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The Routledge Companion to Media and Race
Christopher P. Campbell
Framing
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 Frank J. Ortega, Joe R. Feagin Published online on: 06 Dec 2016
How to cite :- Frank J. Ortega, Joe R. Feagin. 06 Dec 2016, Framing from: The Routledge Companion to Media and Race Routledge Accessed on: 02 Oct 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315778228.ch2
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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 2011; McCullagh 2002). their constructivistandsymbolic interactionistapproaches(VliegenthartandvanZoonen and Goffman(1974)havecontributed toframingtheoryandresearchespeciallythrough (Vliegenthart 2012;VanGorp 2007).SociologistssuchasGitlin(2003),Tuchman(1978), communication, anthropology, psychology,sociolinguistics,andsocialmovementstudies media studies including analyses of news coverage and is significantly used inthe fieldsof stantial degree influencesourthoughtsandactions.Research onframinghasbeenusedin Bateson 1955).Mediaframinginparticularisacentralpart ofU.S.cultureandtoasub as developandreinforceourattitudesbehaviorson manysubjects(Goffman1974; tion componentsthatstructureeverydaylife;theyhelporganize ourlivedrealitiesaswell of majormediainstitutions(CarrageeandRoefs2004).Frames areessentialcommunica individual interpretations to broader structural and ideological processes, including those Frames, smallandlarge,organizesocialrealityconstruct meaningswhileconnecting owners andcontrollersofmainstreammediacontentin regard toracialmatters. accurate racialdepictions,andthenecessityofabroadercriticalfocusonmostlywhite cussion concerningchallengespresentedbyracializedmediaframing,thegreatneedfor regularly influencesindividualandgroupinteractions.Thechapterconcludeswithadis chose thesewidelycirculatedexamplestoillustratehowcontemporarymediaframing racial ideologiestoyouth,usingthefilmDespicableMe2anditsLatina/oimagery.We images ofPresidentBarackObama.Followingthis,weinquireintothetransmission demonstrate thereplicationofracialframesindiscoursesurroundingblackathletesand understand thewaysinwhichmediaoutletsdepictpeopleofcolor.Thefirstexamples damaging racialstereotypesandmischaracterizationsofminorities. understand howcontemporaryportrayalsinthemainstreammediacontinuetoreproduce racial oppression.Framingtheoryandthewhiteframearethenappliedtobetter media, especiallyracialdepictionsandtheroleofmediaownersinreproduction this byaddingthewhiteracialframeasatheoreticalperspectivetoassessracismin ory asaconceptualsocialscienceapproachtoanalyzingmediaandsociety.Webuildon particularly racialrepresentations,images,anddiscourses.Wefirstintroduceframingthe This chapterexplorescontemporaryracialframingasexhibitedintoday’smassmedia, More specifically,weanalyzepopularAfricanAmericanandLatina/oimagestobetter The UndyingWhiteRacialFrame Frank J.OrtegaandJoeR.Feagin FRAMING Framing Theory 2 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 constantly challengecertain recurring frames.Moreover,themainstreammediais only passive vesselsreadytobefilled withbiasedframesandsubframes.Some,ormost,people maintain thesociety’sdominant economic,political,andothersocialframes. ing, agenda-setting,andpriming aretoolsusedtobenefitthosewhocreate,control, and 1982).Onaregular basis,fram thereby ignoringoftenimportant aspects(Iyengaret al. in audiencemembers’mindstocertainlimitedaspects of asocietaleventorissue,and The relatedprocessofpriminginvolvesmediadecision-makers subtlycallingattention as those societal events and issues accented in the media (McCombs and Shaw 1972). amount ofattentionandimportancethatmostpeoplein media audiencesadhereto,such of howthemediasetparticularagendasandprimes.Media agenda-settingstructuresthe tant societalevents. subtle changesinmediamessagescandramaticallyalter how audiencesinterpretimpor in linewithestablishedwaysofthinking(Entman1993; Gamson 1989).Theresultisthat sciously, highlightissuesthatreflectcertainsocialinterests (notothers)andthataremostly audience perceptionsandbiases(Powell2011).Mediaproducers,consciouslyuncon always affectedbyjournalists’andeditors’perceptionsbiases,whichinturncanshape al.2001).Thus,newsstories are points of view (Carragee and Roefs 2004; Ryan et in thenewsindustry,mostlyemphasizespecificfactstoswayaudiencesparticular 2002). Thosewiththepowertoconstructandcirculateframes,e.g.,decision-makers presented throughframesthatrepresenttheinterestsofthosechoosingthem(McCullagh 2009; GamsonandModigliani1989). images, metaphors,andeditorialotherjournalisticactors(deVreese2012;Matthes often involvesananalysisofkeywords,languagearguments,stockphrases,headlines, and importantinunderstandingsignificantsocialbiases.Thus,anempiricalnewsstudy meaningful toaudiences(Entman1993).Furthermore,identifyingmediaframesisuseful information, throughomissionandinclusion,therebymakingthemmore mation anduserelevantdatatointerpretsociety.Mediaframesaccentuatepiecesof municators’ minds,thetexts,receivers’andlargerculture(Entman1993). remain fundamentaltothewayspeopleconstructsocialreality.Theyarelocatedincom ways (VanGorp2007).Framescanbeobvious,butmanyaresubtleandunnoticed,yet ence mediaaudiencestorecall,evaluate,condense,andinterpretanissueinparticular magazines, billboards,music,socialmedia,television,film,andradio.Theseframesinflu often becomerepackagedandcirculatedthroughimportantmediumssuchasnewspapers, are embeddeddeeplywithindominantculturalperspectives.Sociallyconstructedframes clearly organizingforcesininstitutionslikethemainstreammedia(VanGorp2007). Moreover, wesharetheview that frames exist largelyoutside theindividualand are issues andevents,impacthowthereceiverthinksaboutanissueinaprescribedway. (see alsoVanGorp2007).Thus,framesnotonlydivergebutconvergeacrossdifferent (2003: 6).Inaddition,hisusefuldefinitionimpliesthatframeshaveimportantvariations tion composedoflittletacittheoriesaboutwhatexists,happens,andmatters” frames; he argues that framing involves “principles of selection, emphasis, and presenta For ourpurposes,however,Gitlin(2003)bestcaptureshowweandmanyothersview However, wemustremember thataudiences,inpartoraswholes,arenotnecessarily In additiontothesecommonplacefeaturesofframing,we shouldnotetheimportance Generally speaking,mediainformationthataudiencesreceiveisselectiveinnatureand Framing theoryoffersananalyticalpathwaytoinvestigatehowpeopleprocessinfor Studying mediaframescarefullyrevealsnumerouslatentassumptionsaboutsocietythat We recognizethatframesandframingdefinitionsvaryacrosstheseacademicdisciplines. F rank J. O rtega 20
and J oe R. F eagin salient and ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 racialized worldviewsasproducedandcirculatedviatheU.S.massmedia. etal frametermedthe“whiteracialframe,”whichweuseasavaluabletoolinexamining influences socialreality.Addingtothistheoreticalstructure,wenowdiscussabroadsoci communication framesinaccordancewithhowthemassmediareflects,shapes,and communications (Entman1993).Framingtheoryoffersvaluablesociologicalinsightsinto processes offraminghavetremendouspoweroverpeople’sresponsestoregularmedia the massmedia(Feagin2013). oppression, frequentlymakeuseofcounter-framestocontrastandresistnegativeframingin 1992). Inaddition,someaudiences,especiallythosewhohavebeenvictimsofsocietal on framesgeneratedbytheirownorfamilies’experientialknowledge (Gamson one avenuethroughwhichpeoplecometounderstandtheworld,sincetheyoftendraw frame (forexample,concrete racialdiscrimination)continuetosubjugateandmarginalize 2010). Inaddition,themany manifestationsofsystemicracismbeyondthewhiteracial racial hierarchyand,consequently, onthelifechancesofpeoplecolor(Bonilla-Silva African-American enslavement, havehadaprofoundimpactontheformationof U.S. lives ofpeoplecolor. tion ofAmericanscolor.Thesehighlyracistframescontinue tonegativelyaffectthe through allmajorinstitutions,therebyactivelysustaining themistreatmentandracializa (Feagin 2013).Forcenturiesthesepro-whiteandanti-Other subframeshaveoperated fied whitesuperiorityinthemindsofwhites—andoften inthemindsofthoseoppressed of peoplecolor,whereastheestablishmentapro-white subframeverifiedandjusti (Feagin 2013). The anti-Other subframes were created to rationalize white mistreatment teenth centuryandhaveremainedpartofthepopular whiteimaginationeversince actions toward these groups. Anti-Other subframes became widely used in the seven- to justifyandlegitimize (especially in whiteminds) whites’ extraordinarily oppressive originated duringfirstcontactswithindigenousandAfrican populationsandwasadopted mass mediaandothermajorinstitutions. theoretical conceptstoconsiderwhenanalyzingtheracializationofpeoplecolorin of whitepowerandprivilege.Theanti-Otherpro-whitesubframesareimportant evaluating itisnecessarytofullyexplainingthecontinuingsocietaldominanceofwhites, frame ispartoftheracialoppressionthatfoundationalandsystemicinU.S.society, anti-Other subframesandthepro-white(e.g.,“whitesavior”)subframe.The white racial nate. Assessingthiscommonplacewhiteframingofsocietyinvolvesevaluatingboththe racialized stereotypes,images,emotions,languageaccents,andinclinationstodiscrimi subframe andanti-blackanti-Othersubframes.Allthesesubframesarecomposedof racial frame(Feagin2013).Thewhiteincludesacenturies-oldpro-white ogy ofwhiteracialsuperiorityandothers’inferiorityisacentralpartthe thereby benefitfrommajormaterialandnon-materialadvantages.Thedominantideol- so adverselyaffectsAmericansofcolor.Whitesarepositionedatopthehierarchyand historical whiteconstructionandmaintenanceofthesociety’sracialhierarchy,which economic, andothersocialsubjugationofAmericanscolor.Thisrealityisseeninthe Racial oppressionremainsfoundationaltoU.S.society.Ittakestheformofpolitical, Clearly, theprocessofframingisanintegralparthumansocieties.Framesand The effectsofhistoricalwhite oppressions,suchasanti-AmericanIndiangenocideand frame Why dotheanti-blackframeandanti-Othersubframesexist?Theearlywhiteracist The WhiteRacialFrame F raming 21 white - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 non-visual racialcharacterizationsofpeoplecolor. oughly howthemainstreammediaconstructandmaintainstillprevalentvisual as thewhiteracialframe,canhelpsocialscienceresearcherstoinvestigatemorethor- and other biased group misrepresentations (Hall 1981). Better theoretical concepts, such owners andtheirtopexecutives,requiredeepprobingtouncoverdisruptracist societal racialmatters.Racistmediaimages,largelycontrolledbywhitecompany color. Themainstreammassmediaremainhighlycomplicitinpeople’sunderstandingof economic, political,andsocialeffectsonthelivescommunitiesofallAmericans more covertlevel,yetinallitsblatantandhiddenformsitcontinuestohavedevastating and economicgains(Feagin2006).Today,somesystemicracialoppressionoperatesata people ofcolorwhilesimultaneouslyprovidingwhiteswithhugepsychological,social, media, asonepossibilityfor creating acounter-discoursetotheseframesandnarratives. would also benefit from better funding models for alternative media, particularly public hegemony intheproduction andreproductionofracistframingviathemassmedia. We ignored altogether.Inourview weneedacriticalnationaldialogueconcerningelitewhite trol overitsprocesses,andthe voices,views,andinterestsofpeoplecolorareoften is thatmuchofthepublicremainsleftoutmediaproduction andlackssignificantcon Americans of color (Entman and Rojecki 2000). The result of perpetuating such systems racial framewithitsimplicitlynegativementalimagesand explicitracistmessagesabout major socialinstitutionssuchasthemainstreammedia regularlyperpetuatethewhite racial hierarchyintheUSalongwithinherentwhite privilegesitproduces. this arrangement as it regularly reinforces the primary rationalization for the dominant negative termsandarealsounderrepresentedinpositive settings.Allwhitesbenefitfrom result, blacks,Latinos/as,andotherAmericansofcolor are frequentlymisrepresentedin and/or racistportrayalsofpeoplecolorthatservethe socialinterestsofwhites.Asa media ownersandtheirexecutivesperpetuateanoldanti-Other framingwithinaccurate ist andgenderedframingofracialminorities.Intentionallyorsubconsciously,thewhite white men, and their mostly white senior managers, are primarily responsible for the rac networks: NBC,ABC,CBS,FOX,andtheCW.Asprimarydecision-makers,theseelite Commission’s reluctancetofollowcertaincourtrulings(Carolyn2013). and conglomerate ownerships, elite-biased deregulation, and the Federal Communications several factors:historicalwhitecontrol(emergingduringJimCrowsegregation),mergers content. This lack of media ownership and control among Americans of color results from ownership (FCC2014).Clearly,AmericansofcolorhavelittlecontroloverU.S.television (0.6 percent)andAsianAmericans(1.4percent).Thiscomparesto77.2percentforwhite has remained extremely low: Latinos/as (3.0 percent) (see Dávila 2012), African Americans white men.Forinstance,televisionbroadcastcompanyownershipamongpeopleofcolor ownership, particularlyoftelevisionandradiocompanies,islargelyinthehandselite Who benefitsfromthisarrangement?ownsthemostinfluentialmassmedia?Media demonize peopleofcolorandreaffirmthevirtueswhites(Feagin2013;Hall1981). The massmediamakeuseof“anti-Other”and“pro-white”subframes,inprogramsthat worlds andtomakesenseofracialmatterswithintheireverydayinteractionslives. In EuropeandtheUnitedStates,whitesusedthiswhiteracialframeinviewingsocial Most importantly, the racial characterizations only work if influential people and their Most importantly,theracialcharacterizationsonlywork ifinfluentialpeopleandtheir In addition,elitewhiteexecutives,mostlymen,overseethefivemajorU.S.television The WhiteRacialFrameandtheMedia F rank J. O rtega 22
and J oe R. F eagin - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 powerful whiteshaveexploited blackplayers.Inmostprofessionalsportsinstitutions, for 2006), largelybecausetheinstitution ofslaveryhasmanyparallelstothewaysinwhich be. Themodernblackathlete hasbeendescribedasa“milliondollarslave”(Rhoden remains transfixedinaprocess ofcommodification,nomatterwhattheirincomesmight (Carrington 2013).Thesubordinated positionofblacknessintherealmthesesports anhonestexaminationoftheoftenracializedpoliticswithin professionalsports making become inthemindsofwhitesandotherAmericans. frame andadmonishblacksisatestament to howingrainedthewhiteracialframehas of PresidentBarackObama.Thesubstantialtimeandeffort whitesdedicatetoracially is widely available on the Internet, including in the negative framing of black athletes and cation andthousandsofhourshardwork.Furthermore, racistimagerytargetingblacks worthy of human dignity, and usually fails to acknowledge a given athlete’s strong dedi- athletes toasourceofwhiteentertainment,asphysically worthybutnotintellectually system of chattel slavery. However, this commonplace white framing reduces the black logical referencesandbreedingmetaphorsmaintainthe logicofracisminherentinthe designates blackplayersasnaturallygiftedor“[bred]toplay”(Hughey2014).Thebio white racialframeusedbymostmainstreammediacommentatorsonU.S.athleticsoften shaped, nuanced,andrepackagedinmainstreammediatojustifywhitedominance.The stereotypes suchastheMammy,UncleTom,Coon,Buck,andJezebel.Theseareoften including inthemainstreammedia. athletes areraciallyframedas“thugs,”“gangsters,”and“deviants”inmainstreaminstitutions commentators (Chen2012;Katzowitz2014).Thesearejustafewexamplesofhowblack (4) the racial name-callingexperienced byblackathletesfromwhitesportsfansand media comments ofwhitebasketballownerDonaldSterling(CacciolaandWitz2014); cheater (Joseph2014);(3)blacksas(slave-like)commoditiestobecontrolled—e.g.,the ball GMDannyFerry’sincendiarycommentsdescribinganAfricanplayerasaliarand abilities (Plaschke2014);(2)blacksas“deceitfulandmanipulative”—e.g.,whitebasket media portrayalsofblackfootballstarRichardSherman’spost-gamespeechabouthis of blackathletesouttheanti-blacksubframe:(1)blacksas“thugs”—e.g.,negative andrelativelyobvious.For example,considerthesedepictionsandtreatments pronounced in regardtoAfricanAmericansandLatinos/asparticular. from newsprint,film,andInternetsourcesillustratingtherealityofwhiteracialframing logical, intellectual, and cultural inferiority). The following two sections present examples accenting “foreign-ness,”“criminality,”andomnipresent“inferiority”(forexample,bio- the livedoutcomesofpeoplecolorandhavetakenmanyvariationssuchasthose desiretopreservetheracialstatusquo.Theeffectisthatthesesubframesshape people’s people ofcolorremainscentraltothiscountry’ssystemicracism,includingwhite political andeconomicstatusoftheparticulargroup.Nonetheless,negativeframing whites innumerousformsdependingonthehistoricalsettingandpastorpresent subframes aresimilaracrossgroupsofcolorbuthavebeendevelopedandarticulatedby fested in countless racist constructions and depictions of people of color. Most anti-Other periods oftimeandhaveregularlysurfacedinthemassmedia,wheretheyaremani The anti-Othersubframesofthedominantwhiteracialframehavepersistedoverlong Indeed, onewouldbehard-pressedtostudyracein theUnitedStateswithout Traditional whiteracistframingofAfricanAmericansincludesemotionallyloaded The sportsarenaisonesegmentofsocietywhereraceandracismcontinuetobe The Anti-OtherSubframe:AfricanAmericans F raming 23 - - -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 find someoneelsetowrite the nextstimulusbill,”areferencetoObama’seconomic a smokinggun)standingover adeadchimpanzee.Oneofficersays,“They’llhave to York Post(Paterniti2009).Thecartoon depictsamurder:twopoliceofficers(onewith wide throughSeanDelonas’ politicalcartoonina2009issueoftheright-wing and mockthem. significant changes to the background or the inclusion of props and messages to animalize Curious George dressed as President Obama) or unaltered pictures of the Obamas with include picturesofmonkeysorapesrepresentedasthe Obamas (e.g.,cartooncharacter monkey earsormouthswithfacessuperimposedon orapebodies.Theyalso apes. Theseimagesfall into variouscategories,includingtheObamasportrayedwith images usuallycontainalteredorphoto-shoppedpictures oftheObamasasmonkeysand ape,” whichretrieveshundredsofthousandsracistimages. Thelikelywhite-generated is thecaseinanInternetsearchofphrases“Obama andmonkey”or“Obama easily accessibleoutlettoexpressthemselvesanonymously andun-anonymously.This racist apeormonkeyimagesreproducedonline.TheInternet providespeoplewithan barrage ofracistaggression.Anti-blacksentimentagainstObamaoftentooktheform in society. and socialdistancingallowswhitestoagainjustifytheirdominanthierarchicalposition are geneticallyandcategoricallyunequaltowhites.Thisrecurringstrategyofbiological racist framingagainaccentuates,oftenratheremotionally,theoldviewthatblacks backdrops andhatespeechcaptions,appearinthemillionsonInternet.Suchwhite the Obamas as monkeys, apes, and chimpanzees, together with elaboratephoto-shopped country’s firstblackpresidentBarackObamaandhisfamily.Carefullycraftedimagesof ing symbolssuchasbananastosystemicallydenigrateblackAmericans,specificallythe frames andanimalcharacteristics(e.g.,aggression,speed,strength). ple ofAfricandescentaresubhuman,irrational,andinstinctive,traitslinkedtobiological whites, whicheffectivelysolidifiestheracialhierarchy.Theseportrayalssuggestthatpeo implies that blacks, similar to large animals, must be contained and controlled by superior trayed blacks as “monkeys”and“apes”(Nederveen1995). This old racist logic often 2010).Inmanydifferentareasbesidessports,whiteshaveoften por (Saminaden et al. in theInternetversionofthiswhiteracialframingisanelaboratedanimalizingimagery ist commentariesinthenowextensiverealmofsocialmedia.Oneviewsasserted battleground wherewhitespassexplicitlyandimplicitlyracistjudgmentsmakerac- outthroughthewhiteracialframe. carried be The historical andcontemporaryeconomicinjusticeofblack Americans continuesto in turn,forcefullypreserveswhiteprofiteeringthroughtheexploitationofblacklabor. ing morewhitevalidationofpowerandcontrolblacksinthesportsarena.This, periodically andpublicly,bywhiteownerssportsfansasanimalistic,therebyprovid- and theirprofessionalpersonallives.Forinstance,theseathletesareoftenviewed, officials, fans,andthewiderpublicamounttoconstantpolicingofblackplayers organizational decision-makers who enact sports team policies that are reinforcedby but simultaneouslydevaluingtheir(human)worth.Notethatwhitemenareusuallythe whites haveframedandrationalizedtheirexploitationofblacksbypointingtopay example, whitesaretheprimaryownersandbeneficiariesofblacklabor.Forthisreason, One infamousimageofPresident BarackObamaasananimalwaspropagatednation During theiryearsintheWhiteHouse,Obamaandhisfamilyenduredaconstant Recently whiteshaveusedthismonkeyimagery(forexample,photos)andmock- Moreover, professional sports often provide a moral, socioeconomic, and political F rank J. O rtega 24
and J oe R. F eagin New - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 racial framingremainsaprominentfixtureinthissociety. hurtful imagesinthemainstreammediaandsocialindicatethatsuchwhite House holdsscantprotectionfromtheonslaughtofdehumanizing.Suchdegradingand a personofcolorfrom viciously animalizingwhiteattacks.Thesanctity of theWhite stantly animalizedandracialized.Andeventhecountry’shighestofficedoesnotprotect with white power structures. This is evident in the many ways black athletes are con and thispreciseframingmechanismcontinuestoscarewhiteAmericaintocomplicity acceptance ofthisformracism. words, there is a gendered/sexual politics that is attached to this imagery that facilitates continues tofeelitneedsprotectwhitewomenfromthreatslikeObama.Inother actions; thisformofracismcontinuestoappealthefearawhitemajoritythat Delonas and the privilege andignoredthenationalblackcommunity’sobjectiontohisracistcartoon. Operating outofthewhiteracialframe,Delonasfailedtoacknowledgehis the cartoon,’DelonastoldCNN.‘It’sabouteconomicstimulusbill’”(CNN2009). ridiculous. DoyoureallythinkI’msayingObamashouldbeshot?Ididn’tseethatin cartoon, Delonasdefendedhisworkand“calledthecontroversy‘absolutelyfriggin’ black men as “physically threatening” and “rapists.” Shortly after publication of the framingwhilesimultaneouslyplayingonthefearofcriminal” “black the invokes and woman. Clearly,thecartoonistisportrayingObamainimageryofachimpanzee legislation andtoachimpanzeewhohadrecentlybeenshotdeadafterattacking made (Minionsand Studios’ highestgrossingfilms(IMDb2014)andwassopopularthatspinoffshavebeen successful animatedchildren’sfilm, Morawitz 2005;Berg2002).SuchcharacterizationsofLatinoswerereprisedinthe are regularlycastasgangsters,drugtraffickers,or“illegalaliens”(MastroandBehm- criminals,andsexualized Latino/afigures.Forexample,Latinomaleactors immigrants, Mainstream movieandothermediaimagesofLatinos/asincludethose“illegal” pair onadate: but debonairpersona.Gru’sgreatestfearasawhitefather isrealizedwhenhefindsthe ladies’ man(i.e.,unfaithful),isagooddancer lover),andhasanindifferent Gru’s adopteddaughter,Margo.However,thisrelationship isunrealistic.Antonioa frame works. One scene represents Antonio as a “Latin lover.” He is the love interest of a MexicanrestaurantownerandfathertotheotherLatino character,Antonio. mutagen, apotentialweaponofmassdestruction.Thetwo LatinocharactersareEduardo, Gru, awhitevillainturnedhero,ashetriestofindthe personresponsibleforastolen Animalistic anti-blackframingisintegraltomaintainingwhitesupremacyinAmerica Three scenesillustrate how thecontemporaryanti-Latinosubframeofwhiteracial Antonio: Gru: Margo: Gru: Margo:
“And mydreamistooneday playvideogamesforaliving”[Spanish “Oh Gru,sellamaAntonio, millamoMargo” “Wow youaresocomplicated” [smiling,leaningtowardAntonio] “Me llamalamadingdong, who cares,let’sgo.” “Margo, whatisgoingonhere” [Margoquicklyturnsinfear] accent, grabscookienonchalantly] New York Post editors suffered no substantial repercussions for their Despicable Me3 The Anti-OtherSubframe:Latinos/as ). Thefilm Despicable Me2(2013).ItwasoneofUniversal F raming 25 Despicable Me2 followstheadventureof - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 Eduardo toSilas: Gru’s accusations.Playingtheroleofprotectivefather,Grucontinueshiscaseagainst villain ElMacho.Astheconversationcontinues,Antonioremainsatforefrontof ners LucyandSilas,thedirectorofanti-villainleague,thatEduardoisactually between Gru,SilasRamsbottom,andLucyWilde.Grutrieshardtoconvincehispart racially unintelligible. that is constituted by a white–black binary, Latinos/as are symbolically, socially, and signaling the superiorityofwhite Americanness, butalsobecause in awhiteracialframe important notonlyinassertingthedominanceofEnglishasonemarkeridentityand in thecontextofUSarepredominantlyMexican,tounintelligiblesubjects.Thisis Latinos (Hill2008).ThisalsoreducesSpanish(asalanguage)andSpanish-speakers,who great manywhitesinnumeroussettingstoemphasizetheirdominantracialpositionover his family from Antonio. This Spanish-mocking technique is very frequently used by a that operatesonthe“one-drop”rule.GruusesmockSpanishtoseparatehimselfand in aboyfriend:mixed-racechildrenandthethreattowhiteracialpurityracistsystem relationship. HeisathreattoMargo’swhitepurityandrepresentswhatfathersfear Margo. The white-oriented moviemakers are implying that Antonio only wants a sexual things aremovingprogressivelyfastbetweentheinterracialyoungcouple,Antonioand with hispredicament.TheyshouldlaughbutunderstandwhyGruisvisiblyupsetthat Audience membersaresupposedtofindGru’soverreactionhumorous,whilesympathizing international terroristElMacho. ThemonikerElMachotriestopokefunatthenegative of ElMachoisfinallyrevealed. ThehardworkingsmallbusinessownerEduardois the working-class males(Feagin 2014).Thefilmtakesadramatictwistwhentheidentity as evidentinthe itself andrepeatedlyoverlaps withmultipleformsofoppressionacrossvarioussettings the contemporarytimeperiod. Thus,thewhiteracialframeisconstantlyreinventing sexual relationshipswith,womenofcolorduringslavery, theJimCrowera,andeven has beenusedtoglossovermanywhitemen’ssexualdesires for,andillicit(oftenforced) women. Indeed,thiswhiteracialframingofthesex-crazed brown-blackmaleOther white-constructed mythsaboutmenofcolorandtheir “predisposition”torapewhite Furthermore, thefascinationwith(andfearof)mixed-race couplesalsocorrespondsto then, ismaintainedinlargepartbyliterallycontrolling theprocessesofreproduction. figure that anywhitefathershouldobjecttoasamate for his daughter. White supremacy, viously, theLatinomaleisalsoaperpetualcriminalsuspect intheeyesofmanywhites,a prison inspiteofalackevidence.Similartothe“black criminal”framediscussedpre tions. GrudescribesAntonioascreepy and devilish,suggestingthathedeservestobe in onAntonio,whohasnoevidentconnectiontoEduardo’s(ElMacho’s)inten fixated Then, thetwoargueaboutlackofevidenceforGru’sconcerns.Still,Gruremains A secondnotablescenetakesplaceattheheadquartersofanti-villainleague Gru: is alook,there’sdevilishlookinhiseyes,andIdon’tlikeit.” [Gru movescloserandwhispers]:“Ithinkthatthesonismastermind,there
also, yougottogettheson.” ously charmingson!I’mprettysurethesonisinvolvedtoo.The. . . the guy!Youneedtoarrest himimmediatelyand[raisesvoice]hisdevi is “Yes, buttherehasbeenanewdevelopment,andI’mtellingyou:This Despicable Me2 F rank J. O ’s updatedanimatedversion ofLatinos/asasdeviant rtega 26
and J oe R. F eagin -
- - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 Gru pursuesEduardothroughanundergroundmazewhereElMachosuddenlyappears: tive andrepresentationofa“benign”whitemasculine“protector”isinherently superior. “macho” orahypermasculineLatinoisthethreattohumanityandGru,asalterna to Latinomaleidentitymaintainwhiteruleasthe“nicer”alternative.Inthiscase stereotype ofhypermasculinityandpatriarchythatthewhiteracialframeties“inherently” children willlearnthatLatinos shouldbetreatedwithsuspicion,fear,andhostility. implanted inthesubconscious ofviewers,youngandold.Atanearlyage,then,many and violent or, simply,as“macho.”Thesewhiteracistimpressions of Latinos/as are now racist framingthatpositions Latinomalesassexuallythreatening,physicallymenacing, damage isdone.Childrenof allbackgroundsaroundtheworldareexposedtoasavagely Gru prevails,andthemovie endsonapositivenote,aschildren’sstory.Yettheracial is stunningastherestaurateur-turned-terroristturnsagain intoamonster.Eventually the moviesuggests,innerevilLatinoisunleashedin fullview;themetamorphosis defeat Gru,hedrinksthemutagenandchangesintoagrotesque purplemonster.Atlast, Eduardo (ElMacho)makesamutagen-inducedtransformation on-screen.Desperateto shocking portrayal of DespicableMe2 immigrant, statesideterrorist,Latinlover,anddangerous foreigner.Perhapsthemost contemporary racializedimagesfoistedbywhitesonto Latinos/as includingthesneaky setting, nationality,class,andgender.DespicableMe2coversonlyafewofthemajor mocks Latinos/asandreinforcesananti-Other,anti-Latino frame. moral compassandhasanobsessionwithspreadingterror.Ultimatelythemovieracially mer partner.Inthisscenethewhite-orientedmoviemakerssignifythatElMachohasno his fakeddeath,andproudlypresentsnewcrimepartner,DoctorNefario,Gru’sfor the villainElMachotakestodeceivehisfriendsandcommunity.HetricksGru,relishes Latinos/as. Second,theraciallyframednarrativealsoconcernsextremelengthsthat Spanish accentsarenegativeandracializedportrayalsofallLatinos/as—evensuccessful inflict harm.ThecaricaturesoftheLatinowrestlerasevilvillainandembellishedfake grant, connotingthatmanyLatinos/as,evenbusinesspeople,areplottingagainstwhitesto several raciallyframedmessages.First,thereisthefearofsubversivebrownimmi that theanti-villainleaguehasbeentracking.Moreimportantly,however,thisscenesends Gru isecstatictoconfirmhisviewoftheeasy-goingrestaurateurasevilmastermind The sceneinnocently takes place at Eduardo’s house duringaCincodeMayo party. Overall, anti-Latinoframesinmoviesandothermass media arevariedintermsof El Macho: El Macho: El Macho: Gru:
right!” [in a loud voice, arms out, sound of the customary have not lost your tttoucchh my friend” [with mock Spanish
around Gru,ElMachomoveshandsdevilishly] I think it’s time we show Gru what we’re up tohere.” [smiling, arm it’s timeformetomakeaspectaaacularreturnevil!Doctor, Imerelyfakedmydeath,haha,butnow “Haha. . . partner] evil drum jingle]. . . accent, fistpump,excited] chest hair,mustache,andgoldchainwiththeletter“M”toshow] pattern, redandblackstarcape,facemask;costumeallowsfor accent, anddressedinaMexicanwrestlercostumewithbeigelace [Speaking toDoctorNefario,Gru’sformerpartner,butnowhis “That’s “You Haha, Iknewit!YouareElMacho![mockEasternEuropean F ’s anti-Latino frame is another scene in which raming 27
- - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 15:48 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315778228, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315778228.ch2 edies mustbepartoflong-termchangeprojects. anti-Other subframes of the white frame are very difficult to eradicate and effective rem- color, aschronicledthroughourwhite-controlledmedia examples,indicatesthatthe videos, blogs, and culture jamming. However, the negative racial framing of people of on theInternetandinsocialmediatochallengewhite racism throughpositiveimages, combat racistwhiteframing.Weseethisinthecreative ways peopleusecounter-frames current whiteracialframingshouldbeinauguratedandemphasized acrossthecountryto of lazilyemployingtheoldracistframes.Furthermore,counter-frames andreframingof framing byimplementingcreativeandaccurateprogramming ofpeople color instead owners andassociatedmediadecision-makersmustend theconstantbarrageofracist nation. Ifweareevertomeetthestandardoffairnessand“justiceforall,”whitemedia societal framingtoexplainracialdynamicsandrationalizeinferioritydiscrimi white racial frame to be inferior. Media framing is used in combination with other similar guage, economics,andcitizenshipworkincombinationtoexcludethosedeemedthe and blacksareoftenmarkedasthreatstowhiteAmerica.Race,ethnicity,nationality,lan over popularcultureremainsoneofthedominantrealitiesinU.S.massmedia. normative “realAmerican”statusagainstwhichallothersarejudged.Whitehegemony female, andheterosexualhomosexual.Inthewhiteracialframe,menhold and deadlysocialdichotomies,notonlywhiteothersbutalsopoorrich,male Mainstream racializedimagesarticulatedintheframingofpeoplecolorpromotedistinct to the dehumanization people of coloroftensimultaneously internalize and resistdaily. the ramificationsforwhites?Therearerelativelynonethatnegativeincomparison torted fantasiesofadominantAmericansocietybutwithrealconsequences.Whatare from peopleofcolor.Asaresult,theimageswhitesandcolorbecomedis- therefore work in tandem to legitimize racial oppression and continue to separate whites as criminals,comicrelief,andsexualobjects.Thepro-whiteanti-Othersubframes cussions, whereas nondominant groups are perceivedinpredictably stereotyped roles representation. Whiterolesrangefromvillainstoheroessaviorswithoutseriousreper thewhiteracialframedominantinsociety. keeping the mainstream media and the legacies of anti-Other framing remain powerful alliesin and controllersofindividualgroupdestiny,yetthedominantwhiteownership Note that, in contrast, the pro-white subframe depicts whitesasvirtuous saviors, heroes, people ofcolorareinherentlypartthedeeplyingrainedpopularwhiteracialframing. anti-Latino/a subframeareoftendifficult tofullyseebecauseracializedassumptionsabout forces existing racial inequalities. The centuries-old anti-black subframe and more recent mainstream media.Theimpactofexplicitandimplicitracistframingextendsrein social sciencescholarshipbyexaminingracializedrepresentationsofpeoplecolorinthe As aresearchparadigm,framingtheoryandthewhiteracialframecangreatlyinform Navarro, AssistantProfessor of EnglishatCalPolySanLuisObispo. The authorswouldliketo acknowledge themanyvaluable suggestions madebyJosé Framing oftenworksinmultipleandintersectingways.Forexample,bothLatinos/as As wehaveseen,thedominantgroupexhibitsprivilegethroughbroadwaysofmedia F rank J. O Acknowledgment rtega Conclusion 28
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and Journalism andMassCommunicationQuarterly J oe New YorkTimes, December 23.Retrieved R. F eagin Counter-Framing. 2nd ed. CBS Sports, Journal of . New 86(2): . New Public Los - -