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Alloys for Aeronautic Applications: State of the Art and Perspectives

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Alloys for Aeronautic Applications: State of the Art and Perspectives metals Review Alloys for Aeronautic Applications: State of the Art and Perspectives Antonio Gloria 1, Roberto Montanari 2,*, Maria Richetta 2 and Alessandra Varone 2 1 Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council of Italy, V.le J.F. Kennedy 54-Mostra d’Oltremare Pad. 20, 80125 Naples, Italy; [email protected] 2 Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 00133 Rome, Italy; [email protected] (M.R.); [email protected] (A.V.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-06-7259-7182 Received: 16 May 2019; Accepted: 4 June 2019; Published: 6 June 2019 Abstract: In recent years, a great effort has been devoted to developing a new generation of materials for aeronautic applications. The driving force behind this effort is the reduction of costs, by extending the service life of aircraft parts (structural and engine components) and increasing fuel efficiency, load capacity and flight range. The present paper examines the most important classes of metallic materials including Al alloys, Ti alloys, Mg alloys, steels, Ni superalloys and metal matrix composites (MMC), with the scope to provide an overview of recent advancements and to highlight current problems and perspectives related to metals for aeronautics. Keywords: alloys; aeronautic applications; mechanical properties; corrosion resistance 1. Introduction The strong competition in the industrial aeronautic sector pushes towards the production of aircrafts with reduced operating costs, namely, extended service life, better fuel efficiency, increased payload and flight range. From this perspective, the development of new materials and/or materials with improved characteristics is one of the key factors; the principal targets are weight reduction and service life extension of aircraft components and structures [1]. In addition, to reduce the weight, advanced materials should guarantee improved fatigue and wear behavior, damage tolerance and corrosion resistance [2–4]. In the last decade, a lot of research work has been devoted to materials for aeronautic applications and relevant results have been achieved in preparing structural and engine metal alloys with optimized properties. The choice of the material depends on the type of component, owing to specific stress conditions, geometric limits, environment, production and maintenance. Table1 reports the typical load conditions of structural sections of a transport aircraft and the specific engineering property requirements, such as elastic modulus, compressive yield strength, tensile strength, damage tolerance (fatigue, fatigue crack growth, fracture toughness) and corrosion resistance. This work describes the state of the art and perspectives on aeronautic structural and engine materials. Structural materials must bear the static weight of the aircraft and the additional loads related to taxing, take-off, landing, manoeuvres, turbulence etc. They should have relatively low densities for weight reduction and adequate mechanical properties for the specific application. Another important requirement is the damage tolerance to withstand extreme conditions of temperature, humidity and ultraviolet radiation [5]. Metals 2019, 9, 662; doi:10.3390/met9060662 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals Metals 2019, 9, 662 2 of 26 Figure1 shows a transport aircraft (Boeing 747), and Table1 lists the typical load conditions togetherMetals with 2019 the, 9, xrequired FOR PEER REVIEW engineering properties for its main structural sections. 2 of 26 FigureFigure 1. The 1. The transport transport aircraft aircraft (Boeing (Boeing 747) 747) and and itsits main structural structural sections. sections. Table 1.TableTypical 1. Typical load conditionsload conditions and and required required engineering engineering properties properties for for the the main main structural structural sections sections in an aircraft.in an aircraft. Elastic Elastic modulus modulus (E); (E); compressive compressive yield yield strength strength (CYS);(CYS); tensile tensile strength strength (YS); (YS); damage damage tolerancetolerance (DT); (DT); corrosion corrosion resistance resistance (CR). (CR). AircraftAircraft Sections sections SectionSection Parts parts Load condition Condition Engineering Engineering properties Properties Lower skin Compression CYS, E, CR Lower skin Compression CYS, E, CR Upper skin Tension DT, YS Fuselage / UpperStringers skin / Frame Tension CYS, E, DT, YSYS Pressure cabin Fuselage/Pressure cabin StringersSeat / cargo/Frame tracks CYS,YS, CR E, DT, YS Seat/cargoFloor tracks beams E, YS YS, CR Skin / Stringers Compression High CYS, E, DT Upper wing Floor beams E, YS Spars CYS, E, CR Lower wing SkinSkin /Stringers Stringers / Spars CompressionTension High High DT, CYS, YS E, DT Upper wing SparsLower Compression CYS, CYS, E, DT E, CR Horizontal stabilizers Lower wing Skin/StringersUpper/Spars Tension Tension DT, High YS DT, YS As shown in Figure 2, enginesLower consist of cold (fan, compressor Compression and casing) and CYS, hot (combustion E, DT Horizontalchamber stabilizersand turbine) sections. The material choice depends on the working temperature. The Upper Tension DT, YS components of cold sections require materials with high specific strength and corrosion resistance. Ti and Al alloys are very good for these applications. For instance, the working temperature of the Ascompressor shown in is Figure in the2 range, engines of 500–600 consist °C, of and cold the (fan, Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo compressor and alloy casing) (YS = and 640 hotMPa (combustion at 450 °C; chamberexcellent and corrosion turbine) resistance) sections. is the The most material commonly choice used dependsmaterial. on the working temperature. The componentsFor the of hot cold sections, sections materials require materialswith good with creep high resistance, specific strengthmechanical and properties corrosion at resistance. high Ti andtemperature Al alloys are and very high-temperature good for these corrosion applications. resistance For are instance, required, theand workingNi-base superalloys temperature are the of the optimal choice. compressor is in the range of 500–600 ◦C, and the Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo alloy (YS = 640 MPa at 450 ◦C; excellent corrosion resistance) is the most commonly used material. For the hot sections, materials with good creep resistance, mechanical properties at high temperature and high-temperature corrosion resistance are required, and Ni-base superalloys are the optimal choice. Metals 2019, 9, 662 3 of 26 Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 26 FigureFigure 2. Schematic2. Schematic view view of of aa turbofanturbofan engine. engine. 2. Aluminum Alloys 2. Aluminum Alloys For manyFor many years, years, Al alloysAl alloys have have been been the the most most widely widely used materials materials in inaeronautics; aeronautics; however, however, the scenariothe scenario is rapidly is rapidly evolving, evolving, as shown as shown by Table by2 Table, which 2, reportswhich reports the approximate the approximate primary primary structure materialsstructure used materials by weight used in by Boeing weight aircrafts. in Boeing Fromaircrafts. these From data, these it data, is evident it is evident that anthat increasing an increasing role is being playedrole is being by composites played by composites [4]. [4]. Table 2.TableMaterials 2. Materials used used in Boeing in Boeing aircrafts aircra (weightfts (weight %). %). The The term term “Others” “Others” refersrefers to materials present present in very smallin very amounts, small amounts, including including metal metal alloys alloys (Mg, (Mg, refractory refractory metals metals etc.) etc.) and and carbon. carbon. Boeing Series Al Alloys Ti Alloys Steels Composites Others Boeing Series Al Alloys Ti Alloys Steels Composites Others 747 81 4 13 1 1 747757 8178 46 1312 13 1 1 757767 7880 62 1214 33 1 1 767777 8070 27 1411 311 1 1 777787 7020 715 1110 1150 1 5 787 20 15 10 50 5 Anyway, in spite of the rising use of composites, Al alloys still remain materials of fundamental importance for structural applications owing to their light weight, workability and relative low cost, Anyway,and relevant in spite improvements of the rising have use been of composites, achieved especially Al alloys for still 2XXX, remain 7XXX materials and Al-Li of fundamentalalloys. In importancegeneral, for the structural 2XXX series applications alloys are owingused for to fatigue their light critical weight, applic workabilityations because and they relative are highly low cost, and relevantdamage improvements tolerant; those of have the been7000 series achieved are used especially where strength for 2XXX, is the 7XXX main and requirement, Al-Li alloys. while In general,Al– the 2XXXLi alloys series are alloys chosen are for used components for fatigue which critical need applications high stiffness because and very they low are density. highly damage tolerant; those of the 7000 series are used where strength is the main requirement, while Al–Li alloys are chosen for components2.1. 2XXX Series—(Al-Cu) which need high stiffness and very low density. Where damage tolerance is the primary criterion for structural applications, Al-Cu alloys (2XXX 2.1. 2XXXseries) Series—(Al-Cu) are the most used materials. The alloys of the 2XXX series containing Mg have: (i) higher Wherestrength damage due to the tolerance precipitation is the of the primary Al2Cu and criterion Al2CuMg for phases; structural (ii) better applications, resistance to Al-Cu damage; alloys (2XXX series) are
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