of study, were fre­ sisted by eight student councilors elected quently near 30 when they completed by the nations. Unlike at Bologna, how­ their studies. ever, the professors had a strong guild The masters at Paris were quite young, with a prior elected by themselves. many of them about the same age as the Nevertheless, all doctors, masters, licen­ students at Bologna. In fact, many of tiates, bachelors, and students were obliged the teachers at Paris were students in to take an oath of obedience to the stu­ the superior faculties-law, medicine, and dent rector. theology-while serving as masters in the In German universities, students never arts university. Thus it was the masters' commanded quite the same power found guilds that constituted the congregation in universities of other countries. Rather and the governing body of the university. early in the development of the German The university at MontpeIIier was or­ university the power of the nations was ganized much like that at Paris, but the transferred to a university council, which role of students tended to be like that at was composed of teachers. Later, about Bologna. Initially, the university govern­ the only semblance of student power left ment included two proctors selected by was the student right to elect the rector. the masters and one chosen by the stu­ Lack of student power in German uni­ dents. Later, there were also two coun­ versities was due in large measure to the cilors, one of whom was a student and fact that from the beginning professors the other a bachelor (in today's term, a were endowed rather than having to rely graduate student). Although the masters on fees, and unlike Paris and Bologna, at Montpellier substantially had complete where professors were identified with a control in the beginning, students increas­ college or nation, German professors were ingly demanded privileges enjoyed by stu­ university teachers. dents at Bologna, and by 1340 any statute When the University of St. Andrews affecting students required their consent was founded in 1411, nations were estab­ as well. Students participated in selecting lished which included both students and June, 1968 945 faculty, all of whom participated in the deposited at the beginning of the term with election of the rector. The Bishop of Glas­ a local banker. To assure absolute surveil­ gow served as chancellor of the university lance, a committee of students was ap­ in that city but delegated his functions pointed to observe each professor and to to a student-elected rector. At Aberdeen, report any violations of statutes to the there were four nations of students, each rector. of which elected a proctor who together selected the rector. TOWN AND GOWN ACADEMIC INFLUENCE Both students and faculty enjoyed a Although student power prevailed at number of privileges from the state in the all medieval universities in varying de­ Middle Ages. Most of them were not grees, nowhere did student influence on new. From pre-Christian Greece, teachers the curriculum, course content, teaching, and students had been free from taxation, and professors' behavior resemble that at free from military service, and in many Bologna. This power was based on the places free from arrest and trial by civil fee-paying system. Each student negoti­ authorities (Norton, 1909). ated directly with his professor concerning But these privileges did not automat­ fees. Any professor who failed to comply ically come to students and faculty. It with the rules and regulations passed by was because they did not enjoy the same the congregation was boycotted, thereby protection as citizens of Bologna that the terminating his income. foreign students organized themselves into In the early organization of nations, nations. When they gained power, the little attempt was made by students at students were almost insatiable in their Bologna to control academic matters. But demands. as their power grew, students came to The townspeople were cowed by the have virtually absolute control over pro­ students and the professors, both of whom fessors and their teaching. used the migration as a threat to force The university statutes regulating pro­ compliance with their wishes. Threats by fessors' teaching were detailed and lengthy. students and faculty to move to another The first required that professors take an city were by no means hollow. Migra­ oath of obedience to the (student) rector tions were quite common during the Mid­ and to abide by all regulations that might dle Ages. Most of the major universities be imposed on them. Professors were of Europe were begun or developed by forbidden to be absent from classes, even professors and students who had become for a single day, without good excuse and unhappy at Bologna or Paris. Such mi­ then only after approval by the class, the grations were simple affairs since there councilor, and the rector. Students were were no university buildings, libraries, or pledged by oath to report any professor equipment to limit mobility. Classes were who was absent without permission.