Genomic Evidence for the Evolution of Human Postmenopausal Longevity COMMENTARY Kristen Hawkesa,1
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COMMENTARY Genomic evidence for the evolution of human postmenopausal longevity COMMENTARY Kristen Hawkesa,1 Rates of Aging Evolve If protection against LOAD is the main phenotypic In PNAS, Flavio Schwarz et al., in the laboratories of effect of the allele, it would only have been favored if Ajit Varki and Pascal Gagneux at the University of there were fitness benefits from cognitive compe- California, San Diego/Salk Institute Center for Aca- tence at older ages. demic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), report an apparent genetic signature of past Due to Ancestral Grandmothering? selection for persistent cognitive competence at As Schwarz et al. (1) surmise, the apparent puzzle is postfertile ages in humans (1). This can seem surpris- resolved by the grandmother hypothesis, which pro- ing because evolutionary explanations for aging (se- poses that human postmenopausal longevity evolved nescence) and its varying rates across species begin when subsidies from ancestral grandmothers allowed with the declining force of natural selection across mothers to have next babies before their previous adulthood (2). Within this framework, the rate at which selection weakens—and so the resulting rate of de- — Schwarz et al. note that both the global distribution and cline in performance with age depends upon adult CD33, mortality risk. The higher the likelihood of surviving to apparent absence of recent selection in the older ages, the greater the fitness benefit for alloca- APOE, and other derived protective alleles indicate they tion to somatic maintenance and repair (3). Of special evolved before modern humans emerged in Africa. importance here, the strength of selection against senescence also depends on the fitness gains possible at older ages, as illustrated by slower physiological offspring could feed themselves. Because longer-lived decline with age in indeterminant growers, like fish grandmothers could help more, they passed greater that continue to increase in rate of egg production longevity to more grandsons and granddaughters, in- with ever-increasing size (2). creasing longevity in subsequent generations (9–12). Schwarz et al. (1) measured expression levels of Human Riddles CD33 in humans and chimpanzees, finding the ex- With these general theoretical tools for explaining why pression of one splice form (CD33M) in humans to be aging rates vary, the case of humans initially seems fourfold higher than in chimpanzees. Such increased quite puzzling. Women’s fertility ends at about the expression, they hypothesize, would have accompa- same age that fertility ends in other female hominids, nied brain expansion, raising the risk of LOAD in the great apes. However, although our closest living ancestors whose longevity had increased with grand- relatives grow decrepit and rarely live into their 40s (4) mothering. That risk would have favored the pro- [even in captivity (5)], women can remain healthy and tective allele through fitness benefits gained only at productive well past menopause (6). Longer adult older ages. The same scenario could account for lifespans that include a distinctive postmenopausal polymorphisms of the APOE gene, which encodes for stage (7, 8) stand out as derived in our lineage. How the plasma protein APOE, where the allele that is could selection have favored this pattern of slower derived in humans is also protective against the late- human aging? life onset of Alzheimer’s disease (13, 14). Schwarz et al. Schwarz et al. (1) investigated the phylogenetic also suggest that as expanded capacities to transmit history of alleles of the immunoregulatory receptor information evolved with human language, compe- CD33 and their effects on late-age Alzheimer’s de- tent elders of both sexes became especially valuable mentia (LOAD). Using recently sequenced genomes to both kin and community (1). of other hominids, they found that the CD33 allele, Of special importance for Schwarz et al.’sin- which is protective against LOAD, is derived in humans. terpretation of the genomics (1), both CD33 and aDepartment of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 Author contributions: K.H. wrote the paper. The author declares no conflict of interest. See companion article on page 74. 1Email: [email protected]. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1522936113 PNAS | January 5, 2016 | vol. 113 | no. 1 | 17–18 Downloaded by guest on September 27, 2021 APOE remain polymorphic in all human populations despite the skepticism from some, based on the firm evidence that human life protection afforded by the derived alleles. The authors link this expectancies at birth only rose above 50 y in the 20th century. aspect to the declining force of selection with age. When pro- However, it is not a lack of old people that accounts for average tective alleles gave inclusive fitness benefits only in postfertile lifespans of 40 y or less through most of human experience. That individuals, polymorphisms would persist because the derived misleading average, and its change with the demographic tran- alleles were not advantageous to young adults. Surveying an array sition, is strongly affected by the number of brief lives of dying of other genes linked to cognitive decline, Schwarz et al. (1) again babies and children. found both polymorphic haplotypes and derived alleles that are The grandmother hypothesis is consistent with Sarah Hrdy’s protective, the pattern expected if expanding brains increased continuing demonstrations of the central importance of co- the risks of late-age cognitive decline in ancestral populations operative breeding in our lineage, including effects on infant with the derived longevity of genus Homo maintained by development and social cognition (17–19). However, in the grandmother effects. grandmother hypothesis an ancestral shift away from the in- dependent mothering of the great apes occurred when drying How Old Is Human Longevity? and more seasonal environments reduced the availability of foods The fossil and archaeological records continue to be crucial lines that just-weaned juveniles could handle. Then the few older of evidence about what happened and when in human evolution. females still surviving as their fertility declined could increase their Those “hard” lines of evidence—stone tools with cut-marked fitness in a novel way; and those novel benefits at older ages bones of large animals and increased cranial capacity in genus resulted in selection for increased somatic maintenance and re- Homo—have long made meat eating and brain size favored pair. In simulations of Peter Kim’s two-sex agent-based model of candidates to explain the evolution of our longevity (14). Schwarz the grandmothering scenario (11, 12), even very weak grand- et al.’s demonstration (1) shows that genomics offers a line of evidence into the character and timing of life history shifts that mothering drives populations from an ancestral ape-like equilib- might themselves have been the crucial foundation for many rium to a human-like one. At the ancestral equilibrium fewer than distinctively human features (15, 16). Although the authors found 1% of the adult females are past their fertility, but their helpful the derived CD33 allele only in modern humans, the small number grandmothering drives populations to a new equilibrium with of Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes currently available can- about 40% of the adult females past their fertility, very like the age not rule out similar polymorphisms in those taxa. Schwarz et al. (1) structures of modern hunter-gatherers. “ note that both the global distribution and apparent absence of Those simulations assume mutations in unidentified longevity recent selection in the CD33, APOE, and other derived protective genes.” Comparisons between humans and chimpanzees have alleles indicate they evolved before modern humans emerged in provided hints about some of the physiological mechanisms in- Africa. How long before might eventually be revealed by statis- volved (20, 21). But with growing sophistication about the com- tical methods yet to be developed (1). plex genomics, Schwarz et al. (1) show that even more direct The claim that distinctive human longevity and our charac- comparisons between humans and chimpanzees can reward teristic postmenopausal life stage are very ancient will meet researchers who know where to look. 1 Schwarz F, et al. (2016) Human-specific derived alleles of CD33 and other genes protect against postreproductive cognitive decline. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113:74–79. 2 Williams GC (1957) Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence. Evolution 11(4):398–411. 3 Kirkwood TBL, Rose MR (1991) Evolution of senescence: Late survival sacrificed for reproduction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 332(1262):15–24. 4 Hill K, et al. (2001) Mortality rates among wild chimpanzees. J Hum Evol 40(5):437–450. 5 Herndon JG, et al. (2012) Menopause occurs late in life in the captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Age (Dordr) 34(5):1145–1156. 6 Blurton Jones NG, Hawkes K, O’Connell JF (2002) Antiquity of postreproductive life: Are there modern impacts on hunter-gatherer postreproductive life spans? Am J Hum Biol 14(2):184–205. 7 Levitis DA, Burger O, Lackey LB (2013) The human post-fertile lifespan in comparative evolutionary context. Evol Anthropol 22(2):66–79. 8 Croft DP, Brent LJN, Franks DW, Cant MA (2015) The evolution of prolonged life after reproduction. 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