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CHRIS OLUKAYODE ADEDIRE FESN B.Sc., M.Sc (Ilorin), Ph.D. (lfe) Professor- of Etitomology'

" 2· _ place between individuals, between collectivities, or between individuals and collectivities. Intergroup as well as intragroup conflicts are perennial features of social life". In the present context, conflict may be conceptualised as competition for the same resources; notably food, water, nutrients etc - except mating partners and it is interspecific. The Bible attests to the fact that there was ecological equilibrium at the dawn of creation because God said that all the things He created were good (Genesis 1:3 I). However, a significant step in the cultural evolution of man is the development oflarge scale cu Itivation or crops or monoculture and the capacity to store the excess crops so produced. This step, ' significant as it is, also led to the creation of artificial environment for insects; thus resulting in ecological imbalances. The built-up environment, road constructions, impoundment of inland waterways and various other activities associated with human development have all created breeding sites for some insects and intermediate hosts of the causative organisms of diseases at the expense of their natural enem ies. It is apparent, therefore, that either overtly or covertly, many human activities result into conflict either with fellow humans or with other components ofhis other biotic or abiotic environment. Consequently, cdriflicts in this context may be perceived as an integral part of human existence and may not necessarily result in the destruction of human society even though they start and terminate with or without human intervention. Sandole (1993) suggested that nothing.was inherently wrong with conflict but, instead, it.is seen as a catalyst for promoting social development, higher degree social order and new awareness in cooperative living. These same observations are also true in case of man and the six-legged animals called insects. In many instances, man and insects have similar demands for food, water and nutrients from the biotic and abiotic ecosystem thus resulting into conflicts. Insect diversity and abundance have further exacerbated the situation. A case in point is the nutritional demand. Many monophagous and polyphagous insects are endowed with highly potent enzymes capable of efficiently extracting nutrients from crop plants, food items and livestock. Some of these enzymes are analogous to those in humans (Prosser 1973, Adedire, 1990a, b, 1994a). The kola nut weevil, Sophrorhinus insperatus Faust for example, has a wiele range of carbohydrases, lipases and proteinases that perform similar functions as those of the enzymes of human digestive tract (Adedire, 1990a, b, Adedire and Balogun, 1991, 1992, 1995) thus enabl ing them to extract their nutritional needs from kola nuts.

1.2 What are Insects?

1.2.1 The Taxonomic Position ofInsects: Among the invertebrates, insects are probably the most wrongfully identified and understood. This misconception arises from the fact that any invertebrate that bites or causes nuisance, jumps or crawls is often misconstrued to be an

4 insect; irrespective of whether they are mites, scorpions, centipedes or spiders. According to Ivbijaro (2003) insects have suffered a lot of condemnation and ill treatment from man who shares the same environment with them. However, to Zoologists, Entomologists or skilled eyes, insects actually belong to the Phylum Arthropoda (Stork, 1988). It is this same phylum that insects' cousins and relatives such as millipedes, centipedes, scorpions, mites and tick belong. Invertebrate species grouped together in the Phylum Arthropoda actually have some common characters; such as the possession of exoskeleton with chitin as its major constituent, a bilateral symmetry, a ventral nerve cord, a brain and jointed appendages modified for feeding. The word Arthropoda was coined from, two Greek words "Arthros" which means "joint" and "poda" which implies "legs" thus referring to the animals with "jointed legs" or "jointed appendages".

Insects however differ from their close relatives with who they are often confused as virtually all insects (except some, such as fleas and lice) have well defined three body regions (tagmata): namely the head, thorax and abdomen (Figure 1). All mem bers of the Class Insecta (hexapoda) have three pairs of thoracic legs. The insect head bears a pair of antennae used for chemoreception (smell) or mechanoreception (tactile or hearing). The head also bears a pair of compound eyes called omatidia and some simple eyes called ocelli.

The thorax bears two pairs of wings which may be modified, reduced or completely absent in some groups of species. The absence of wings among members of the Sub-Class Apterygota is a primitive characteristic whereas the absence of wings in pterygotes is a secondary character. Apart from members of the order Protura, Diplura,' Collembola and Thysanura which are primarily apterous, examples of modern day wingless insects are Termite (Macrotermes spp), ants (Oecophylla spp), Bed-bug iCimexspp) and lice (Pediculus spp).

Insects are generally small-sized and their mouthparts are greatly modified for various types offeeding such as biting and chewing, piercing ancl sucking, lapping or sapping etc. They exhibit incomplete or complete metamorphosis while they use tracheal system for respiration.

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Figure 1: External Morphology of an adult insect

species of its .genus-and.has about 4 billion individuals, insects constitute about three-quarters of the total described animal species (Figure 2). Thousands of insect species are believed yet to be described while the insect species already described exceeds the sum total of all other known animal species. Pyle et. al. (1981) reported that about one million insect species have been fully described and this number exceeds 70% of all described animal species (Figure 2). The hyperdiversity of arthropods, and by extension, the insects, is succinctly illustrated by Stork (1988) when he estimated that the number of arthropods to range between 10 and 80 million. In Nigeria, 22,090 animal species have been identified and insects account for 20,000 species or 90.54% (lvbijaro, 2003). The adaptive radiation of insects is quite remarkable when the number of described insect species is compared with other life forms (Table 1). Insects have great adaptability and have radiated into many terrestrial and aquatic habitats. They have an average density of24 million/ha in soil and 25,000 in air compared with human density ofO.14/ha on dry land.

6 Table]: Relative number of described species of Living Organisms.

Group No. of described species

Bacteria 5 x 10'" Insects 673,500 Plant and Algal species 3000,000 400,000 Other Animal phyla 228.500 Other Arthropods 136,500 Fungi 70,000 Viruses 2,000

""'Of Pv1~ fth",OII',""I~ 611,000 '.500 Arth.opOd~ 810,000 "ioNUiCJ 70,000

Ann.lld. '.000

Figure 2: Relative sizes and number of animal species described for major phyla in the Animal kingdom 1.3 Beneficial relationships of insect with man The relationship between insects and man is not always adversorial. Many insects and their arthropod relatives exhibit relationships that are directly or indirectly beneficial to human beings, notable among which are: pollinators of crops and horticultural plants; some are thrash burners or scavengers thereby contributing to decay of organic matter and recycling of soil nutrients. Some insects and mites attack other insects thereby acting as biological control agents of injurious or pestiferous species. Insects are eaten as food and some of them produce useful products such as honey, silk and wax. Some insects and their products are useful in science and medicine. Insects have aesthetic value hence their importance in decorative art and culture.

7 1.3.1 Insect as human food It is estimated that over 1000 insect species belonging to about 370 genera are eaten all over the world; especially in Africa, Asia, Australia and Latin America (Defoliator, 1989; Gullan and Cranston, 2005; Van Huis, 2003). A list of some edible insect species is presented in Table 2. Some of these commonly consumed insects include grasshoppers, palm weevils, termites, crickets, locusts, moth larvae, rhinoceros beetles, Oryctes spp., bee brood etc. The act of eating insects or entomophagy is, not popular in Western Societies possibly for cultural considerations rather than any scientific or rational reasoning. This statement is true given the fact that crustaceans and molluscs are preferred culinary items in these societies. For about two decades, scientists and gourmet experts in the United States have made significant improvements in the preparation of food recipes from insects. In fact, fried grasshoppers, and grubs are now being promoted for cocktails, home use and during insect festiva Is. However, it is fairly well documented that generally insects are veritable sources of high dietary protein, energy, vitamins and minerals nutrients. In many parts of the world, an estimated 5-40% of human protein requirements are sourced from insects and are consumed in various forms. They may be eaten raw, roasted, dried (ir added to other foods or soups. Some insects are eaten during collection. A case in'point is termite: where both reproductives and the queen termite are eaten raw (Ajayi and Adedire,2007a). However they may be added as supplements to soup or flour or roasted.

Table 2: Some Common Edible Insects in Nigeria and other Tropical Countries

Scientific name Common name Order Family Crops attacked

Rhynchophorus phoenicis Palm weevil Coleoptera Curculionidae larva adults Heteroligus metes Scarab beetle Coleoptera Scarabaedae larva Orvctes owariensis Scarab beetle Coleoptera Scarabaedae larva Oryctes boas Scarab beetle Coleoptera Scarabaedae larva Oryctes monocerus Scarab beetle Coleoptera Scarabaedae larva Macrotermes bellicosus Termite Isoptera Termitidae Winged adults queen Macrotermes natalensis Termite lsopteru Terrnitidae Winged adults queen Macrotermes subhylinus Termite lsoptera Terrnitidae Winged adults queen Anaphe venatu Silkworm Lepidoptera Notodontidae larva Anaphe infracta Silkworm Lepidoptera Notodontidae larva Anaphe recticulata Silkworm Lepidoptera Notodontidae larva Cirina forda Giant silkworm moth Lepidoptera Saturnidae larva Cirina butryospermi Giant silkworm moth Lepidoptera Saturnidae larva Bunaea alcinoe Lepidoptera Saturnidae larva Branchytripes membranaceus Cricket Orthoptcra Gryllotalpidae larva Gryllotalpa africana Cricket Orthoptera Gryllotaldae adult Zonoc;erllS variegates Variegated Grasshopper Orthoptera Pyrgomorphidae 'adult Cyrtanthacris oemgmosuslIf1h:fJlorucShon-horned grasshopper Orthoptera Acrididae adl'lt Oedalus senegalensis Schistocerca grcgaria Locust Orthoptera Acrididae adult Acridium perigrinum Grasshopper Orthoptera Acrididae adult 8 A comparative survey ofentomophagy in various countries reveal that while some edible insects are localized, others are cosmopolitan. In many tropical countries such as Nigeria, Brazil, Columbia, Paraguay and Venezuela, insects are cultivated by cutting down palm trees to serve as rearing source for desired cerambycid larval borers and in many-cases 3-4kg may be harvested from a decaying palm tree (Elzinga, 2004). In China, cooked crickets are favourites while caterpillars and termites are staples in Angola. In Indonesia, large rhinoceros beetle larvae serve as delicacy while in Uganda and Thailand, large crickets are much sought after.

Notable among the insects eaten in Nigeria are Queen and winged termites (Figure 3), crickets, palm weevils, Brachytrupes tnembranaceus (Figure 4), Rhyncophorus spp. (Figure 5), Rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes spp, Cirino forda, Anaphe veneta Butler, grasshoppers and locust (Ene, 1963, Van Huis, 20(3). Pupating larvae of silk worms, Anaphe veneta and Cirinaforda are fried and eaten in many silk-producing areas (South-Western Nigeria, Niger State). Consumption oflocusts and grasshoppers is more popular in the northern parts of Nigeria where there are frequent outbreaks while Rhychophorus spp. are prevalent in South Western and Niger Delta regions of Nigeria (Omotosho and Adedire, 2007- 20008). Palm weevil is rich in nutrients and its oil is of great commercial value (Omotosho and Adedire, 2007- 2008) The variegated grasshopper, Zonocerus variegatus is a popular seasonal delicacy among the Akoko community in Ondo State of Nigeria. Adedire and Aiyesanmi (1999) evaluated the nutrient composition of this grasshopper and found that it has high protein content (50.33%), thus making it a veritable source as a food supplement for the high carbohydrate diet taken by many African children and lactating mothers. All the developmental stages of the variegated grasshopper can be dried or roasted, pulverized .and incorporated into baby food or livestock feed formulations. Termites and Rhynchophorus phoenicis are rich in protein, fat and minerals and they are highly relished in Nigeria (Omotosho and Adedire, 2007- 2008;Ajayi andAdedire, 2007a).

In northern Nigeria, especially in the Sudan and Sahel Savanna areas, bags of grasshoppers, notably Oedaleus senegalensis, Kraussaria angulifera and other species are sold in food markets during outbreak periods. Indeed, the time may have just come to stop spraying the creeping crawlies with pesticides and start eating them.

However, there are a number of challenges against large-scale harvest or mass production of insects for human consumption. Prominent among these is the small size of most insects which makes collection, rearing and processing for commercial purpose difficult. Secondly, the wild populations of many insect species are unpredictable hence there may be the problem of over-harvesting

9 leading to loss of biodiversity. This problem, however, may be overcome by the development of mass culture techniques for rearing the desired species. The third factor is that not all insect species are edible as some are distasteful or toxic while insect materials trigger allergic reactions in some individuals.

These limitations notwithstanding, entomophagy still has a number of advantages. For instance, it helps to diversify human diet while mass harvesting of pestiferous insects such as locusts and grasshoppers that defoliate cultivated crops may provide safe and environment-friendly control programme, while reducing pesticide usage. A major advantage of insect farm ing or rearing of mini- livestock is that it does less damage to the environment compared with cattle ranching which devastates forests and grasslands. Insect farming is a relatively cheap and sustainable farming system since the input is low and most insects have high food conversion efficiency compared with other animals used for the same purpose (Gullan and Cranston, 2005).

Apart from insect meat, health and energy foods such as honey are produced by social il~sectsand this has been much sought after by man since creation. After all, .it is on record that John the Baptist fed solely on locust and wild honey during his life time (Matthew 3:4). Consumption of honey, which is produced by the honey bee,\Ap./s spp. is getting increasingly widespread among the Nigerian elite who are becoming increasingly health conscious especially with respect to Diabetes melitus, obesity and arteriosclerosis. Natural sugars in honey are believed to be more/ readily metabolized than plant sugars. Honey also has antibacterial properties hence its use in surgical dressings. :' 1.3.2 Insects as food for livestock and other animals Apart from man, insects also serve as food for other animals including other insects and vertebrates. Insects constitute an important component of the diet of birds; contributing about 50-60% of their food (Elzinga, 2004). It has been estimated that a bird on the average feeds on 100 insects daily (Reed, 1943). More than 5,000 ants have been found in the stomachs of flickers. Many animals such as African ant-eater, AmadilIo, bats, toads and birds satisfy their nutritional requirements from insects. There are concerted efforts on the cultivation of insects for compounding livestock feeds. A case in point is the use of maggot meal to raise poultry, pigs and fish. In China, insect-based diets have been shown to be more cost-effective alternatives to the conventional fish meal-based diets. The insects commonly used are the larvae and pupae of the common housefly, Musca domestica, pupae of silkworm, Bombyx mori, and the larvae of mealworms, Tenebrio molitor. Maggots of housefly fed to chicken can recycle animal manure by converting organic wastes into feed supplements. Although pupae of silkworm are by-products of the silk industry, they can be used to feed poultry as an alternative source of high-protein supplement.

10 Although, it is well established that insects can form an integral part of the nutritional diet of man and his domesticated animals, more research is needed to provide accurate biological information on the potential food insects and the economics of the entire process. These include accurate identification of the insects, their nutrient potential, dietary needs or host plants, seasonal occurrence and culturing methods. -, 1.3,3 Insects as agents for food security or as pollinators Insects are veritable agents in ensuring food security as their pollinating activities directly affect fruit and crop production and cross pollination is required tpr fertility and plant vigour. Insect biodiversity is a sensitive index of the he¥th status of a particular habitat and their pollinating activities are a major facto'!" in food supply; especially in developing nations where artificial pollination is seldom employed except for research purposes. About $5-6 billion/year has been estimated for non-honey bee pollination in USA alone while the global pollination services rendered by insects may exceed $100 billion annually by 2003 valuation (Gullan and Cranston, 2005). Insects also influence plant propagation through I' dispersal of seeds.

1.3.4 Insect as trash burners (waste managers) Insects are efficient recyclers oforganic matter because they aid decomposition of organic matter and soil formation. They feed directly on dead plant and animal materials thus initiating the breakdown of the outer barriers of cadavers and thereby enhancing the activities of decomposers such as bacteria and fungi.

Carrion beetles, for example, serve as undertakers for small dead animals such as mice and rats. What normally happens is that the carrion beetles infest the mice from beneath by excavating soil to cover the bodies and then secrete digestive enzymes to hydrolyze and soften the carcass. The pre-digested food is then fed upon by the developing larvae until the whole mouse is completely digested. The dung beetles (Carabidae) roll animal excreta into burrows and lay their eggs into the dung for the larvae to develop. They also possess the ability of covering human faeces with soil within three hours. Accorc:E!1g to Elzinga (2004),cow dung is now controlled or trashed wit~:.~i.il1gbeetles introduced from Africa.

Larvae of many dipterous insects such as housefly, Musca domestica, Sarcopha species, green bottlefly, Chrysomya chloropyga and larvae of coleopteran are known to burrow and fe~ti on faeces thereby recycling the organic matter through mineralization Insects are qualified to' be described as waste management engineers.

11 Insects are also involved in soil building (mineralization) and construction industry. Soil building and decomposition are close relatives and involve breaking down of organic matter and mixing it with soil to form humus. Earthworms are generally recognized for this function. But in the African savannas where earthworms are absent, this function has been shown to be perfectly, efficiently and effectively performed by term ites.

1.3.5 Insects as builders Insects have also made form idable advances in architecture. A cursory look at the bee-hive reveals the compact, hexagonal wax cells constructed for housing eggs and larvae of the honey bee and also for storage of honey. The modern day architects and structural engineers have a lot to learn from the arch itectural masterpiece of the honeycomb in design, precision, functionality and construction of dwellings within limited space. Ivbijaro (2003) reported that the honey comb cells are of equal size, compact and are of precise and accurate designs as dwelling places for immature forms of the honey bee. He therefore concluded that knowledge acquired from the building of the honey comb could be incorporated into urban housing development programmes of our towns and cities.

The termitarium is a great example of the ingenuity of the termite as a social insect. The termitarium is a masterpiece of superb architectural design providing hierarchical accommodation for different castes such as the queen and the king which are housed in royal chambers that are strongly fortified and protected by soldiers with highly developed, powerful mandibles. Adequate rooms are also prov ided for alate forms and workers.

1.3.6' Insect in Art, Music, Culture and Religion Insects have considerable aesthetic, musical, cultural and religious values and the study of insects in relation to these is commonly referred to as Cultural Entomology.

Hogne (1981) defined cultural entomology as a branch of science that deals with influence of insects. and other related arthropods in music, art, religion, literature, langeage, recreation and interpretive history. For instance, the beautiful colours ofbllJ1tterflies make them to be highly appreciated. In Paupa New Guinea, where there: is butterfly ranching, adults and pupae of butterflies are exported to insect zoes in the US for prices ranging from 20 cents to $250 each (Elzinga, 2004). The' colours of insects coupled with their fascinating morphology has endeared them to man hence they are engraved on coins as found in Ephesus, Greece; while in Nigeria and many other countries their pictures appear on postage stamps (Figure 5). The American Indians adorn pottery, baskets and other objects with insect images. They are also used in graphics,jewelries and sculptures.

12 Among the Egyptians, the scarab pectle is used as the symbol of their sun god called khepri or khopi which was presumed to be responsible for pushing the sun across the sky (Southwood, 1977; Cherry, 1985). Insects play prominent roles in the folklore of many tribes and cultures. In Egyptian mythology, the praying mantis is believed to carry a dead person home to the gods. In the Bible, however, ant was used as a syrn bol of wisdom and epitome of the dignity of labour (Proverbs 6: 6-8) while the medieval Christianity considered the scarabacid beetle as the sym bol of a sinner possibly because it is a carrion carrier.

The role of praying mantis in the bushman mythology has been highlighted by Van der Post (1961). The female normally cannibalizes the male by decapitation during sexual intercourse or copulation. This act emphasizes the cycle of death and rebirth which is central to many religions and cultures. However, insect behav iourists have interpreted this practice as the zenith of evolution of jealousy in the animal kingdom. Although the male mantid is decapitated during sexual intercourse, it does not prevent the process Of ejaculation from being completed.

In many religions such as Islam, Judaism and Christianity, there are many references to insects particularly ants, locusts, grasshoppers, moths, gnats, wasps, beetles, fleas and bees. Insect, notably gnats and fleas, were two of the ten plagues that God used to deliver the Israelites from their Egyptian masters (Exodus 8: \6- 25). It is ecologically sound for God to follow the plagues of frogs with that of flies because the flies would have bred on the heaps of dead frogs thereby assisting in the management of the frog wastes. Islam also made references to insects such as the productive bees and powerless ants in Quran Chapter 16: 68 & 69; 27: 18 respectively.

Several songs, poetry and literature have been written on insects. Coelho (2000) reported that there are myriads of songs and albums on insects in rock and roll style. Notable among songs on insects are "Charlotte's web", "Flight of the Bumble Bee" and "La cacaracha" etc. The fam ihar hum of the bees interposed with high-pitched song of the queen was used in producing the "Flight of the Bumble-Bee" by Nicholas Rimsky Korsakov. Many insects produce various noises by vibration of their wings or legs or other parts of their bodies as the case may be. For instance, the sonorous sound produced by the mosquito is a result of the vibration of small slender processes (halteres) which forms the relics of its hindwings. However, it is debatable whether these sounds can be referred to as music and that is why entomologists have tacitly referred to such noise or sound as stridulation, phonation or sonification. A closer look at the myriads of the so- called "modern day music" such as 'hip-hop', 'funk', 'mid tempo' etc. on radio and cable networks would reveal that songs ofthe insects have rhythms and are full of inspiration. Indeed, the songs of insects have really inspired great men-in-history, notably Nicola Rimsky-Korsakov and Charles Dickens...... 13 ... Insects have been variously depicted in literature to establish moods. At times it appears positive by using attributes such as patience and industriousness while in other cases the negative characters of insects such as poisonous stings and swarming instincts are used to demonize them.

Insects have also been used in movies and cartoons. While the roles of insects in songs and literature are usually positive, the reverse has been the case in movies which, at best, portray them as villains. Insects are also used in everyday vocabulary such as "bug-off', "don't bug me", "knee-high to a grasshopper" and "grubby" .

1.3.7 Insect in Science and Medicine Insects have attracted a lot of attention from geneticists and physiologists. Wigglesworth was one of the foremost scientists to recognize that animal physiology could be studied through insects instead of mice or other laboratory animals thus extending the frontiers of knowledge of entomology beyond simple collection and classification (Wigglesworth, 1965; Chapman, 1971). The major contributions of Wigglesworth were in the area of insect hormones, their secretory organs and cells, and control of growth, moulting and reproduction .. Similarly, much of our present knowledge of gene mutation -in humans, sex-linked inheritance and other classical studies were obtained through experimentation with the fruit fly Drosophila spp. Through gene sequencing, it is now known that Drosophila shares about 60% of its genes with humans.

Knowledge of insect structure is now being used-by engineers to design and develop robots. Wooten (2000) reported that micro-air-vehicles (MAYs) which can navigate places inaccessible to man are now being developed through our understanding of insect flight. The branch offorensic science in which information about insects is used to draw conclusions when investigating legal cases relating to man and wildlife is known as Forensic Entomology (Gennard, 2007). This definition has been extended to include other arthropods. Forensic entomology comprises three divisions namely: (a) Urban forensic entomology which deals with litigations and civil law actions involving arthropods in houses and gardens. (b) Stored products forensic entomology which deals with litigations involving arthropod or insect infestation or contamination of a wide range of commercial products such as beetles in biscuits or candy bars, flies in ketchup etc. (c) Medico-criminal forensic entomology or medico-legal forensic entomology. This aspect of forensic entomology is the m?st popular

14 and it deals with insect involvement in events involving violent crimes such as murder, rape, suicide, child abandonment,' drug trafficking, physical abuse etc (Keh, 1985, Catts and Goff, 1992). In forensic entomology, insects are the silent witnesses that provide eVidence that cannot be obtained, from normal classic pathology. Some of the insects commonly identified on cadavers 01' used as indices in forensic entomological investigations are the blowflies, flesh flies (Diptera), ants, carrion beetles (Silphids), hide and skin beetles (Dermestidae), springtails (Collembola), trogid beetles (Trogidae), clown beetles (Histeridae), rove beetles (Staphilinidae) while mites, spiders and centipedes are other associated arthropods. Some of the reasons why insects and associated arthropods are used in forensic investigations are: ( I) They are usually the first group of organisms to find a corpse or cadaver. (2) Their change and/or metamorphosis (Ii recycle) is predictable. (3) They are the most constant, diverse and conspicuous group among the fauna found on cadavers except in marine environments where crustaceans are dominant.

Insect and insect products admixture with certain herbs have been used for medicinal preparations in many cultures. Wang et al. (1987) reported that weaver ant contains 42-67% protein and it is very rich in minerals and vitamins. This ant is highly cherished in China because it is used to prepare concoctions which assist in increasing blood circulation and metabolism. Wu (1986) reported that ant-eating boosts human immune system while Wang et al. (1987) and Zhang et al. (1991) were of the opinion that it promotes the functions of the thymus gland and spleen. Ants have also been described as an ideal medicine for patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (Guo, 1987; Liu, 1991). It reduces inflammations, pains and controls convulsion, asthma, tumours, insomia, backbone rigidity and chronic hepatitis (Zhang et al. 1991). Ant medicine increases appetites of patients suffering from cancer, relieves their pains, improves digestion and increases the number of white blood cells to fight the cancer (Wang ct aI, 1987). Fasoranti and Ajiboye (1993) reported that in Nigeria, particularly in Ekiti State, the gut content of crickets is eaten by patients to alleviate problems relating to mathematical calculations, while a concoction of cricket soup is used to enhance the chances of pregnancy in women.

Canthadrin, a blistering agent extracted from blister beetles has been used for treatment of certain diseases of the urinogenital system while bee venom is effective in the treatment of arthritic conditions (Elzinga, 2004). In addition,

15 Table 3: Natural enemies of some insect pests (Cont') Host Natural enemy Pest Scarites madagascariensis (Carabidae) Oryctes terandus Scolia oryctophaga (Scoliidae) Schizonycha sp. Campsomeris erythrogaster C. phalerata C.lachesis Scolia carnifex (Scoliidae) Trlphia paral/ela (Tiphiidae) CURCULIONIDAE Gonipterus scutel/atus Patasson nitens (Mymaridae) SCOLYTIDAE Hypothenemus hampei Prorops nasuta (Bethylidae) Indian meal moth Trichogrammapr.etiosum Bracan hebetor Weevils and grain beetles Xylocorus flavipes, Anisopteromalus calandrae Sophrorhinus spp. mites

Source: Kumar, 1984

1.4.0 Injurious Relationship ofInsect with Man Mr Vice-Chancellor sir, insects are better known to man for their deleterious effects on man and his activities. However, less than one percent of all insects are pests of crops or vectors of diseases of man and his animals. In actual fact, it is man's selfish interference in the ecosystem that often results in an insect becoming a pest. The theoretical basis for an insect to become a pest has been highlighted by various authors (Chiang, 1979; Kumar, 1984; Longstaff, 1994, 1997), Flint and Gouveia, 2001). An insect becomes a pest when the population density of the insect or the level of crop damage exceeds the economic-injury level (Figure 6) or the lowest population density which will cause economic damage (E)

20 Population N, Density. E

(N) T

Time Figure Where N = Pest popu lation density E= Economic-injury level T= Economic threshold level This stage is determined' by human factors such as psychological, political and economic factors. However, in practice, one does not wait until the pest population has exceeded the economic threshold level (T) before embarking on pest control. Both the economic-injury level (E) and economic threshold level (T) vary with different crops and consumers depending on the tolerance level. Some of the factors which cause population density to exceed economic injury level are physical, biotic and intrinsic factors. Specifically, an insect can become a pest based on the following: (I) Introduction of an insect into previously uninhabited regions through poor quarantine practice. (2) Change in the biology of an insect can make it become a serious pest. (3) Creation of an artificial environment through monocultural practices or plantation farm ing which tend to support the abundance of certain species at the detriment of others, especially their natural enemies. (4) M is-use of insecticides which kill the non-target organisms such as the predators and parasites that control the herbivores. (5) Downward adjustment of the economic injury level. For instance, the introduction of DDT in the mid 20th century resulted in a rise in human demand and reduced tolerance for insects in food. However, human demand remained high even with the ban on DDT; thus suggesting that the econom ic threshold tolerance has been reduced. According to Flint and Gouveia (2001), a pest is an organism that reduces the availability, quality or value of a human resource. They compete with man for food or fiber, interfere with crop or livestock production, damage his property and ornamental plants, transmit diseases to him and his animals and also constitute a nuisance. It is not only insects, mites, ticks and other arthropods that fall into this category, weeds, vertebrates such as birds and rodents, micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses, molluscs and nematodes are notable examples of pests. Insect pest problems can therefore be discussed under three broad headings; namely: I. Insects of Medical and Veterinary importance 2. Field crop pests. 3. Pests of stored products.

21 Table J: Natural enemies of some insect pests.

Host Natural enemy

Pest ORTHOPTERA: ARIDIDAE Wohlfahritia euvittata (Sarcophagidae) HEMIPTERA: PENTATOMIDAE Antestiopsis spp. Corioxenos antestiae (Strepsiptera) Bogosia rubens (Tachinidae) Nezara virifula Asolcus basalis (Scelionidae) COREIDAE Pseudotheraptus wayi Ooencyrtus sp. Ooencyrtus sp. (Encyrtidae) TROPIDUCHIDAE Numicia viridis TyUhus mundulus T. parviceps (Miridae) APHIDIDAE Eriosoma lanigerum Aphelinus mali (Aphelinidae) Exochomus melanocephallls (Coccinellidae) (Aphids) Adalia flavomaculata (Coccinellidae) Chilomenes lunata (Coccinellidae) Oenopia cinctella (Coccinellidae) ALEURODIDAE Aleurocanthus woglumi Eretmocerus serius (Eulophidae) PSEUDOCOCCIDAE Dysmicoccus brevipes Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coccinellidae) Planococcus kenyae Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coccinellidae) Anagyrus kivuensis etc. (Encyrtidae) Schizobremia coffeae (Cecidornyiidae) parasites and predators (various) Planococcoies njalensis Anagyrus sp. nr. kivuensis (Encyrtidae) Rastrococcus iceryoides Rodolia cardinalis (Coccinellidae) LEPIDOPTERA: GELECHIIDAE Phthorimaea operculella Apanteles subandinus (Sraconidae) Copidosoma uruguayensis

18 Table 3: Natural enemies of some insect pests (Cont'd)

Host Natural enemy Pest (Encyrtidae) C. uruguayensi

Nythobia stellenboschensis (Ichneumonidae) Pectinophora 90ssypiel/a Bracon kirkpatricki (Braconidae) DIPTERACULICIDAE Anopheles gambiae Coelomomyces sp. (Bblastocladiales) Anopheles spp. Pachypanchax playfairi (Cyprinodontidae) 'Panchax spp.' Poecilia reticulate (Poecliidae) 'Carpes mail/ort' MUSCIDAE Glossina spp. Splangia glossinae (Pteromalidae) Musca domestica Muscidifurax raptor Muscidifurax zaraptor Musca domestica Muscidifurax species Spalangia species Stable flies Spalangia nigroaenea Spalangia cameroni NOCTUIDAE Heliothis armigera Trichogramma lutea (strain) (Trichogrammatidae) Sesamia calamistis Apanteles sesamiae (Braconidae) Pediobius furvus (Eulopidae) COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE Clemora smithi Scoliids Tachinids Scoliids Tachinids Adapsilia latipennis (Pyrgotidae) Oryctes monoceros Scolia ruficorn is (Scoliidae) Platymeris laevicol/is (Reduviidae) Neochryopus savagei (Carabidae) Oryctes rhinoceros Scolia oryctophaga S. ruficornis (Scoliidae) Platymeris laevicollis (Reduviidae)

19 maggots of the green bottle flies ofthe genus Lucilia is a simple, safe and effective therapeutic technique for treating decaying tissues (Sherman et al. 2000). Wounds untreated for days which became infested with maggots heal faster when dressed than un infested wounds (Sherman et at. 2000). The maggots are highly efficacious in removing dead (necrotic) tissue.

Chitin and its derivatives, which are major components of the insect cuticle, have been used as anticoagulants; they reduce serum cholesterol, enhance healing of wounds, burns and serve as non-allergic drug carriers (Gullan and Cranston, 2005).

1.3.8 Insects as Producers of Useful Products Silk, honey, beeswax, canthadrin, bee venom, royal jelly, cochineal dye and varnish are some of the well known useful products obtainable from insects. Silk, which was once referred to as the "cloth of kings", is a secretion of the salivary glands of the silkworm caterpillar, Bombyx mori. Sericulture is an age long practice involving rearing of silkworm, processing and weaving of' silk. The technology of rearing this moth has long been perfected and the insect can be reared either on mulberry or artificial diets. Quantitatively, Elzinga (2004) estimated that 110 cocoons of silkworm can be used to produce a tie, while 630 cocoons will produce a blouse. The local silk fabrics popularly known as "Sanyan" or Aso oke" is produced from the cocoons of the local species of silkworms. These silk fabrics are normally used for important ceremonies such as wedding, child naming or funeral ceremonies among the Yorubas. It is also a choice wear among the paramount rulers. In Nigeria, usable silk is produced by the larvae of eight moth species notably Anaphe veneta Butter, A. infracta was A. reticulate Walk., A. carteri Wals., A. moloneyi Druce, A. vuiletii de Juann, Gastroplakaeis rufescens Aur., and Epiphora bauhiniac Guer (Ene, 1963,1965; Ashiru, 1983). The honey bee, Apis mellifera produces honey and wax which are of great importance to man.

Honey is produced by worker bees that feed on nectar. The major component of nectar is sucrose which is hydrolysed to glucose and fructose by the digestive enzymes of these bees and later regurgitated from the crop into the comb cells. The mixture is concentrated to about 80% sugar through the fanning activities of the bee wings and then sealed with wax for future use. However, it is at this stage that man harvests the honey. Beeswax is a by-product obtained during extraction of honey from the hive. It is useful, for example, in manufacturing car wax, smokeless candles, cosmetics and furniture polish. Certain scale insects such as Dactylopius coccus produce red dye cochineal in commercial quantities when reared on cactus, Opuntia cacti while another scale insect, Kerria lacca is a commercialsource of lac, which is used to produce a kind of varnish called Shellac.

16 .A~· Considering the diversity and abundance of insects and our lim ited knowledge of them, there is a great possibility of discovering novel chemicals of high value to man in the class insecta.

1.3.9 Insects in the Management ofInjurious Species Insects secrete chemical substances from their exocrine gland which elicit specific short-lived behavioural response or physiological change on the individuals of the same species (Karlson and Butenandt, 1959). The pheromone may be a sex attractant or an alert or recruitment pheromones. These pheromones, coupled with baiting techniques, are used in pest management practices. Synthetic pheromones have been successfully used to disrupt mating .in many insects such as codling moth, oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, grape berry moth and tomato pinworm (Pedigo, 2006).

Many insect species satisfy their nutritional requirement from the ecosystem by predating or parasitizing on other insects (Table 3). Insects parasitizing other insects and arthropods are called parasitoids. Insect predators fall into three categories namely the monophagous predators which live almost exclusively on single insect species e.g Velalia beetle, the oligophagous predator such as the syrphid larvae, which prey on a few prey species and the polyphagous predators that feed on a wide range of prey. Predators are effective biological control agents because of the following: (1) They kill the prey rapidly, (2) both adult and immature- stages-of the predator search and feed on the prey and (3) the life cycles of the prey and the-predator are often synchron izecl.

17 1.4.1 Insects of Medical and Veterinary Importance. Service (2008) has provided detailed' information on the biology and control of virtually all arthropod vectors of man and his animals. Some of these arthropods are mosquitoes, blackflies, sandflies, biting midges, horseflies, tsetse-flies, houseflies, stable-flies, latrine flies, fleas, sucking lice, bedbugs, triatomine bugs, cockroaches, soft and hard ticks, scabies mites, scrub typhus mites and other mites. Mr. Vice Chancellor Sir, it is from this group of insects that the seemingly adversorial relationship between insects and man has obviously arisen over the ages. It is also definitely the origin of the concept of conflict with man. Permit me therefore to engage us extensively on them.

1.4.1.1 Mosquitoes Mosquitoes notably Culex sp., Aedes sp., and Anopheles species carry parasites that cause malaria, filariasis or viruses that cause yellow fever and encephalitis (Matanmi, 1980). Anopheles species are vectors of malaria parasites (Plasmodium sp.), filariasis (Wuchereria ban croft i, Brugia malayi and Brugia timori) and a few arboviruses (Service, 1963,2008). Yellow fever, dengue, West Nile viruses and other arboviruses are transmitted by Aedes species while Culex sp. transmit W bancroft which is the causative organism for elephantiasis. This disease can cause incarpacitation arising from gross deformities of the leg. '

Malaria is a debilitating disease in the tropics which often results in the loss of productive man hours and infant mortality. It is one of the greatest health problems in Africa and other tropical regions of the world. In Africa, five Anopheles species have been recognized as vectors of malaria (Fontenille and Lochouarm, 1999, Aigbodion and Odiachichi, 2003, Gbolade, 2004: Service, 2008). Since the use of synthetic insecticide impregnated mosquito nets and mosquito coils form the thrust of the "Roll Back Malaria" programme of the Federal Government of Nigeria, the involvement of entomologists in the ecology of these mosquitoes is patently paramount to the success of this programme. Entomologists should be involved in providing blue prints Oil factors which affect the distribution and abundance of these notorious vector of human malaria. Information should be sought on factors such as climate, flight activity, vegetation, availability of the right breeding sites, preferential breeding sites for a successful malaria control program. In the temperate regions, however, mosquitoes cause considerable annoyance through their bites even though they are oflittle or no importance as disease vectors (Service, 2008).

1.4.1.2 Black-flies or Buffalognats Onchocerciasis (river blindness) is a parasitic disease caused by filarial nematode, Onchocerca volvo Ius and transmitted by a bite of an infected bl, ackfly

22 (Simuliidae). This disease is characterized by the development of skin changes such as 'craw craw', leopard and lizard skins, sub-cutaneous nodules and ocular lesions. Other symptoms include hanging groin, elephant skin, enlarged scrotum and partial or total blindness. The incidence of river blindness in twenty-seven countries in Africa and isolated foci in Latin America and in Yemen have been reported by WHO (1987). About 18 million people have been estimated to be infected and 340,000 cases have resulted in partial or total blindness while 80 million people are at th~ risk of infection (WHO, 1987). Detailed review of the identification of the blackfly, Simulium da1l1110SU1I1 Theobad complex had been undertaken by Offor (1991). Two morphological forms comprising the forest and savannah forms have been identified (Ogunba, 1976). The immature stages of the blacktly develop in fast-flowing and well-aerated rivers and streams. There is ample information on the ecology, bionomics and control of black flies in Nigeria, EastAfrica, Central and South America (Davies 1968, Jamnback. 1973). Most of the control programmes have been centred on the use of insecticides against the immature stages which attach themselves to objects and vegetation in streams and rivers or aerial spraying of the adult tlies. The killing of non-target organism, problem of resistance to insecticides and high cost of insecticides and sophisticated technology involved in aerial spraying which many governments in the endemic areas cannot afford are some of the factors militating against this control measure.

However, the advent ofivermectin, an effective microfilaricide and microfilarial suppressant which is suitable for large-scale treatment with little adverse effect has rekindled the interest of governments and non-government organizations in National Onchocerciasis Control Programmes. (Ogunyakin et al. 1994). The development of a cheap, non-evasive, minimally technical and rapid diagnostic method of onchocerciasis mapping by Edungbola et al (1987) has contributed immensely to the success of the Oncho control programme. Adedire (1994b) surveyed the prevalence ofriver blindness disease in Oyo and Ogun State in the 8- Health zone of Nigeria using rapid epidemiological assessment (RAM) method (Table 4). Nodules were generally low «10%) in all the communities sampled while leopard skin appeared to be a more reliable parameter. Results obtained indicated that three communities in Ogun State namely, Ipara, Olambe and Ibefun had less than 10% leopard skin prevalence while it was suggested that there was urgent need for mass distribution of inver meet in in Oyo State and commencement of same in Ago-Iwoye, Okunowa and Olokemeji areas of Ogun State (Adedire, 1994b). Similar conclusion was reached by Ogunyakin et al (1994) in a survey of the then Ondo State (now Ondo & Ek iti States). Onchocerciasis was prevalent in all the 26 Local Government Areas (LGA) with the highest level (76%) at Irele LGAand the lowest(12%) atAdo LOA.

23 Table 4 : Suggested criteria for large scale ivermectin treatment in Ogun and Oyo States based on the prevalence of Leopard Skin (LS) • ------LGA VILLAGE %LS STATE REMARK------Ogun Egbado South OWQ 14.00 Highly desirable Egbado North Eggua 14.00 Highly desirable Obafemi-Owode Makoloki 14.29 Highly desirable Ijebu-North Ago-Iwoye 23.08 Urgent Odogbolu Okunowa 22.00 Urgent Odeda Olokemeji 22.00 Urgent Sagamu Ibelefun 10.00 Desirable Ikenne Ipara 7.50 Desirable Ogun waterside Makun 16.00 Highly desirable Ifo Olambe 10.00 Desirable ------Oyo Oluyole Idi-Ayunre 18.00 Highly desirable Ido Omi-Adio 20.00 Urgent Lagelu Adelakun/Akinsawe 26.00 Urgent Iseyin Akinwumi 20.00 Urgent Afijio Ogungbe 23.25 Urgent Oyo Eleke 22.00 Urgent Ibarapa Tokunbo 25.00 Urgent Ifeloju Akeroro 28.00 Urgent Kajola Olokunola 26.00 Urgent Oluyole Tade 20.00 Urgent ---T----- Source: Adedire, 1994b Suggested criteria for ivermectin distribution criteria 20% and above = Urgent (Must) 10-20% = Highly desirable Below 10% = Desirable LS = Leopard Skin

1.4.1.3 Tsetse flies The family Glossinidae comprise only one genus, Glossina to which all the 23 known species of tsetse flies belong. Tse tse fly is a vector of both human and animal African trypanosomiasis. It causes sleeping sickness in human and nagana (trypanosomiasis) in cattle (Mohammed, 1980, Service, 2008). This disease has been identified as the major factor limiting the growth of livestock production and in other endemic areas. Trypanosomiasis often results in great economic loss to the cattle industry because the disease often results in stunted growth, reduced meat production and emaciation of the infected cows and may even result in death. Bush clearing, use of synthetic insecticides and steri Ie male

24 techniques are some of the control measures used with some degree of success (WHO, 1998,2003, Gooding & Krafsur, 20(5).

1.4.1.4 Houseflies, cockroaches, bedbugs and lice Members of the family Muscidae notably housefly (Musca doniestica), stable-fly (Stomoxys calc itrans) are insects of great medical importance. Housefly is a non- biting insect but noted for transm itting a number of infections to man through the visiting habit to fasces, unhygienic matter and food. Stable-flies are cosmopolitan in distribution and they are commonly referred to as biting house- fl ies. They are troublesome pests of man, cattle, dogs and other pets because of their painful bites. However, they do not transmit any diseases to man. The latrine-fly (Fannia species) are also important in disease transmission because of their habits. Apart from transmitting same pathogens as houseflies, they have also been implicated in cases of urinogenital myiasis. Other flies such as the Calliphorids are important in the transmission of myiasis.

An integrated pest management approach should be the focus of control of these pests and it should involve physical, mechanical, environmental sanitation and insecticidal control. The use of plant extracts for the control of Chrysomya chloropyga has been advocated by Muse et al.(2003).

About 4,000 species of cockroaches are known worldwide but the commonest pestiferous species are the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana and the oriental cockroach, Blatta orientalis. Cockroaches have been implicated in the transmission of Salmonella which they also pick from humans. Many airborne antigens have been traced to cockroaches and about halfof asthmatics are allergic to cockroaches; apparently for this reason.

Adult fleas Oil the other hand parasitize birds and mammals while their larvae are scavengers. Apart from habouring pet parasites like dog tapeworm, bites from wingless fleas also cause dermatitis. Two common species of bedbugs (Cimicidae) feed on human blood. These are Cimex lectularius and C. hetnipterus. Service (2008) recorded a third species, Leptocimex boueti which is found solely in West Africa where it bites bats and man. Bedbugs are not known to transmit any infections to humans but they cause considerable distress. However, hepatitis B virus and 27 other pathogens have been recorded in bedbugs. Bedbugs and cockroaches are usually associated with poor hygiene standards.

There are three types of blood-sucking lice (Anoplura) found in humans. These are, the body louse Pediculus human us, the head louse, P. capitis and the pubic or crab louse, Pthirus pubis. Presence of these lice on a person is called pediculosis.

25 Head and pubic lice do not transmit any disease but the skin of an infested person becomes tough and pigmented; a condition commonly referred to as vagabond's disease. The body lice are vectors of louse-borne typhus, Rickettsia prowazekii, trench fever and louse-borne epidemic relapsing fever.

1.5.0 Tree Crop Pests All stages of field crops are susceptible to insect pest attack. Some of the commonly grown tree crops in Nigeria are cocoa, kola, coffee, cashew, coconut, mango, citrus and oil-palm while the arable crops include maize, cowpea, sorghum, millet, sugar cane, potatoes and vegetables. Some pests are common to plants belonging to the same family e.g cacao and kola or maize and sorghum while other pests are specific to certain crops. Some important field pests of crops in Nigeria are presented in Table 5. A comprehensive review of pests of the various tree and arable crops are well documented (Daramola, 1976; Ojo, 2005; Opeke, 2005). These pests attack all stages of the plant including 11ursery, plantation and at storage. In some cases, such as the kolanut weevils and cowpea seed bruchids, the pests commence infestation from the field and are carried into storage. There are also some general pests such as variegated grasshopper, crickets and termites which attack virtually all crop plants. Major pests of arable crops include Buseolafusca and Elderna saccharin a which attack maize, guinea corn, sugar cane and other related crops in the field. Cowpeas are attacked on the field by notorious pests like Maruca species, thrips, Aphids such as Cydia ptychora and seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (Ofuya, 2003).

26 lilble 5: Mail! insect pest fauna of some plantation crops in Nigeria

Scientific name Common name Order Family Crops attacked

Sahlbcrgella singularis Cocoa Mirid/Capsid Hemiptera Miridae Cacao, kola Oistantiella theobroma Hemiptera Miridae Cacao

Hclopeltis bergrothi Cacao mosquito Hemiptera Miridae Cacao, kola

Bathycoelia thalassom Cacao shield bug Hemiptera Pentatomidae Cacao

Anomis Leona (Schaus) Leaf caterpillars (Defoliators) Lepidoptera Noctuidae Cacao, kola Earias biplaga Defoliators Lepidoptera Noctuidae Cacao, kola Eanas insulana Defoliators Lepidoptera Cacao Laphocrama sp. Defol iators Lepidoptera Cacao Spodoptera littoralis Leaf worms Lepidoptera Noctuidae Cacao. kola, cashew Anaphe venata Leaf defoliator Lepidoptera Notodontide Cacao, kola Marmara sp. Pod-husk miner Lepidoptera Lethecolle-cudae Cacao Oecophylla longinoda Tailor ants Hymenoptera Formicidac Cacao, kola Trugocephala castnia Longhorn beetle Coleoptera Cerambycidae Cacao Xyleborus compactus Shot hole borer Coleoptera Scolytidae Cacao Characoma stictigrapta (Hmps.) Pod-husk borer Lepidoptera Noctuida Cacao, kola Kotochalia sp. Bag worm Psychidae Cacao Zonocerus variegates Variegated grasshopper Orthoptcra Acridida General feeder. cacao, cashew. kola, oil palm cassava, etc Nasiutitermes sp. Termites Isoptera Formicidae General peers Macrotermes .'PfJ

Selenothrips Red banded thrips Thysanoptera Thripidae Cacao. kola l'lanococcoides njalensis Mealybugs Hemiptera Pscudococcidae Cacao. kola (1,('lIIgJ j)IUIUICO(.,'(:lIs citri Hemiptera Ferrisiunu virgata Hemiptera

S'i~'''C()~Cl/S sjoctcdti (CKII.) Scale insects Coccidae Cacao, kola

Toxoptcru aurantu Black citrus aphids Homoptera Aphididae Cacao, kola Ootheca mutabilis Leaf beetle Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Eat leaves, punch holes in leaves Tctruncyhus ,\1', Spider mites Arachnida Arachnidae Scrape underside of leaves in nursery

Oecophylla longinoda Taylor ants Hymenoptera Formicidae Cacao, kola

Pheidole megacephala Ants Hymenoptera Formicidae Cacao, kola

Catnpanotus ,\P, Ants Hymenoptera Formicidae Cacao. kola Crentau 'gaster gabonensts Ants Hymenoptera Formicidae They tend scale insects or aphids. Knit some leave. together III making tents. Crentatogaster sp. Ants Hymenoptera Fornucidae Some use SOIlor other plant debris to make tent on cacao; they have been associated with black pod diseases

27 Table 5: Main insect pest fauna of some plantation crops in Nigeria (Cont'd)

Scientific name Common name Order Family Crops attacked

Macromiscoides aculealus Ants Hymenoptera Fonnicidae

Acantholepsis Ants Hymenoptera Formicidae

Epicarnpoptera glauca Hmps Defoliator Lepidoptera Drepanidae Coffee

Stenphanoderes hampei Ferr Berry borers Coleoptera Scolytidae Coffee ,

Xyleborus compactus Eichh Shot-hole borer Coleoptera Scolytidae Coffee

Gryllotalpa Africana P.d.B. Mole-crickets Orthoptera Gryliotalpidac General feeder

Planococcus kenyae Mealybug Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Coffee

Analeptis trifasciata Longhorn beetel Coleoptera Cerambycidae Cashew

Achea lienardi Fruit piercing moth Lepidoptera Noctuidae Cashew

Selenothrip rubricivtus Red banded thrips Thysanoptera Thripidae Cashew

Pachinoda cordata Flower beetles Coleoptera Scarabalidae Cashew

Euproctis sp. Leaf rollers Lepidoptera Pyralidae Cashew

Syleptasp. Leaf rollers Lepidoptera Pyralidae Cashew

Nazera viridula (L.) Green shield bugs Hemiptera Pentatomidae Kola Phosphorus virescens Kola stem borers Coleoptera Cerambycidac Kola (Olivier) var. Kola stem borers Coleoptera Cerambycidae P.jansoni (Cheo.) Kola stem borers Coleoptera Ceramhycidae Kola

P. gabonatori Kola stem borers Coleoptera Cerambycidac Kola

Balanogastris Kola pod borers Coleoptera Curculionidae Kola

Sophrorhinus Kola pod borers Coleoptera Curculionidae Kola lnsperatus (Faust.) Kola pod borers Coleoptera Curculionidae Sophrorhinus gbanjaensin Kola pod borers Coleoptera Curculionidae Kola

Sophorhinus spp. Kola pod borers Coleoptera Curculionidae Kola

Ceratitis kolae Kola fruit Hymenoptera Trypeticiae Kola

Torima kolae Flower insects Hemiptera Miridae Kola

Mecsohomotema tessmanni White flies Hemiptera Psyllidae Kola Sylepta seilugens Leaf roller Lepidoptera Pyrollidae Kola

28 Figure ~a: Termites: Queen, King and workers

Figure ~b: Termites: Reproductive ..

29 Figure 4a: Brachytrupes membraneus on display for sale in a market in Gboko, Benue State, Nigeria

Figure 4b: Larva of. Rhynchophorus phoenicis

3.0. .•..:

Figure 4c: Adult Rhynchophorusferruglneus

Figure Sa: Insect snacks on sale along with pear,(~gg, 'lli1'dfried pork at "Mban U Injaa" night market in GbokJ/Benue State.

31 ,if >-->

Figure 5b: Cirina forda on sale in a Nigerian market

Figure 5c: Fried locust in a Paris restaurant.

Figure 6: Cowpea seed bruchid.

32 Attempts have been made to control these pests through various means such as chemical, cultural, physical, biotechnical, biological control methods but effective control has only been achieved mainly through use of synthetic chemicals (Jackai and Daoust, 1986; Opeke, 2005). Profitable cocoa production, and by extension all other agricultural produce, relies extensively on research information especially in aspects such as yield, production cost, breeding programs, pest and disease management, processing and new product. development (Ojo, 2005). Apart from dwindling youth population involved in farming, diseases and insect pests are the key factors responsible for low output cocoa and even many oth~r agricultural produce in Nigeria (Table 6).

Table 6: Cocoa production pattern in Nigeria since 1895

__ .'year ofProduction __ ~yerage tOIll~[>er annum 1985-1904 261 1905-1914 2594 1915-1924 20,865.8 1925-1934 53,394.6 1935-1944 90,237.3 1945-1954 103,658.6. 1955-1964 150,057.4 1965-1974 245,491.9 1975-1984153,047.1 1985-1994 136,978.2 1995-2002 144,538.5

Figures are given in IOyears differentials except the period spanning 1995-2002 (8 years)Source: Ojo, (2005)

1.6 Pests of stored products. The major stored food and leather products are food grains, roots and tubers, fish, dried meat, hides and skin. Major food grains are cereals such as maize, rice, benniseed (sesame), groundnut, coni or sorghum and millet, and grain legumes such as cow peas, pigeon pea, soya bean and mung bean. These constitute major dietary staples in Nigeria and other African countries. In Nigeria and other resource-poor countries, insect pests are a major factor militating against .food availability and security (Lale, 1995,2001). Adedire (2001) noted that profitable production of cereal grains was being seriously hampered by the inability to store .these grains for a very long period of time without losing a sizeable proportion to insect and vertebrate pests. Since storage period is the longest post-harvest phase of any harvested commodity, it is therefore imperative to protect agricultural. products from agents of deterioration and biodegradation such as microorganisms, insect and vertebrate pests. Food shortage in Nigeria is not due to inadequate production per se but to the huge loss of harvested commodities during the post harvest phase.

33 Insects that attack stored products belong mainly to two orders of the Class Insecta and these are Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (Tables 7 & 8). These insects cause enormous damage to stored products which is often manifested in form of weight loss, volume reduction, contamination of food commodities with frass, exuviate and cadavers of insects, nutrient reduction, alterat ion of the biochem ical constituents of stored foods, reduction in value ofleather and other products, loss or reduction in seed viability (Khairnar et. al., 1996; Lale and Mustapha, 2000, Modgil and Mehta, 1996, 1997).

Table 7: Main coleopterous fauna of tropical stored food.

Scientific name Common name Order FamilY Crops attacked

Insect Sitophilu orvzae L. Rice weevil Coleoptera Curculionidae Rice, maize, paddy, wheat, sorghum, dried cassava Sitophilus zeamais Maize weevil Coleoptera Curculionidae Maize, wheat, sorghum, Motschulsky dried cassava.

Sitophilus granaries L. Granary weevil Coleoptera Curculionidac Wheat

Rhizopertha dominica L. Lesser grain borer Coleoptera Bostrychidae Wheal, maize, rice, paddy Prostephanus truncates Larger grain borer Coleoptera Bostrychidue Maize, cassava (Horn) Trogoderma Khapra beetle Coleoptera Dcrmestidae Wheat, maize, sorghum. ricc,Granarium (Everts) Pulses, oilseeds and cake. Tribolium castaneum Red /lour beetle Coleoptera Tcnebrionidae Wheat, wheat flour, maize flour, (Herbst) cocoa, grouudnut, animal feed, cakes and meals Tribolium confusum Confused flour beetle Coleoptera Tcnebrionidae Wheat, wheat flour, (J. du VaL) milled product, dried fruit, milled cereal products Oryzaephilus Surinamensis (L.) Saw-toothed beetle Coleoptera Silvanidae Cereals, cereal products, dried fruit, milled cereal products Oryzaephilus Saw-toothed beetle Coleoptera Silvanidae Oilseeds and cake, copra

Mercator (Four)

Callosobruchus spp. Pulse beetles Coleoptera Bruchidae Legume seeds Acanthoscelides obtectus Bean bruchid Coleoptera Bruchidae Field beans, cowpcas

(Say) Zabrotes subfasciatus Bean bruchid Coleoptera Bruchidae Field bea!lS, cowpeas (Boll.)

34 Caryedon serratus (Oliver) Groundnut borer Coleoptera Bruchidae Groundnuts Cryptolestes spp. Flat grain beetles Coleoptera Cucujidac Rice, wheat, groundnuts, flour, milled cereal products, maize. Lasioderma serricorne (Degeer} Tobacco beetle Coleoptera Anobiidae Cocoa, cassava, dried tobacco leaves and products. Necrobia rufipes (Degeer) Copra beetle Coleoptera Cleridae Copra, palm kernels, oil seed cakes. Balanogastris kolae Besbr. Kola nut weevil Coleoptera Curculionidae Kola nuts

Sophrorhinus spp. Kola nut weevil Coleoptera Curcul ionidae Kola nuts A raecerus fasciculatus Coffee bean weevil Coleoptera Anthribidae Coffee, cocoa. spices (Degeer)

Table 8: Main colecpteruus fauna of tropical stored food,

Scientific name Co 111 111 on name Ordcr Family Crops attacked

Plodia interpunctella Indian meal moth Lepidoptera Pyralidae Rice, maize, groundnut, dried fruits (Hubner) Ephestia cautella Tropical warehouse Pyralidae Lepidoptera Maize, wheat, rice, (Wa/ker) moth Groundnuts, sorghum. cocoa

Corcyra Rice moth Lepidoptera Pyralidae Rice, maize, wheat, cephalonica sorghum, ground nuts

(Stainton) Sitrotoga Angoumois moth Lepidoptera Gclechiidae Maize, wheat, paddy, sorghum

Cereal/e/a (Oliver) Euzopherodes Yam moth Lepidoptera Pyralidae Stored yam tubers

Vapidella Mann Decadarchis mainuscula Pantropical moth Lepidoptera Tineidae Stored yam tubers, cocoa pods

Estimates of post-harvest crop losses worldwide ranged between 10 20%; but a range of25 40% has been estimated for the tropics by other researchers (De Lima, 1987, Hill and Waller, 1990), The magnitude of damage has been ascribed to factors such as the type of crop, insect, length of ·storage and prevailing environmental conditions (Ofuya andAdedire, 2004),

Post harvest losses related to insect pest damage is a major problem militating against food security in Nigeria. This problem can be abated by the use of adequate and efficient storage facilities and protection of stored products with conventional synthetic insecticides, Peasant farmers in developing countries

35 cannot afford efficient storage facilities and synthetic insecticides (Poswal and Akpa, 1991; Van Huis, 1991, Bekele et. al. 1995, 1996; Adedire, 2002a). About 60 years ago, a Swiss Scientist, Paul Hermann Muller obtained a Noble prize for chemistry for his research on the producaion afOOT. This gave a ray of hope that at last something appeared to have been

Varietal resistance have been found to be ·effective for many crop species (Adedire & Oni, 1998; Adedire and Gbaye, 2002) but some characters that confer resistance of crops may not be desired by the farmers/consumers or the insects soon develop affinity for the resistant vairiety. Compton et. al (1993) reported that it may be difficult to find a single perfect variety which will meet the requirements of farmers, including high yield, integration into fanning system, resistance to field pests and diseases, good processing and cooking qualities, palatability and durability in storage.

1.6.1 Plant materials The use of plant materials to control irnsect pests is based on the principle that many plants repel insects or produce compounds that are toxic to insects. Some of them even contain enzyme inhibitors (Adedire and Balogun, 1991, 1992, Adedire, 1994a). Plant products are applied in liquid form to field pests and in various forms to stored products insects. To stored products, it may be applied whole, powder, ash, volatile & non-volatile oils or extracts. All stages of insects are susceptible to plant products and their effect can be through contact toxicity, asphyxiation of immature forms or fumigant action, repellant, hampering ofadult

36 movement anti oviposition and penetration of the hatched larvae.

The shortcomings of the-synthetic insecticides such as high mammalian toxicity, toxicity to non-target organisms, residual toxicity in food and environment, the proh ibitive cost of procuring the chern icals by farmers and irregular supplies have made incorporation of ecologically tolerable alternative control methods into integrated pest management more attractive and inevitable (Su, )984, Sighamony et. al., 1986; Adedire and Ajayi, Boeke et al., 200 I, Adedire., et. aI2003).

The use of plant oils at an application rate of I ).5 1111 per kg seed to protect legumes from insect pests depredation is a common practice in many parts of Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (Huis, 1991). Adedire et. aI. (2003) reported that Monodora tenuifolia seed oil was highly toxic to adults and other immature stages of Callosobruchus tnaculatus thus effectively protecting stored cowpea grains against insect attack. The oil content of M tenufolia seed was quite high (48.6%) and triacyglycerol was the dominant component (86.3%). Oleic acid constituted the dominant fatty acid (47.7%), palmic acid (19.3%) and behenic acid (e22.0), 11.3% (Table 9). The high content of unsaponifiable matter in Monodora is an index of the presence of triterpene alcohol, sterols and hydrocarbons which are known to exhibit microbial and insecticidal activities (Heftmann, 1970, Jalad et. al. 1977; ESllOSO et. aI., 2000). Efficacy of powder, volatile and non-volatile oils of M. myristica and Jatropha curcas seed oil had also been reported Adebowale and Aded ire, 2006 (Okosun and Acledire, 2007; Adedire and Okosun, 2008).

Table 9: Percentage oil composition, lipidclasses, fatty acids and triacylglycerols of Monodora tenuifolia oil

Parameter Mean ±-SD (%)

Oil 48.6±2.5 Unsaponifiable matter 8.6± 2.0 Hydrocarbons/sterol esters 5.8±0,6 Triacylglycerols 86.3±1.0 Free fatty acid 2.0 ± 0.2 Diacylglycerols 1.2±0.3 Sterols 1.6±0.1 Monoacylglycerols 1.2±0.1 Polar lipids 0.9±0.1

37 Fatty acids Palmitic acid (C16:0) 19.25 Stearic acid (C 18:0) 9.55 Oleic acid (C18:1) 47.71 Linoleic acid (C18:2) 5.42 Arachidic acid (C20:0) 5.75 Arachidoleic acid (C20:1) . 0.99 Behenic acid (C22:0) 11.28

Triacylglycerols PPO/POP 3.23 PlP 1.10 SOP 2.94 OPO/POO 5.90 POL 8.51 SOO/OSO 1.66 000 9.12 OOl 29.77 llO 20.20 III 7.47 BOO 10.55 Triplicate determinations. Source: Adedire et al (2003)

Nutmeg, Myristicafragrans Houtt oil has been reported to inhibit oviposition and adult emergence in addition to exhibiting contact toxicity(Adedire, 2002a). It also offered a 3-ll1onth protection against C macula/us infestation and did not adversely affect cowpea seed germ ination. The insecticidal action of nutmeg was attributable to volatile components (Purseglove et.al, 1981; William and Mansigh, 1993), a toxic effect disrupting normal respiratory activity of the insect thus resulting in asphyxiation and subsequent death (Adedire & Ajayi, 1996; Adcdire, 2002). The major components of the nutmeg oil are eugcrol, isoeugenrol, terpineol, borneol, linalool, geraniol, safrole, myristicin, piriene, amphene, terpenes and free aeids (Jouhar and Paucher, 1991).

Adedire and Ajayi (2003) reported that sandbox, Hum crepitans oil seed was toxic to adults and all immature stages by exhibiting ovicidal and larvicidal effects on Cmaculatus in addition to having a significant reduction on oviposition and adult emergence of the bruchids. The oil also significantly reduced mating frequency or reproductive competitiveness of the males. Hura crepitans seed oil completely inhibited cowpea seed germination but protected treated seed from infestation and damage for 3 months (Ajayi and Adedire, 2003). Similar effects have been observed in C. maculatus treated with root powder of fagara and neern seeds (Ogunwolu and Idowu, 1994; Ogunwolu and Odunlami, 1996).

38 A comparative study involving ethanol extracts of 10 plant species on maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky revealed that Eugenia aromatica, Erythropleum guineese, Fadogia species and Dennetia tripetala provided the highest protection to the treated grains (Adedire & Lajide, 2003). The plant products did not adversely affect seed germination except in D. tripetala treated seeds. Leaf powder of the tree marigold Tithonia diversifolia exhibited some insecticidal activity against S. zeamais. The leaf contained alkaloids, phlobatannins, saponins steroids and tannins hence the profound antimicrobial and insecticidal activities observed (Aded ire et. al., 2006)

Pulverized rhizomes oiAnchomanes diffonnis (P. Beauv.) was found effective in killing five stored product pests, namely S. zeamais, Tribolium castaneum, Oryzaephilus mercator. C. maculatus and Lasioderma serricorne (Akinkurolere and Adedire, 2006). Based on LD50 and LD90, C. maculatus was most susceptible while L. serricorne was most resistant to A. difformis powder. However, ethanol extracts were more potent and E. arornatica was most effective and had the least LT50 (Adedire & Akinkurolere, 20(5). Treatment of grains with A. difformis extract had no significant effect on water absorption capacity and viability of treated seeds. The population of all the five storage beetles were suppressed by ethanol extracts of A. difforntis for the 90 days. The insecticidal activity of A. difformis may therefore be attributed to contact or stomach poisoning.

Adedire and Akinneye (2004) investigated the activity of leaf powder of Tree Marigold or the Mexican sunflower, T diversifolia on C. macula/us. T diversifolia is an introduced weed in Nigeria with a fast expanding range. It is a common sight along major highways in South Western Nigeria and has been observed to exhibit strong allelopathic effect on stubborn siarn weed, Chrotnolaena odorata. Both the leaf powder and the extract exhibited antiovipositional, ovicidal and knockdown properties.

Powders and extracts of Dennettia tripetala, E. aromatica Piper guineese & Monodora inyristica have been reported to significantly disrupt progeny development in Derniestes niacalatus Degree and N. rufipes Degeer without adversely affecting palatability and aesthetic values (Adedire and Lajide, 2000a; Akinwumi et.al., 2006 a.b,c, 2007). A checklist of plants so far screened for insecticidal activity by various stored product research groups in the Federal

39 Table 10: Plant materials found effective for the control of insect pests of stored products at the storage research laboratory of the Federal University of Technology, Akure.

Plant Species Part used Formulation Target insect Reference

Aframomum mefegueta Fruit powder extract S. zeamais Adedire & Ajayi. 1996 Corcyra cephalonica Lajide et. AI. 1998 Ephestia cautella Odeyemi. 1998 Allium epa Bulb powder extracts callosobruchus maculatus Ofuya. 1986, Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Sitophilus zeamais Adedire & l.ajide, 1999, 2003, Ofuya et. al. 2007 Anchomanes difformis Rhizomes powder & extracts Sitophilus zeamais Adedire & Akinkurolere, 2005 Callosobruchus maculatus Akinkurolers & Adedire, 2006 Tribolium castaneum Oryzaephilus mercator Lasioderma serricome

Aristonia boonei bark powder S, zeamais Ogunleye et. al., 2004 Azadirachta indica leaf, bark, seed powder C. maculatus Ofuya, 1986 Ogunleye et. al., 2004 Capsicum frutescens fruit powder C. maculatus Ofuya, 1986 D. macufatus Adedire & Lajide, 2000a, b Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Carica papaya leaves powder S. zeamais Lajide et. aI., 1998 Castoloil seeds oil Trogoderma granarium Odeyemi, 1991 Chromolaena odorata leaves powder S. zeamais Lajide et. aI., 1998 Citrus aurantifolia peels extract S. zeamais Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Citrus parandis peels extract S. zeamais Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Citrus sinensis peels extract S. zeamais Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Cymbopogon citratrus leaves oil, extract S. zeamais Odeyemi, 1993 Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Cleisthopholis patens root, stem bark powder Plodia interpuncfella Akinneye et. aI., 2006 & leaves bark Cyperus rotundus root exlract C. maculatus Adedire & l.ajide, 1999 D. macufatus Adedire & l.ajide, 2000a, b Dennettia tripetala leaves, stem bark,powder C. maculatus Adedire & l.ajide, 2001, 2003 Fruits Sitophilus zeamais Ofuya & Salami, 2002 Adedire & l.ajide, 2002 Ofuya & Longe, 2006 Elaeis guinensis fruit oil Trogoderma granarium Odeyemi, 1991 Erantia chloranta bark powder S. zeamais Ogunleye et. aI., 2004 Erythrophleum guineense bark powder &'extract C. maculatus Adedire & Lajide, 1999, 2003 S. zeamais Eucalyptus citriodora leaves volatile oil C. maculatus Ofuya & Olowo, 2006 Eugenia aromatica flower bud powder extract C. maculatus Adedire & l.ajide, 1999 S. zeamais Ofuya et. al., 2005 Fadogia species bark extract S. zeamais Adedire & l.ajide, 2003 Garcinia kola seed extract S. zeamais Adedire &Ajayi, 1996 Hura crepitans seed oil C. maculatus Adedire & Ajayi, 2003 Ajayi & Adedire, 2003 !"Iyptis suaveolens leaves extract Adedire & l.ajide, 1999 Jatropha curcas seed oil C. maculatus Adebowale & Adedire, 2006 Uppia adoensis leaves oil S. zeamais Odeyemi,1993

40 r Table 10: Plant materials found effective for the control of insect pests of stored products at the storage research laboratory of the Federal University of Technology, Akure. (Cont'd)

Plant Species Part used Formulation Tarqet insect Reference

Momordica charantia leaves powder S. zeamais Lajide et. aI., 1998 Monodora myristica seed powder, oil extract D. maculatus Akinwumi et. aI., 2006 N. rufipes Ofuya et. aI., 1992 Monodora tenuifolia seed powder & oil C. maculatus Adedire et. aI., 2003 S. zeamais Odeyemi, 1993 Myristica fragrans fruit powder & oil C. maculatus Adedire, 2002 - Nicotiana tabacum leaves powder C. maculatus Ofuya, 1990 S. zeamais Ogunleye et. aI., 2004 Petivera alliaceae root oil S. zeamais Odeyemi, 1993 Piper guineense seed extract & powder Sitophilus zeamais Adedire & Lajide, 2003 Dermestes maculatus Akinwumi et. aI., 2006 Necrobia rafipes Adedire & Lajide, 2000 C. maculatus Ofuya, 1990· Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Piper umbellatum seed/frut powder Adedire & Lajide, 2001 Raunivofolvia vomitoria stem bark extract Sitophilus zeamais Adedire & Lajide, 2003 Terminalia ivorensis bark powder S. zeamais Ogunleye et. aI., 2004 Tetrapleura tetraptera fruit powder S. zeamais Lajide et. aI., 1998 Thonnigia sanguinea seed powder S. zeamais Lajide et. al. 1998 Tithonia diversifolia leaves powder, extracts Sitophilus zeamais Adedire & Akinneye, 2004 C. maculatus Adedire et. aI., 2006 Adedire & Lajide, 2003 Uvaria afzelli fruit powder S. zeamais Lajide et. al, 1998 Vernonia amygdalin a leaves powder S. zeamais Lajide et. aI., 1998 Xylopia aethiopica fruit extract S. zeamais Adedire & Ajayi, 1996 Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides root bark powder S.zeamais Ogunleye et. al., 2004 'Zingiber officinale corm extract S. zeamais Adedire & Lajide. 2003

41 University of Technology, Akure is presented in Table 10. 1.7.0 Concluding Remarks

Forbes (1976) has remarked that the struggle between man and insects began long before the dawn of civilization and has continued without cessation up till now and will continue as long as the human race endures.

Though, man may win the battles against insects, he definitely may not be able to resolve the conflict. Although man has always perceived himself as the conqueror of nature given the mandate God gave him to subdue and dominate his environment (Genesis I :28), albeit through intellect, science and technology, insects have thoroughly mastered the world and taken full possession of it even before man and therefore contested every step of man's invasion of their original domain. They feed on our crops, siphon out blood from the veins of our livestock animals in our presence and if they so desire, they may annoy us or feed on our own blood or live with us. Man has not been able to exterminate even a single insect species since the world began. In spite of the recent advances in science and technology in the areas of space research, nuclear energy and genetic engineering, man has only made a little progress in this age-long battle. The advent of chemical synthetic insecticides in the mid 20th century only brought a temporary set back to these six-legged animals. If man's continued existence on this planet earth is to be guaranteed, man has to change his tactics from absolute dominance to peaceful coexistence with insects; any attempt to exterminate them may result in an abrupt end to man's existence. Virtually all pesticides invented by man to fight insects are also toxic to man and his environment. Recently, methyl bromide commonly used to fumigate stored products, homes and museums has been found to be one of the toxic chemicals implicated in the destruction of the ozone layer and thereby causing global warming. Its continued use has been banned in many-countries, Further, Okunade (2004) listed 21 brands ofDichlorvos (0, 0, Dimethyl 1~ 0 -2, 2 dichlorovinyl phosphate) and 8 brands each of Cypermethrin and Chlorpyritos (0- O-dimethyl 0-3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridyl phosphorothioate) available in the Nigerian market. The concentrations of the active ingredients in each of these brands are suspect because of inadequate quality control by the relevant agencies. There are frequent reports on pages of Nigerian newspapers of families and individuals suffering from food poisoning after meals of beans or yam flour; possibly arising from protection of such commodities with synthetic insecticides during storage. Hence, the age-long struggle of who wins the conflict between man and insect should give way to peaceful coexistence between the two creatures of God.

42 1.8.0 Recommendations

Considering the vast number and species of insects, their high reproductive potential, their roles as pollinators, parasites, predators, pests, trash burners and the SUCCOlll' they provide for man in terms of food and useful products, it is of considerable survival value for man to gain mastery over them or at least maintain a peaceful coexistence with them, ifman must continue to exist in this world. To achieve this, man must think globally and act locally and to this end the following suggestions are being offered,

I. There is an urgent need to have a thorough knowledge of who man is engaging in endless battles, therefore every individual in the society must be taught something-no matter how little about insects. Insect art and folklore could be taught to children in kindergarten and pre-school ages while hygiene and nature study should be re-introduced and made compulsory at primary school level as part of an overall strategy for people to understand their environment even from a tender age. Apart from integrated science and biology taught at secondary schools, clubs such as Amateur Entomologist which will be saddled with insect collection, preservation, watching of videos on insects etc. should be encouraged and the Entomological Society of'N igeria (ESN) should play a leading role in this respect.

2. The establishment of full-fledged Departments of Entomology in all Nigerian Universities with degree options in stored products and urban entomology, Agricultural entomology, Medical and Forensic entomology and Pest management is long over-due, considering the biodiversity, abundance and the roles of insects in human communities.

3. More efforts should be geared towards identification and conservation of insect species particularly the beneficial ones.

4. Arising from insect conservation proposal, the establishment of an insect identification centre/Museum in Nigeria is hereby advocated. Government should make conscious effort to establish and adequately fund this project because of its prime importance.

5. Management of noxious insect species using broad spectrum synthetic insecticides should be minimized while pest management strategies should evolve along the use of human - and environment friendly alternatives such as cultural and biological controls, botanicals, pheromones, growth regulators and semiochemicals.

43 6. Importation of pesticides and its use should be under the close supervision of skilled scientists such as Chemists and Entomologists. To this end, the National Agency for Food, Drug and Control (NAFDAC) should be strengthened for surveillance activities while quacks currently offering pest control services should be substituted with trained personnel registered with the Institute of Entomology and Pest Control Services.

7. Developed countries have, to some extent, been able to colonize their environment (land, water and space inclusive) specifically through consistent and adequate funding of basic and applied research. This culture of persistent determ ination is yet to permeate the Nigerian society. Governments, and even the average entrepreneurs, want immediate results from irnputs. It must be appreciated that Rome was not built in a day. The Americans failed a couple of times before landing on the moon in 1969. The private and public sectors in Nigeria should earmark considerable amount of resource to fund research if Nigeria is to be reckoned with as a technologically advanced country by the turn of the 21 st Century.

Finally, even when man acquires mastery over insects sufficiently to dom inate them, the contl ict continues.

~

44 Acknowledgments

I thank God for helping me this far and to Him be the glory, honour and power for evermore:

I also wish to acknowledge the great contributions of my parents, Pa Jacob Adeeso Adedire and Madam Esther Ashabi Adedire, both of blessed memory in my upbringing. Your toiling and sacrifices for us your children are gratefully acknowledged. We know you loved us even to the point of death as exemplified by our mum through the donation of one of her kidneys to my late brother,' Abraham Adewole in 1965. Continue to rest in the bossorn of the Lord.

To my loving sister, JanetAdenike Ibironke Amusan (NeeAdedire), you are one in a million. J thank you for training me from primary IV to the present moment. I also acknowledge the contributions and support of your husband, Mr. Johnson AdeniyiAmusan.

I am grateful for the contributions of my teachers right from primary school to the University. I want to specifically thank the following: Mr. Adewusi and Mr. Joseph Ayeni who taught me at the elementary school; Chief and Chief(Mrs) S. K. Babalola, the resident sen ior tutors who received me into the boarding house on my first day in Secondary School; Chief S. O. Omitade, our then principal at Baptist High School, Iwo and Mr. S. O. Oguntona who introduced me to the subject Biology.

To Professors M. O. Olofinboba (late), v. L. A. Yoloye (late) and M. O. Fawole, I express my profound gratitude. To my academic mentors and supervisors at various levels, Professor A. M. Daramola, Prof. S. O. Oduleye and Professor R. A. Balogun, words alone cannot express my deep appreciation and I thank God you are all alive to witness this occasion. May God continue to enlarge your coasts.

I will also like to acknowledge the contributions of my colleagues in adding value to my modest contributions and to this end, I thank Professors W. A. Muse, T. I. Ofuya, N. E. S. Lale, A. O. Fagbenro, E. A. Fasakin, A. A. Ak indahunsi and L. Lajide. r also appreciate all the past Heads of Department of Biology of the 'Federal University of Technology, Akure for their contributions toward my progress. I am particularly indebted to Professors S. A. Fashuyi (late), O. O. Odeyemi and F. C. Acletuyi, Dr (Mrs) A. T. Aborisade, Dr. M. O. Ashame and other colleagues in the department.

45 J also acknowledge the contributions of corporate bodies towards my education notably the Western Stale Government ofN igeria for bursary awards (1974-1977) and post-secondary merit scholarship (1977-1979); Federal Government of Nigeria for one year postgraduate scholarship (1980-81) and the Federal University of Technology Akure (FUTA) for in-service training for- my Ph.D. Also, the research and travel grants provided by FUTA and National Agriculture Research Project (NARP-RGS- 0 18) for my researches and conferenceattendance are gratefully acknowledged. I thank all the past Vice-Chancellors of FUTA particularly the pioneering Vice-Chancellor, Prof. T. I. Francis for offering me opportunity to work at FUTA and the current one, Prof. Adebisi M. Balogun for the confidence reposed in me in the collective responsibility of moving FUTA to greater heights. To the Principal Officers of the University, fellow Deans, University Senate, Academic and non-academic members of the School of Sciences, I thank you for your support.

To my extended family members who have at one time or the other contributed to my well being, I say a big thank you. I am particularly grateful to Mr. & Mrs. E. O. Omisakin, Mr. & Mrs. Olu Owolabi, Dr. & Mrs. A. G. Owolabi, Chief & Chief (Mrs.) S. O. Daramola, Chief & Chief (Mrs.) T. A. Oyeyipo, the Olabisis and Ogunj im is for their support.

I thank all my friends in the Klub Amigos '92 for their support and comaraderie and OlaAdurota who had to travel down all the way from the US to attend this lecture. The contributions of all my undergraduate and postgraduate students are gratefully acknowledged because, without you, [would have had less ofa story to tell. The spiritual support of the priests and members of the Anglican Communion particularly St. Simeon's Anglican Church Parish, FUTA Road, Akure, is gratefully acknowledged. The diligence and sense of dedication to duty of Mrs. T. A. M. Okungade who typed this manuscript are gratefully acknowledged. The effort of the Publications Committee of FUTA in typesetting and publishing the manuscript of this paper is gratefully acknowledge.

With heart-felt gratitude, I want to acknow ledge the unfl inching love and support, immeasurable contributions of the bone of my bones and the flesh of my flesh, Esther Iyaniwura Moronke for her love, patience and understanding, and for standing by me all the time through thick and thin. To our good, perfect and wonderful gifts from God, Babatunde Peter and Opeyemi Paul, I appreciate you for your love and understanding.

Finally to this August assembly, I thank you all for your rapt attention.

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~9 WHO WINS THE CONFLICT: INSECT OR MAN? The Vice-Chancellor, Deputy Vice-Chancellors (Academ ic and Development), The Registrar. Other Principal Officers of the University, Deans, Directors and Heads of Departments, My fellow Professors and other Academic colleagues, Friends of the Un iversity, Great Futarians, Gentlemen ofthe Press, Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen.

1.0 Introduction' It is a great honour and privilege to stand before you today to deliver this Inaugural Lecture titled "Who wins the conflict: Insect or Man?" It is also a time to give an occasion of my academic sojourn, intimate you with challenges of my discipline and proffer suggestions as to how some of these challenges could be effectively tackled. Arising from the title of this lecture, the first question that comes to mind is "which conflict"? This question may not be effectively answered without adequate reference to the origin or evolution of both animals in contention in this lecture. All primordial religious/spiritual documents make copious references to insects and man. For example, the Holy Bible makes it clear that insects and other creeping creatures were created on the 5th day of creation while man was created a day later (Genesis 1:20-3 I, KJV). According to Speight ct. al. (1999), insects have lived on earth for about 370 million years (in the late Devonian Period) while the earliest record of man's fossils is relatively more recent, dating back to only 2 million years ago (in the Devonian Period). There is therefore convergence of opinions between the scientific account and the Biblical submission on the origin of both man and insect. Both records agree that insects evolved before man (Genesis I :20-23; Speight et al, 1999). Considering the passage "a thousand years is like a day or a watch in the night (Psalm 90:4; " Peter 3 :8), the Biblical chronology of creation appears consistent with scientific evolutionary records.

1.1 Which Conflict or Why the Conflict? Conflict is an inherent feature of human society just as it is a primitive biological phenomenon which all animals have in common, This is a paradox given the fact that it is often misconstrued that man is naturally a peace-loving being. Conflict has been variously defined by different authors but Coser (1999) succinctly puts it thus: "a struggle over values or claims to status, power and scarce resources, in which the aims of the conflicting parties are not only to gain the desired values, but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals. Such conflicts may take

3