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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOL IN EGYPT SINCE 1952, WITH. COMPARATIVE REFERENCE TO THE SECONDARY SCHOOL IN AMERICA AND THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN ENGLAND By Ali Ahmed All Madkour Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of London, Institute of Education 1979 Department of Comparative Education - 2 - ABSTRACT CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOL IN EGYPT SINCE 1952, WITH COMPARATIVE REFERENCE TO THE SECONDARY SCHOOL IN AMERICA AND THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN ENGLAND This study attempts to analyse curriculum development in the general secondary school in Egypt in its relation to the social, economic and political changes that have taken place since 1952. To accomplish this, an analysis of secondary school curricula in two other countries, namely America and England, which have been faced somewhat earlier than Egypt with some of Egypt's current problems, is carried out. Thus in their relation to the social, economic and political changes, the secondary school curricula in the three countries are judged. In addition, in order to understand the nature of these curricula and to characterise changes that have taken place over the period being examined, the major curriculum theories which have dominated educational practices in the world, are identified. Various socio-economic and political changes are associated with the process of modernisation and domecratisation. The effect of this kind of change on secondary school curricula in the three countries takes two forms; first, the need for schools to supply the labour market with skilled manpower flexible and adaptive to the rapidly changing needs of society; second, the need for curricula to provide opportunities for young people to learn the skills needed for making democratic decisions and for participating actively in their society's affairs. Education at secondary level in the three countries has responded (in different degrees) to these demands at mainly organisational level. However, the pragmatic curriculum in America has been geared, to some extent, to these demands. But the same did not occur with the essentialist curriculum in England nor particularly with the encyclopaedic curriculum in Egypt. Thus, problem analysis and its intellectualisation is the subject of Chapter 1. The analysis of contextual variables or causes in the three countries, America, England and Egypt, is carried out in Chapters 2, 4 and 6, respectively. Then, in Chapters 3, 5 and 7, the analysis of curricula in the three countries is carried out. Finally, a theoretical framework to close the gap between theory and practice in the general secondary school in Egypt is suggested in Chapter 8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to record my deepest sense of gratitude to my Supervisor, Mr Robert Cowen, Lecturer in Comparative Education, University of London, Institute of Education, for his stimulating guidance and constant encouragement. The years during which I have had the privilege of working under his care have been real educative years of my academic career. Without his unfailing patience with my shortcomings, this thesis would not have been successful. I also wish to extend my grateful thanks to Professor George Parkyn who supervised my work from 1974 until his retirement in 1977 and fired my interest in it. It was Professor Brian Holmes, however, the Head of Comparative Education Department, University of London, Institute of Education, who introduced me to the study of Curriculum Development at Secondary Level in 1974. Since then I have been a constant member of his very significant and educative Seminar. The influence of the Problem Approach on my thinking, although it is not explicitly mentioned in this thesis, has been very profound. My appreciation and thanks are also due to Mrs Alice Rockwell who took great pains in typing this thesis. My deepest thanks is due to the Egyptian Government and Ministry of Education who, on behalf of the Egyptian people, contributed most of the money and the administrative facilities which made this thesis and many like it possible. It would be unfair not to mention my wife Awatif and my children Samar and Sharif who lived alone back home and missed me for the first three years I had spent here when I needed to allocate all my time and effort to my study. 4 CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3 CONTENTS 4 INTRODUCTION 9 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS 33 PART ONE CHAPTER 1 PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND INTELLECTUALISATION 36 I. The Changes in Egypt since 1952 37 1. Political Change 37 2. Social Change 38 3. Economic Changes 40 II. The Problem Area 41 III. The Problem 46 1. Problem Analysis 46 2. Policy Formulation 48 3. Intellectualisation 49 a) Curriculum Development 49 b) Social Equilibrium 53 c) Modernisation and the Curriculum 55 4. Formulation of Policy Proposals 58 Notes 62 PART TWO CHAPTER 2 THE CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES IN THE USA 65 SINCE 1900 I. Social Change 66 1. Social Classes 66 2. The Influence of Social Structure on Secondary High School and its Curriculum 76 II. Social Mobility 80 1. Technological Change and its Bearing on the Curriculum 81 2. Demographic Change and its Bearing on the Curriculum 93 3. Political Change and Democracy and the Curriculum 97 4. Educational Change 101 a) The Reorganisation of Secondary Education 101 b) Non-selective System 104 c) Administration 106 Notes 112 - 5 - Page CHAPTER 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN AMERICAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS SINCE 1900 119 I. The First Phase: 1890-1920 120 1. Curriculum Aims and Objectives 120 2. Curriculum Content 124 a) The Academic Disciplines 124 b) The Cultural Studies 125 c) The Occupational Fields 126 d) Student Activities 127 3. Organisation and Methods 127 4. The Evaluation System 129 II. The Second Phase: 1920-1950 130 1. Curriculum Aims and Objectives 131 2. Curriculum Content 135 a) The Academic Disciplines 135 b) The Cultural Studies 137 c) The Occupational Fields 138 d) Student Activities 139 3. Organisation and Methods 140 4. The Evaluation System 142 III. The Third Phase: 1950-1970s 143 1. Curriculum Aims and Objectives 146 2. Curriculum Content 151 a) The Academic Disciplines 151 b) The Cultural Studies 159 c) The Occupational Fields 164 d) Student Activities 173 3. Organisation and Methods 176 4. The Evaluation System 178 IV. Conclusion 181 Notes 183 PART THREE CHAPTER 4 THE CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES IN ENGLAND SINCE THE SECOND WORLD WAR 193 I. Social Change 194 1. Social Classes 194 2. The Influence of Social Structure on School and Curriculum 200 II. Social Mobility 209 1. Technological Change 213 a) Large Scale Production 215 b) Reorganisation of Economy 216 c) Progress in Agriculture 219 d) Economic Growth 220 - 6 - Page 2. Demographic Change 221 a) Age and Sex Distribution 223 b) The Working Population 225 3. Political Change 228 4. Educational Change 231 a) Administration 231 b) Selective System 237 c) The Effects of Selection 239 d) The Reorganisation of Secondary Education 242 Notes 247 CHAPTER 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND SINCE 1944 254 Contextual Conditions 255 I. Curriculum Aims and Specifications 257 1. The Academic Field 265 2. The Occupational Field 273 3. The Cultural Field 275 II. Curriculum Content 278 1. The Academic Field 280 2. The Occupational Field 288 3. Students' Interests 289 III. Teaching Methods and Organisation 290 1. Teaching Methods 290 2. Organisation 294 a) Streaming 294 b) Integration 296 IV. Evaluation 302 1. The Aims of Examinations 302 2. Types of Examinations 303 3. Reliability and Validity of Examinations 308 Notes 312 PART FOUR CHAPTER 6 THE CONTEXTUAL VARIABLES IN EGYPT SINCE 1952 321 I Social Changes 322 1. Social Classes 322 II. Social Mobility 330 1. Modernisation in Agriculture 339 a) The Agrarian Reform 339 b) Land Reclamation 340 c) Peasants and Land 342 d) Agriculture and Economy 344 - 7 - Page 2. Modernisation in Industry 346 a) New Policy 346 b) National Planning 348 c) Industrial Output 352 d) Industrial Structure and the State 355 e) Industrialisation and Urbanisation 356 f) Labour Force 356 3. Demographic Change 367 a) Population Growth 367 b) Age and Sex Composition of the Population 369 c) Fertility and Mortality 372 d) Family Planning 374 4. Political Change 375 a) Normative Change 375 b) Democratic Participation 377 5. Educational Change 385 a) Reorganisation of Education 385 b) Selective System 390 c) Administration 393 Notes 397 CHAPTER 7 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOL IN EGYPT SINCE 1952 403 I. The French Influence 404 II. The Major Changes Since 1952 407 1. Normative Change 407 2. Institutional Change 409 III. The General Secondary School Curriculum (non-change) 422 1. Aims 422 2. Content 428 3. Organisation and Method 444 4. Evaluation 453 Notes 465 PART FIVE CHAPTER 8 BASES FOR A CURRICULUM MODEL 473 I. General Review 474 II. Social Change and Curriculum Theories 489 III. The Need for a Theory of Curriculum Development in Egypt 492 1. The Nature of Man 494 2. The Nature of Society 500 3. The Nature of Knowledge 505 IV. A New Curriculum Model 508 V. A Proposal for the Reorganisation of Secondary Education 511 - 8- Page VI. A New Direction for Curriculum Development 517 1. Aims and Objectives 518 2. Content and Learning Experiences 523 3. Organisation and Method 527 4. Examinations and Evaluation Process 531 VII. Concluding Comment 534 Notes 535 BIBLIOGRAPHY 540 INTRODUCTION - 10- Egypt before the 1952 Revolution was characterised by very marked socio-economic, political and educational inequality with distinctive social classes. The higher class, consisting mainly of landowners, was a small group of people who owned about one third of Egypt's land. This group had considerable influence on the socio-economic and political affairs throughout the country. The middle class was small in number, consisting mainly of professionals, directors of companies, lawyers and industrialists.
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