Perspective Digest
Volume 12 Issue 1 Winter Article 3
2007
World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet
Jo Ann Davidson Andrews University, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd
Part of the Comparative Methodologies and Theories Commons, and the Nutrition Commons
Recommended Citation Davidson, Jo Ann (2007) "World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet," Perspective Digest: Vol. 12 : Iss. 1 , Article 3. Available at: https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/3
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Adventist Theological Society at Digital Commons @ Andrews University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Perspective Digest by an authorized editor of Digital Commons @ Andrews University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet laboratory experiments developing structures originated. There are BY JO ANN DAVIDSON* fruit flies with divergent morphology. hopeful signs that a new generation is The problem is that this kind of evi- recognizing this as a logically sound, dence does little to advance knowl- rational, and reasonable program. edge of how trilobites or fruit flies REFERENCES came into existence in the first place. 1 Richard Dawkins and Jerry Coyne, “One That evolution was supposed to be WORLD RELIGIONS Side Can Be Wrong,” Guardian (September 1, about the origin of species has be - 2005); see http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/ come lost in a maze of trivia. feature/story/0,13026,1559743,00.htm. For about 150 years, science has 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. striven mightily to explain the origins 4 Ibid. AND THE of everything in terms of only chance, 5 See http://www.rsternberg.net for Stern- allied with the laws of nature. berg’s own restrained account of the affair. Dawkins and Coyne offer nothing 6 Richard Dawkins and Jerry Coyne, op cit. new, just the same unsubstantiated 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. assertions and unfulfilled promises 9 Tom Kemp, Fossils and Evolution VEGETARIAN DIET that have led origins science into (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, decades of sterile wandering. Origins 1999), p. 16. science seems gripped in a mesmeric 10 Stephen. J. Gould, quoted in Phillip E. addiction to games of chance. It is Johnson, Darwin on Trial (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1993), p. 50. Going meatless is a cultural phenomenon now time to check into design rehab. 11 Dawkins and Jerry Coyne, op cit. that appears in many major faith traditions Their article shows that Dawkins and 1 2 Seehttp://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/ Coyne are still in full denial. The ex hibit.asp?id=3616&tip=1. throughout history. prime objective of the ID enterprise is 13 Nature (2005), p. 438. to establish design as a basic cause, 14 Dawkins and Coyne, op cit. hroughout history, many faith religions over thousands of years 15 Ibid. along with chance and natural law, traditions have perceived a and yet maintained its distinctive 16 Phillip E. Johnson, Darwin on Trial and hence to advance understanding (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, relationship between the phys- character. Hindus believe in many of how complex biological and other 1993), p. 68. T ical and the spiritual nature of gods, reincarnation, and karma (un - a human being. In their discus- derstood as how one’s actions in pre- sion of this relationship, these tradi- vious lives morally affect the current tions have shown some curious sim- cycle of existence). ilarities and striking differences in Regarding diet, Hinduism today the various links between diet and differs from what is known of its religion. oldest forms. During the Vedic pe- Hinduism *Jo Ann Davidson teaches Systematic The complex system of Hinduism Theology at the Seventh-day Advent - has proved to be very resilient. It has ist Theological Seminary, Berrien absorbed elements of various other Springs, Michigan
24 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews25 University, 2007 1 Perspective Digest, Vol. 12 [2007], Iss. 1, Art. 3 r iod in India (after about 2000 B.C.), on forest-cutting, demonstrate an Buddhism and Hinduism have many similarities. Hindus ate meat and sacrificed ani- early sensitivity to the relationship mals extensively. Conception of an between ecology and human life Both originated in India and both believe in karma and rein- afterlife included a “heaven,” where only now slowly emerging in mod- carnation. Buddhists reject the idea of the self or soul, how - those who had acquired enough ern Western thinking. ever, believing it to be an illusion brought about by one’s merit through the presentation of After about 1000 B.C., meat-eating sacrificial gifts were likely to go. apparently was widely restricted. The attachment to worldly things. The Buddha taught that life is Vegetarianism emerged gradually Upanishads of this period were the a stream of becoming, in which no permanent self endures. in Hinduism. Around the seventh first Hindu scriptures to mention century B.C., some Hindu sages be - doctrines suggestive of reincarnation. Individuals are composites of perception, feeling, volition, gan to advocate a meatless diet, And other selections of writings intelligence, and form, all subject to the law of karma. though they were probably a minor- stated that one could eat meat only ity. A major upheaval around the when the animal was sacrificed ritu- sixth century B.C. in India deeply ally. affected Hinduism. This led to the Hindu vegetarianism received its teaching undoubtedly were vegetar - essentially suffering, desire is the formation of the Buddhist and the strongest advance from the Krishna ian, not all Hindus practice this cause of suffering, and the path to Jain religions, both of which put in- cult, from whom reverence for the restriction. Nirvana (or salvation) involves ces- creased emphasis on the sanctity of sacred cow originated and persists to Though many Hindus today and sation of all desire. Non-attachment all life, including animal life. this day. The followers of Krishna, in the past have eaten meat, there is to food was practiced as one way to In the third century B.C, the In- who began propagating their view in nevertheless a strong vegetarian tra- withdraw from desire. Recognition dian King Asoka converted to Bud- the first few centuries A.D., were strict dition within Hinduism. Today it is of the shared life of all creatures led dhism, and Buddhism became the vegetarians, and Hinduism came generally motivated from issues con- to compassion for animals. official religion. Asoka himself gave more and more under their influence. nected with reincarnation. Of the two chief branches of Bud- up most, if not all, meat consump- From the third century A.D. dhism, Theravada, the older of the tion. Eating flesh meat was almost onward, restrictions on the use of Buddhism two, is present in Burma, Ceylon, entirely done away with at the royal beef increased. In the fourth century, Buddhism and Hinduism have Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Tibet, and court, and the killing of some kinds the Law of Manu again restricted many similarities. Both originated Malaya. The Mahayana tradition is of animals was prohibited entirely. It meat-eating to sacrificial occasions. in India and both believe in karma found in China. Both occur in Viet- is said that Asoka was converted to The life of Krishna was recorded in and reincarnation. Buddhists reject nam, while Japan has yet another tan- Buddhism after viewing the carnage the Bhagwat Purana during the fifth the idea of the self or soul, however, gent originally brought from China. that resulted from one of the great century. Upper castes in India resisted believing it to be an illusion Attitudes toward meat consump- battles of the day. the trend toward vegetarianism, and brought about by one’s attachment tion are noticeably different within Economic factors also affected it seems that they continued to eat to worldly things. The Buddha the two main traditions. In Thera - meat consumption. It was becoming beef as late as the ninth or 10th cen- taught that life is a stream of vada Buddhism, meat-eating has more and more expensive to pro- tury. After the translation of the becoming, in which no permanent come to be largely condoned, while duce meat because of the pressure Bhagwat Purana into Hindi (15th self endures. Individuals are com- in Mahayana Buddhism, meat con- that overgrazing and deforestation century A.D.), no orthodox Hindu posites of perception, feeling, voli- sumption is frowned upon. These were placing on the land. Some of would kill a cow or eat beef. Though tion, intelligence, and form, all sub- differences are very apparent in Asoka’s decrees, such as restrictions the orthodox followers of Krishna’s ject to the law of karma. Life is some of their rituals. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/326 2 27 Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet r iod in India (after about 2000 B.C.), on forest-cutting, demonstrate an Buddhism and Hinduism have many similarities. Hindus ate meat and sacrificed ani- early sensitivity to the relationship mals extensively. Conception of an between ecology and human life Both originated in India and both believe in karma and rein- afterlife included a “heaven,” where only now slowly emerging in mod- carnation. Buddhists reject the idea of the self or soul, how - those who had acquired enough ern Western thinking. ever, believing it to be an illusion brought about by one’s merit through the presentation of After about 1000 B.C., meat-eating sacrificial gifts were likely to go. apparently was widely restricted. The attachment to worldly things. The Buddha taught that life is Vegetarianism emerged gradually Upanishads of this period were the a stream of becoming, in which no permanent self endures. in Hinduism. Around the seventh first Hindu scriptures to mention century B.C., some Hindu sages be - doctrines suggestive of reincarnation. Individuals are composites of perception, feeling, volition, gan to advocate a meatless diet, And other selections of writings intelligence, and form, all subject to the law of karma. though they were probably a minor- stated that one could eat meat only ity. A major upheaval around the when the animal was sacrificed ritu- sixth century B.C. in India deeply ally. affected Hinduism. This led to the Hindu vegetarianism received its teaching undoubtedly were vegetar - essentially suffering, desire is the formation of the Buddhist and the strongest advance from the Krishna ian, not all Hindus practice this cause of suffering, and the path to Jain religions, both of which put in- cult, from whom reverence for the restriction. Nirvana (or salvation) involves ces- creased emphasis on the sanctity of sacred cow originated and persists to Though many Hindus today and sation of all desire. Non-attachment all life, including animal life. this day. The followers of Krishna, in the past have eaten meat, there is to food was practiced as one way to In the third century B.C, the In- who began propagating their view in nevertheless a strong vegetarian tra- withdraw from desire. Recognition dian King Asoka converted to Bud- the first few centuries A.D., were strict dition within Hinduism. Today it is of the shared life of all creatures led dhism, and Buddhism became the vegetarians, and Hinduism came generally motivated from issues con- to compassion for animals. official religion. Asoka himself gave more and more under their influence. nected with reincarnation. Of the two chief branches of Bud- up most, if not all, meat consump- From the third century A.D. dhism, Theravada, the older of the tion. Eating flesh meat was almost onward, restrictions on the use of Buddhism two, is present in Burma, Ceylon, entirely done away with at the royal beef increased. In the fourth century, Buddhism and Hinduism have Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Tibet, and court, and the killing of some kinds the Law of Manu again restricted many similarities. Both originated Malaya. The Mahayana tradition is of animals was prohibited entirely. It meat-eating to sacrificial occasions. in India and both believe in karma found in China. Both occur in Viet- is said that Asoka was converted to The life of Krishna was recorded in and reincarnation. Buddhists reject nam, while Japan has yet another tan- Buddhism after viewing the carnage the Bhagwat Purana during the fifth the idea of the self or soul, however, gent originally brought from China. that resulted from one of the great century. Upper castes in India resisted believing it to be an illusion Attitudes toward meat consump- battles of the day. the trend toward vegetarianism, and brought about by one’s attachment tion are noticeably different within Economic factors also affected it seems that they continued to eat to worldly things. The Buddha the two main traditions. In Thera - meat consumption. It was becoming beef as late as the ninth or 10th cen- taught that life is a stream of vada Buddhism, meat-eating has more and more expensive to pro- tury. After the translation of the becoming, in which no permanent come to be largely condoned, while duce meat because of the pressure Bhagwat Purana into Hindi (15th self endures. Individuals are com- in Mahayana Buddhism, meat con- that overgrazing and deforestation century A.D.), no orthodox Hindu posites of perception, feeling, voli- sumption is frowned upon. These were placing on the land. Some of would kill a cow or eat beef. Though tion, intelligence, and form, all sub- differences are very apparent in Asoka’s decrees, such as restrictions the orthodox followers of Krishna’s ject to the law of karma. Life is some of their rituals.
26 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews27 University, 2007 3 Perspective Digest, Vol. 12 [2007], Iss. 1, Art. 3 In reincarnation, an animal may have to go through good karma to be reborn as a human. reincarnation, karma, and nonvio- However, animals can eventually lence. eons of existences before finally accumulating enough good achieve salvation. In fact, there are According to the Jains, the entire karma to be reborn as a human. However, animals can many stories of the prior existences of universe is alive. One should abstain, eventually achieve salvation. In fact, there are many stories of the Buddha, often as an animal. as much as is possible, from violence Even though it is meritorious to toward any living creature. Every- the prior existences of the Buddha, often as an animal. abstain from meat, not all Buddhists thing, including rocks and stones as refrain. Yet there is a very strong tra- well as plants and animals, is in dition of vegetarianism in Buddhism, some sense alive. The idea of ahimsa, since the Buddha commanded his fol- or nonviolence, is heavily stressed by Theravada Buddhist monks beg all animal foods, onions, and alcohol lowers not to kill animals. The vio- the Jains, having far-reaching impli- for food and are to accept what they were either forbidden or customar ily lence of slaughtering animals for food cations for them. are given. To receive some foods but avoided. This included the use of and the restless craving for flesh There are five types of beings in to reject others signifies an attach- animal products in dress with a pro- meats reveal modes in which humans the Jain universe, each having one ment to the world, a trait that monks hibition on the use of silk or leather enslave themselves to suffering. The through five senses. These are are supposed to suppress. Certain (not observed in Theravada Bud- ethical doctrine of ahimsa, or non- grouped accordingly, ranging from principles regarding flesh foods are dhism). However, dietary abstinence injury to living beings, shared by both the five-sensed beings (human also operant. No monk can kill an from meat was an ancient Chinese Hindu and Buddhist religious tradi- beings, infernal beings [inhabitants animal or accept meat specially tradition that apparently predated tions, derives from the conviction of hell, or the lower regions], and slaughtered for him. Moreover, cer- the arrival of Buddhism. that violence to creatures, whose some animals) down to the one- tain kinds of meat cannot be eaten Not only are Mahayana Buddhist forms and identities through reincar- sensed beings, or nigodas (vegetable under any circumstance. The Bud- monks vegetarian, but so are many nation are fluid, has consequences for bodies, earth bodies, water bodies, dha forbade eating the meat of ele- Buddhist lay believers in China. Peo- karma. Motivation for the meatless fire bodies, and wind bodies), pos- phants, horses, dogs, serpents, lions, ple other than monks take a lay Bud- diet does not seem to emerge from sessing only the sense of touch. tigers, bears, hyenas, and panthers, dhist ordination of from one to five ecological issues or concern for the Though it is worse to cause harm even if they had died natural deaths. vows. Almost everyone takes the first physical health of the Buddhist. to a higher being than to a lower The Buddha also clearly enjoined vow, which prohibits killing any sen- Mahayana affirmation of spiritual being, the Jains carry the doctrine of monks to abstain from killing ani- tient creature. This is usually inter- potential in all sentient life, coupled ahimsa to its ultimate. Ideally, one mals, so that all creatures of what - preted to mean or imply vegetarian- with the Theravadin emphasis on should not harm any kind of being. ever kind could live. In most Thera - ism. However, there is disagreement compassion and karma, gave rise to This can be accomplished only by vada countries today, though, lay on this point. Some argue that the the centrality of the meatless diet in the Jain monks, who do as little as Buddhists regularly eat meat. injunction against taking the life of Buddhist thinking. possible and are supported in this by In the Mahayana Buddhist tradi- sentient creatures means only that the lay community. The path to sal- tion, the monks do not beg for food one should not personally slaughter Jainism vation involves purifying the soul of at all. They prepare their own food, animals or eat an animal expressly The Jain religion came into exis- its contaminations with matter. As which they buy, grow, or collect as killed for personal benefit. tence around the sixth century B.C., long as the soul is enmeshed in mat- rent. The Mahayana monks in China In reincarnation, an animal may about the same time as Buddhism. ter, violence is inevitable, as count- were strict vegetarians in ancient have to go through eons of existences Jainism shares several beliefs with less nigodas would be destroyed even times and remain so today. In China, before finally accumulating enough Hinduism and Buddhism, including in the simple act of taking a walk. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/328 4 29 Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet In reincarnation, an animal may have to go through good karma to be reborn as a human. reincarnation, karma, and nonvio- However, animals can eventually lence. eons of existences before finally accumulating enough good achieve salvation. In fact, there are According to the Jains, the entire karma to be reborn as a human. However, animals can many stories of the prior existences of universe is alive. One should abstain, eventually achieve salvation. In fact, there are many stories of the Buddha, often as an animal. as much as is possible, from violence Even though it is meritorious to toward any living creature. Every- the prior existences of the Buddha, often as an animal. abstain from meat, not all Buddhists thing, including rocks and stones as refrain. Yet there is a very strong tra- well as plants and animals, is in dition of vegetarianism in Buddhism, some sense alive. The idea of ahimsa, since the Buddha commanded his fol- or nonviolence, is heavily stressed by Theravada Buddhist monks beg all animal foods, onions, and alcohol lowers not to kill animals. The vio- the Jains, having far-reaching impli- for food and are to accept what they were either forbidden or customar ily lence of slaughtering animals for food cations for them. are given. To receive some foods but avoided. This included the use of and the restless craving for flesh There are five types of beings in to reject others signifies an attach- animal products in dress with a pro- meats reveal modes in which humans the Jain universe, each having one ment to the world, a trait that monks hibition on the use of silk or leather enslave themselves to suffering. The through five senses. These are are supposed to suppress. Certain (not observed in Theravada Bud- ethical doctrine of ahimsa, or non- grouped accordingly, ranging from principles regarding flesh foods are dhism). However, dietary abstinence injury to living beings, shared by both the five-sensed beings (human also operant. No monk can kill an from meat was an ancient Chinese Hindu and Buddhist religious tradi- beings, infernal beings [inhabitants animal or accept meat specially tradition that apparently predated tions, derives from the conviction of hell, or the lower regions], and slaughtered for him. Moreover, cer- the arrival of Buddhism. that violence to creatures, whose some animals) down to the one- tain kinds of meat cannot be eaten Not only are Mahayana Buddhist forms and identities through reincar- sensed beings, or nigodas (vegetable under any circumstance. The Bud- monks vegetarian, but so are many nation are fluid, has consequences for bodies, earth bodies, water bodies, dha forbade eating the meat of ele- Buddhist lay believers in China. Peo- karma. Motivation for the meatless fire bodies, and wind bodies), pos- phants, horses, dogs, serpents, lions, ple other than monks take a lay Bud- diet does not seem to emerge from sessing only the sense of touch. tigers, bears, hyenas, and panthers, dhist ordination of from one to five ecological issues or concern for the Though it is worse to cause harm even if they had died natural deaths. vows. Almost everyone takes the first physical health of the Buddhist. to a higher being than to a lower The Buddha also clearly enjoined vow, which prohibits killing any sen- Mahayana affirmation of spiritual being, the Jains carry the doctrine of monks to abstain from killing ani- tient creature. This is usually inter- potential in all sentient life, coupled ahimsa to its ultimate. Ideally, one mals, so that all creatures of what - preted to mean or imply vegetarian- with the Theravadin emphasis on should not harm any kind of being. ever kind could live. In most Thera - ism. However, there is disagreement compassion and karma, gave rise to This can be accomplished only by vada countries today, though, lay on this point. Some argue that the the centrality of the meatless diet in the Jain monks, who do as little as Buddhists regularly eat meat. injunction against taking the life of Buddhist thinking. possible and are supported in this by In the Mahayana Buddhist tradi- sentient creatures means only that the lay community. The path to sal- tion, the monks do not beg for food one should not personally slaughter Jainism vation involves purifying the soul of at all. They prepare their own food, animals or eat an animal expressly The Jain religion came into exis- its contaminations with matter. As which they buy, grow, or collect as killed for personal benefit. tence around the sixth century B.C., long as the soul is enmeshed in mat- rent. The Mahayana monks in China In reincarnation, an animal may about the same time as Buddhism. ter, violence is inevitable, as count- were strict vegetarians in ancient have to go through eons of existences Jainism shares several beliefs with less nigodas would be destroyed even times and remain so today. In China, before finally accumulating enough Hinduism and Buddhism, including in the simple act of taking a walk.
28 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews29 University, 2007 5 Perspective Digest, Vol. 12 [2007], Iss. 1, Art. 3 Dietary restraints are thus very gov ern community life. Issues in - For Muslims, meat that is acceptable to eat is called chalal, prominent for the Jains. Meat, alco- volving the relationship of humans hol, honey, or any of the five kinds of to other forms of life, such as ani- the flesh of “clean” animals that have been properly slaugh- figs are forbidden. The single-sensed mals and the natural world, are tered. Scavenger animals, for example, are forbidden as food. nigodas are especially present wher- treated indirectly for the most part. It is also taught that animal sacrifice indebts humans to ever sweetness or fermentation is Yet God is clearly implied as ruling involved. Thus, consuming honey or all of creation, not just human beings. those creatures whose suffering transfigures their own. That alcohol brings untold millions of Non-injury to life-forms and com- an animal could be surrogate for another implies Islam’s con- these nigodas to an untimely and passion for all living things are rarely violent death. However, since this is explicitly mentioned. However, a ception of the commonality of all creaturehood. does not involve violence against sense of the generous beauty and higher beings, Jains may on occasion abundance of the Earth pervades consume medicine with honey or Islamic texts. All things belong to God nized, however, that the Hebrew meat that has its lifeblood still in it’” wine in it, but they may never con- and should be treated accordingly. Bible records in Genesis that the first (9:3, 4, NIV). sume meat. Even meat from an ani- Sacred places in which humans are diet of humankind was vegetarian. Some vegetarians have argued mal that has died a natural death forbidden to slay animals except in Even the animals did not eat meat: that this passage actually supports contains innumerable nigodas and self-defense play a pre-eminent role “God said, ‘See, I have given you vegetarianism, since it is impossible must be absolutely avoided. in Muslim culture. The existence of every herb that yields seed which is to drain the blood entirely from the Jains are decidedly ascetic. Their these sacred sites where slaughter is on the face of all the earth, and every animal. Others have quoted only the vegetarianism arises from the neces- forbidden suggests a spiritual aver- tree whose fruit yields seed; to you it phrase “You must not eat the flesh” sity of purifying the soul of its sion to the violence inherent in killing shall be for food. Also, to every beast out of context. Both the Ebionites in attachments to and contamination animals, even when its occasional of the earth, to every bird of the air, the first century A.D., and the Soci- from matter. The ultimate objective necessity is recognized. and to everything that creeps on the ety of Bible Christians in the 19th is denial of the body and purifica- For Muslims, meat that is accept- earth, in which there is life, I have century, argued that blood could tion of the soul, as a necessary step able to eat is called chalal, the flesh given every green herb for food’; and never be entirely drained from the to win the soul’s release from matter. of “clean” animals that have been it was so. Then God saw everything animal. properly slaughtered. Scavenger ani- that He had made, and indeed it was Parallel passages in Deuteron - Islam mals, for example, are forbidden as very good” (Gen. 1:29-31, NKJV). omy (12:23, 24, 27, 28) imply that Originating in the divine revela- food. It is also taught that animal Jewish writers have noted that the injunction against eating blood tion to Muhammad in early seventh- sacrifice indebts humans to those immediately after giving these dietary is fulfilled if a person pours the century Arabia, the Koran speaks of creatures whose suffering transfig- laws, God saw that everything He had blood “‘out on the ground like a single God who is creator and sus- ures their own. That an animal made was “very good” (Gen. 1:31, water’” (vs. 16, NIV). Talmudic com - tainer of the universe. To Him could be surrogate for another im - NKJV), implying inclusion of even mentators agree that Adam was not belongs all that exists on earth and plies Islam’s conception of the com- the vegetarian diet. After the Flood, permitted to eat flesh. But after the in heaven. Islamic theology tradi- monality of all creaturehood. however, meat consumption was per- Flood, eating meat was permitted. tionally has focused on religious mitted: “‘Everything that lives and Upon their settlement in Ca - questions regarding God’s nature, Judaism moves will be food for you. Just as I naan, the Israelites were also per- His relationship to His creation, Among present-day Jews, only a gave you the green plants, I now give mitted the use of animal food, but human destiny, and the laws that minority eat no meat. It is recog- you everything. But you must not eat under careful restrictions, which https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/330 6 31 Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet Dietary restraints are thus very gov ern community life. Issues in - For Muslims, meat that is acceptable to eat is called chalal, prominent for the Jains. Meat, alco- volving the relationship of humans hol, honey, or any of the five kinds of to other forms of life, such as ani- the flesh of “clean” animals that have been properly slaugh- figs are forbidden. The single-sensed mals and the natural world, are tered. Scavenger animals, for example, are forbidden as food. nigodas are especially present wher- treated indirectly for the most part. It is also taught that animal sacrifice indebts humans to ever sweetness or fermentation is Yet God is clearly implied as ruling involved. Thus, consuming honey or all of creation, not just human beings. those creatures whose suffering transfigures their own. That alcohol brings untold millions of Non-injury to life-forms and com- an animal could be surrogate for another implies Islam’s con- these nigodas to an untimely and passion for all living things are rarely violent death. However, since this is explicitly mentioned. However, a ception of the commonality of all creaturehood. does not involve violence against sense of the generous beauty and higher beings, Jains may on occasion abundance of the Earth pervades consume medicine with honey or Islamic texts. All things belong to God nized, however, that the Hebrew meat that has its lifeblood still in it’” wine in it, but they may never con- and should be treated accordingly. Bible records in Genesis that the first (9:3, 4, NIV). sume meat. Even meat from an ani- Sacred places in which humans are diet of humankind was vegetarian. Some vegetarians have argued mal that has died a natural death forbidden to slay animals except in Even the animals did not eat meat: that this passage actually supports contains innumerable nigodas and self-defense play a pre-eminent role “God said, ‘See, I have given you vegetarianism, since it is impossible must be absolutely avoided. in Muslim culture. The existence of every herb that yields seed which is to drain the blood entirely from the Jains are decidedly ascetic. Their these sacred sites where slaughter is on the face of all the earth, and every animal. Others have quoted only the vegetarianism arises from the neces- forbidden suggests a spiritual aver- tree whose fruit yields seed; to you it phrase “You must not eat the flesh” sity of purifying the soul of its sion to the violence inherent in killing shall be for food. Also, to every beast out of context. Both the Ebionites in attachments to and contamination animals, even when its occasional of the earth, to every bird of the air, the first century A.D., and the Soci- from matter. The ultimate objective necessity is recognized. and to everything that creeps on the ety of Bible Christians in the 19th is denial of the body and purifica- For Muslims, meat that is accept- earth, in which there is life, I have century, argued that blood could tion of the soul, as a necessary step able to eat is called chalal, the flesh given every green herb for food’; and never be entirely drained from the to win the soul’s release from matter. of “clean” animals that have been it was so. Then God saw everything animal. properly slaughtered. Scavenger ani- that He had made, and indeed it was Parallel passages in Deuteron - Islam mals, for example, are forbidden as very good” (Gen. 1:29-31, NKJV). omy (12:23, 24, 27, 28) imply that Originating in the divine revela- food. It is also taught that animal Jewish writers have noted that the injunction against eating blood tion to Muhammad in early seventh- sacrifice indebts humans to those immediately after giving these dietary is fulfilled if a person pours the century Arabia, the Koran speaks of creatures whose suffering transfig- laws, God saw that everything He had blood “‘out on the ground like a single God who is creator and sus- ures their own. That an animal made was “very good” (Gen. 1:31, water’” (vs. 16, NIV). Talmudic com - tainer of the universe. To Him could be surrogate for another im - NKJV), implying inclusion of even mentators agree that Adam was not belongs all that exists on earth and plies Islam’s conception of the com- the vegetarian diet. After the Flood, permitted to eat flesh. But after the in heaven. Islamic theology tradi- monality of all creaturehood. however, meat consumption was per- Flood, eating meat was permitted. tionally has focused on religious mitted: “‘Everything that lives and Upon their settlement in Ca - questions regarding God’s nature, Judaism moves will be food for you. Just as I naan, the Israelites were also per- His relationship to His creation, Among present-day Jews, only a gave you the green plants, I now give mitted the use of animal food, but human destiny, and the laws that minority eat no meat. It is recog- you everything. But you must not eat under careful restrictions, which
30 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews31 University, 2007 7 Perspective Digest, Vol. 12 [2007], Iss. 1, Art. 3 Jewish writers describe the considerable evidence in are even mentioned in the Deca- person to assist a fellow-country- logue expresses the importance of man’s ass or ox lying in the road. In the Hebrew Bible that God’s ultimate hope is for a world in compassion for animals in Judaism. Exodus 23:5, this obligation is which no animals are killed, even by other animals. 2. God’s covenants include ani- extended to the ass or ox of even an This portrays a world that, in respect to diet, is like the mals. A striking example of this is in enemy. Hosea: “‘I will also make a covenant 4. Exodus 21:28-32 expresses the Garden of Eden. Through the prophets God for them with the beasts of the field, idea that animals, along with hu - promises a world where even the now-carnivorous the birds of the sky, and the creeping mans, are held responsible for their things of the ground. And I will actions. animals will again be vegetarian. abolish the bow, the sword, and war 5. The Psalmist writes of God’s from the land, and will make them “com pas sion on all he has made” lie down in safety’” (2:18, NASB). (145:9, NIV) and that God tended to lessen the evil results. The Bible that God’s ultimate hope is for This is not the first reference to provides food for both use of swine’s flesh and other un - a world in which no animals are God’s cove nants with animals. hu mans and animals clean animals was prohibited. Of the killed, even by other animals. This The much-earlier Noahic (104:24-30). clean meats permitted, the eating of portrays a world that, in respect to covenant made after the 6. In Proverbs, the the fat and the blood was strictly for- diet, is like the Garden of Eden. Flood did the same: “‘I ant is praised for its bidden. Only healthy animals could Through the prophets God promises establish My covenant industriousness (6:6- be used for food. No creature that a world where even the now-carniv- with you and with 8). Rock-badgers, lo - had died of itself, or from which the orous animals will again be vegetar- your descendants after custs, ants, and liz ards blood had not been carefully ian: “They shall not hurt nor destroy you, and with every are said to be “ex - drained, could be eaten. in all My holy mountain, for the living creature that is tremely wise” (30:28, Some Jewish writers argue that earth shall be full of the knowledge with you: the birds, NIV). the original meat-free diet was the of the Lord” (Isa. 11:9, NKJV). This the cattle, and every 7. Human beings one God intended for all human - prophecy is repeated in Isaiah 65:25. beast of the earth with and animals suffer a kind. Permission to eat meat was Many Jewish materials also note you, of all that go out of the ark, every common fate. “Man’s fate is like that granted by God only after it became that animals are regularly included beast of the earth. Thus I establish My of the animals; the same fate awaits apparent that humans were going to in God’s solicitude in the Hebrew covenant with you: Never again shall them both: As one dies, so dies the go their own way regardless of what Bible: all flesh be cut off by the waters of the other. All have the same breath; man God told them. One Jewish author 1. In Exodus, animals, as well as flood’” (Gen. 9:9-11, NKJV). And has no advantage over the animal. observes: “Only after man proved humans, are included in the obser- when speaking to Jonah, God also Everything is meaningless. All go to unfit for the high moral standard set vance of the Sabbath (20:10; 23:12). included animals in His description the same place; all come from dust, at the beginning was meat made part The Sabbath commandment in the of His mercy toward the city of Nin- and to dust all return” (Eccl. 3:19, 20, of the humans’ diet.”1 Accordingly, Decalogue (20:8-10) along with eveh (Jonah 4:11). NIV). while it would not be a violation of Exodus 23:12 and Deuteronomy 3. Humans also have an obliga- Several Talmudic commentators the law to eat meat, it would be 5:12-14 are used by some to reason tion to relieve the suffering of ani- conclude that one can infer from morally superior to abstain. that animals must be free to roam on mals. “A righteous man cares for the these and other passages that reliev- Jewish writers also describe the the Sabbath day and enjoy the beau- needs of his animal” (Prov. 12:10, ing the suffering of an animal is a considerable evidence in the Hebrew ties of nature. The fact that animals NIV). Deuteronomy 22:4 enjoins a biblical law. It is apparent that ani- https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/332 8 33 Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet Jewish writers describe the considerable evidence in are even mentioned in the Deca- person to assist a fellow-country- logue expresses the importance of man’s ass or ox lying in the road. In the Hebrew Bible that God’s ultimate hope is for a world in compassion for animals in Judaism. Exodus 23:5, this obligation is which no animals are killed, even by other animals. 2. God’s covenants include ani- extended to the ass or ox of even an This portrays a world that, in respect to diet, is like the mals. A striking example of this is in enemy. Hosea: “‘I will also make a covenant 4. Exodus 21:28-32 expresses the Garden of Eden. Through the prophets God for them with the beasts of the field, idea that animals, along with hu - promises a world where even the now-carnivorous the birds of the sky, and the creeping mans, are held responsible for their things of the ground. And I will actions. animals will again be vegetarian. abolish the bow, the sword, and war 5. The Psalmist writes of God’s from the land, and will make them “com pas sion on all he has made” lie down in safety’” (2:18, NASB). (145:9, NIV) and that God tended to lessen the evil results. The Bible that God’s ultimate hope is for This is not the first reference to provides food for both use of swine’s flesh and other un - a world in which no animals are God’s cove nants with animals. hu mans and animals clean animals was prohibited. Of the killed, even by other animals. This The much-earlier Noahic (104:24-30). clean meats permitted, the eating of portrays a world that, in respect to covenant made after the 6. In Proverbs, the the fat and the blood was strictly for- diet, is like the Garden of Eden. Flood did the same: “‘I ant is praised for its bidden. Only healthy animals could Through the prophets God promises establish My covenant industriousness (6:6- be used for food. No creature that a world where even the now-carniv- with you and with 8). Rock-badgers, lo - had died of itself, or from which the orous animals will again be vegetar- your descendants after custs, ants, and liz ards blood had not been carefully ian: “They shall not hurt nor destroy you, and with every are said to be “ex - drained, could be eaten. in all My holy mountain, for the living creature that is tremely wise” (30:28, Some Jewish writers argue that earth shall be full of the knowledge with you: the birds, NIV). the original meat-free diet was the of the Lord” (Isa. 11:9, NKJV). This the cattle, and every 7. Human beings one God intended for all human - prophecy is repeated in Isaiah 65:25. beast of the earth with and animals suffer a kind. Permission to eat meat was Many Jewish materials also note you, of all that go out of the ark, every common fate. “Man’s fate is like that granted by God only after it became that animals are regularly included beast of the earth. Thus I establish My of the animals; the same fate awaits apparent that humans were going to in God’s solicitude in the Hebrew covenant with you: Never again shall them both: As one dies, so dies the go their own way regardless of what Bible: all flesh be cut off by the waters of the other. All have the same breath; man God told them. One Jewish author 1. In Exodus, animals, as well as flood’” (Gen. 9:9-11, NKJV). And has no advantage over the animal. observes: “Only after man proved humans, are included in the obser- when speaking to Jonah, God also Everything is meaningless. All go to unfit for the high moral standard set vance of the Sabbath (20:10; 23:12). included animals in His description the same place; all come from dust, at the beginning was meat made part The Sabbath commandment in the of His mercy toward the city of Nin- and to dust all return” (Eccl. 3:19, 20, of the humans’ diet.”1 Accordingly, Decalogue (20:8-10) along with eveh (Jonah 4:11). NIV). while it would not be a violation of Exodus 23:12 and Deuteronomy 3. Humans also have an obliga- Several Talmudic commentators the law to eat meat, it would be 5:12-14 are used by some to reason tion to relieve the suffering of ani- conclude that one can infer from morally superior to abstain. that animals must be free to roam on mals. “A righteous man cares for the these and other passages that reliev- Jewish writers also describe the the Sabbath day and enjoy the beau- needs of his animal” (Prov. 12:10, ing the suffering of an animal is a considerable evidence in the Hebrew ties of nature. The fact that animals NIV). Deuteronomy 22:4 enjoins a biblical law. It is apparent that ani-
32 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews33 University, 2007 9 Perspective Digest, Vol. 12 [2007], Iss. 1, Art. 3 mals are entitled to consideration, the newly formed nation of Israel, The Essenes, a prominent group within Judaism during even if they are to be used for farm even argued that returning to a non- work or to be slaughtered. Even the violent diet is one of the necessary Jesus’ time, connected sacrifices and meat-eating. process of slaughter itself is carefully conditions for the Messiah’s coming. Josephus states that the Essenes made no animal sacrifices regulated. The procedures are dealt He maintained that if this is so, as and adds that they lived in the same way that the with in the Talmud. the prophet Isaiah said (11:6, 7), Presently, Jewish vegetarians ar - then a diet that approximates the Pythagoreans did among the Greeks, being vegetarian. Philo gue that the compassion for all living ideal of peaceful harmony among all states that they did not kill animals for food. Porphyry also things mandated by a reverence for creatures does indeed make straight God’s creation is most obviously the way for the Lord. writes that meat was forbidden for the Essenes. expressed in kashrut (kosher) di- Jewish writings point out that the etary laws. Many commentators Old Testament often implies a meat- claim that kosher prohibition less diet. In the Song of Songs, the against killing all but certain kinds divine bounty is mentioned in terms states that they did not kill animals Frankel’s book Thou Shalt Not Kill, of animals, and even then only in a of fruits, vegetables, vines, and nuts. for food. Porphyry also writes that or the Torah of Vegetarianism. Rabbi humane manner, is a codification of The Book of Deuteronomy also con- meat was forbidden for the Essenes. M. Kosowsky, who was not a vege- the divine concession to human - tains descriptions typical of the Clement of Alexandria, an early tarian, stated that vegetarianism was kind’s bloodlust. It is a systematized Torah’s positive depiction of the non- leader of the church and a notewor- “the highest pinnacle of ethical attempt to wean the appetite until meat diet: “For the Lord your God is thy vegetarian, also wrote that meat- achievement.”3 one attains the spiritual maturity to bringing you into a good land—a eating and animal sacrifice were forgo flesh foods entirely. land with streams and pools of water, interconnected. Christianity But kashrut is not only a remnant with springs flowing in the valleys The destruction of the Temple in The Christian tradition is linked of the original divine intention. It is and hills; a land with wheat and bar- A.D. 70 by the Romans made it with and informed by the many con- also one obvious way to integrate the ley, vines and fig trees, pomegranates, impossible for Jews to offer sacrifices cepts of Judaism on diet, due to the holy into the basic human act of eat- olive oil and honey; a land where there, rendering the relationship of inclusion of the Hebrew Bible or Old ing. It has been suggested that God bread will not be scarce and you will meat-eating to sacrifices proble - Testament into the Christian canon. provided many laws and regulations lack nothing. . . . I will send rain on matic. After the destruction of the The religion of both the Old and New related to the consumption of meat your land in its season, both autumn Temple, apparently many Jews gave Testaments is not a religion of asceti- as a reprimand, and also as a re - and spring rains, so that you may up meat-eating altogether, and in cism, such as in Buddhism and Hin- minder that animals’ lives are being gather in your grain, new wine and fact, meat consumption nearly died duism, where by refusing to eat and destroyed—in the hope that this oil” (Deut. 8:7-9; 11:14) out at the time. drink one avoids being contaminated would eventually lead people back to The Essenes, a prominent group Josephus described the basic by matter and thus can draw closer to vegetarianism in the messianic pe - within Judaism during Jesus’ time, principle of all Judaic laws as mercy, God. “The God of the Bible defines riod. connected sacrifices and meat-eat- even to animals: “Ill-treatment even Himself as the God of life. And in In light of these claims, present ing. Josephus states that the Essenes of a brute beast is with us a capital fact, eating and drinking are often Jewish vegetarian writers argue that made no animal sacrifices and adds crime.”2 linked with worship. The Bible also a meatless diet is a logical extension that they lived in the same way that The modern Jewish vegetarian prescribes, both explicitly and implic- of the Judaic spiritual tradition. the Pythagoreans did among the movement arose in the 19th century itly, a special diet in tune with the Rabbi Kook, the first chief rabbi of Greeks, being vegetarian. Philo with the publication of Aaron God of creation, the God of life.”4 https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/334 10 35 Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet mals are entitled to consideration, the newly formed nation of Israel, The Essenes, a prominent group within Judaism during even if they are to be used for farm even argued that returning to a non- work or to be slaughtered. Even the violent diet is one of the necessary Jesus’ time, connected sacrifices and meat-eating. process of slaughter itself is carefully conditions for the Messiah’s coming. Josephus states that the Essenes made no animal sacrifices regulated. The procedures are dealt He maintained that if this is so, as and adds that they lived in the same way that the with in the Talmud. the prophet Isaiah said (11:6, 7), Presently, Jewish vegetarians ar - then a diet that approximates the Pythagoreans did among the Greeks, being vegetarian. Philo gue that the compassion for all living ideal of peaceful harmony among all states that they did not kill animals for food. Porphyry also things mandated by a reverence for creatures does indeed make straight God’s creation is most obviously the way for the Lord. writes that meat was forbidden for the Essenes. expressed in kashrut (kosher) di- Jewish writings point out that the etary laws. Many commentators Old Testament often implies a meat- claim that kosher prohibition less diet. In the Song of Songs, the against killing all but certain kinds divine bounty is mentioned in terms states that they did not kill animals Frankel’s book Thou Shalt Not Kill, of animals, and even then only in a of fruits, vegetables, vines, and nuts. for food. Porphyry also writes that or the Torah of Vegetarianism. Rabbi humane manner, is a codification of The Book of Deuteronomy also con- meat was forbidden for the Essenes. M. Kosowsky, who was not a vege- the divine concession to human - tains descriptions typical of the Clement of Alexandria, an early tarian, stated that vegetarianism was kind’s bloodlust. It is a systematized Torah’s positive depiction of the non- leader of the church and a notewor- “the highest pinnacle of ethical attempt to wean the appetite until meat diet: “For the Lord your God is thy vegetarian, also wrote that meat- achievement.”3 one attains the spiritual maturity to bringing you into a good land—a eating and animal sacrifice were forgo flesh foods entirely. land with streams and pools of water, interconnected. Christianity But kashrut is not only a remnant with springs flowing in the valleys The destruction of the Temple in The Christian tradition is linked of the original divine intention. It is and hills; a land with wheat and bar- A.D. 70 by the Romans made it with and informed by the many con- also one obvious way to integrate the ley, vines and fig trees, pomegranates, impossible for Jews to offer sacrifices cepts of Judaism on diet, due to the holy into the basic human act of eat- olive oil and honey; a land where there, rendering the relationship of inclusion of the Hebrew Bible or Old ing. It has been suggested that God bread will not be scarce and you will meat-eating to sacrifices proble - Testament into the Christian canon. provided many laws and regulations lack nothing. . . . I will send rain on matic. After the destruction of the The religion of both the Old and New related to the consumption of meat your land in its season, both autumn Temple, apparently many Jews gave Testaments is not a religion of asceti- as a reprimand, and also as a re - and spring rains, so that you may up meat-eating altogether, and in cism, such as in Buddhism and Hin- minder that animals’ lives are being gather in your grain, new wine and fact, meat consumption nearly died duism, where by refusing to eat and destroyed—in the hope that this oil” (Deut. 8:7-9; 11:14) out at the time. drink one avoids being contaminated would eventually lead people back to The Essenes, a prominent group Josephus described the basic by matter and thus can draw closer to vegetarianism in the messianic pe - within Judaism during Jesus’ time, principle of all Judaic laws as mercy, God. “The God of the Bible defines riod. connected sacrifices and meat-eat- even to animals: “Ill-treatment even Himself as the God of life. And in In light of these claims, present ing. Josephus states that the Essenes of a brute beast is with us a capital fact, eating and drinking are often Jewish vegetarian writers argue that made no animal sacrifices and adds crime.”2 linked with worship. The Bible also a meatless diet is a logical extension that they lived in the same way that The modern Jewish vegetarian prescribes, both explicitly and implic- of the Judaic spiritual tradition. the Pythagoreans did among the movement arose in the 19th century itly, a special diet in tune with the Rabbi Kook, the first chief rabbi of Greeks, being vegetarian. Philo with the publication of Aaron God of creation, the God of life.”4
34 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews35 University, 2007 11 Perspective Digest, Vol. 12 [2007], Iss. 1, Art. 3 Some Christian writers cite Peter’s vision as evidence and Isaac Leib Peretz. the Old Testament stipulations Issues of continuity/discontinu- between clean and unclean meats that the Old Testament stipulations between clean and ity with Judaism are regularly dis- are now superseded, yet Peter clearly unclean meats are now superseded, yet Peter clearly cussed in the Christian tradition. understood that the meaning of the understood that the meaning of the vision had nothing to do Some argue that the Jewish distinc- vision had nothing to do with diet, tions between clean and unclean but was instructing him in cultural with diet, but was instructing him in cultural issues. meat are no longer binding today in issues. God’s response to Peter is God’s response to Peter is crucial. God never asks Peter to eat the Christian era. crucial. God never asks Peter to eat It is important to note that with the unclean animals, but to stop call- the unclean animals, but to stop calling the clean animals regard to diet, however, Israel’s ing the clean animals koinos, defiled koinos, defiled by their association with the unclean. dietary stipulations were God-or - by their association with the un - dained: “The food laws are seen in clean. the Pentateuch as a product of God’s Some modern versions have mis- revelation and not as an invention of takenly translated the word koinos as In the history of the Christian monastery that followed the rules of a priestly school or other special “unclean” in several New Testament Church, though the meatless diet strict abstinence, whose monks do group of people in Israel.”7 passages, but it simply does not has never been demanded of its not eat meat or enjoy wine or other The distinction between clean mean “unclean.” For example, in adherents, many have chosen it: intoxicating drinks. and unclean meats is plainly evident Romans 14:14, 20, Paul does not say • James the Just, the brother of • In the modern era, John Wesley, in the early chapters of Genesis— that no foods are unclean. He says Jesus and first head of the church in the founder of the Methodist Church, long before the Jewish nation was in that no food is koinos, “common,” Jerusalem after the death and ascen- extolled the virtues of the meatless existence. And later, when the defiled by association with the sion of Jesus, was a vegetarian. Both diet: “Thanks be to God: since I gave clean/unclean principle is again unclean. Paul is rejecting the current Heg isuppus and Augustine testify up flesh and wine, I have been deliv- highlighted in Leviticus 11, at the Judaic principle of defilement by that James was even raised as a vege- ered from all physical ills.”6 end of the discussion there is the association, and not the law of clean tarian.5 Some of history’s greatest hu - keyword “holy” (kodesh). and unclean foods. To be faithful to • Both Athanasius and his oppo- man itarians were vegetarians and/or The scope of the dietary laws is the apostle Peter’s understanding of nent Arius were strict vegetarians. In strongly in favor of vegetarianism, not only the human body, but the his vision, it cannot be used to argue fact, many early church fathers were including Plutarch, Leonardo da whole human personality as an against the divine stipulations of vegetarian, including Clement of Vinci, Sir Isaac Newton, Jean Jacques inseparable entity. This is in com- clean/unclean meat. Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, Heir - Rousseau, General William Booth, plete accord with the fundamental Perhaps the largest and most sig- onymus, Boniface, and John Chry - Ralph Waldo Emerson, Percy Bysshe conception of Judaism, which always nificant group of Christian vegetari- so stom. Shelley, John Harvey Kellogg, strives at a unity of matter and ans today is found within the Sev- • Basilius the Great, in the fourth Horace Greeley, Susan B. Anthony, mind, body, and soul. enth-day Adventist tradition. This century, was a vegetarian who dis- Leo Tolstoy, Upton Sinclair, H. G. In the New Testament, Jesus Protestant denomination recom- cussed the morality of eating meat. Wells, George Bernard Shaw, Albert Himself calls for the same complete mends vegetarianism to their mem- • Many monasteries, both ancient Schweitzer, and Mahatma Gandhi. commitment to God of mind, soul, bers, of whom nearly one-half do and modern, have practiced vegetar- Jew ish humanitarian vegetarians and strength (Mark 12:33). not eat meat. Those who do choose ianism. Boniface (672-754) wrote to include Isaac Bashevis Singer, Presently, some Christian writers to eat meat are careful to observe the Pope Zacharias that he had begun a Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Franz Kafka, cite Peter’s vision as evidence that clean/unclean distinction. Because https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/336 12 37 Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet Some Christian writers cite Peter’s vision as evidence and Isaac Leib Peretz. the Old Testament stipulations Issues of continuity/discontinu- between clean and unclean meats that the Old Testament stipulations between clean and ity with Judaism are regularly dis- are now superseded, yet Peter clearly unclean meats are now superseded, yet Peter clearly cussed in the Christian tradition. understood that the meaning of the understood that the meaning of the vision had nothing to do Some argue that the Jewish distinc- vision had nothing to do with diet, tions between clean and unclean but was instructing him in cultural with diet, but was instructing him in cultural issues. meat are no longer binding today in issues. God’s response to Peter is God’s response to Peter is crucial. God never asks Peter to eat the Christian era. crucial. God never asks Peter to eat It is important to note that with the unclean animals, but to stop call- the unclean animals, but to stop calling the clean animals regard to diet, however, Israel’s ing the clean animals koinos, defiled koinos, defiled by their association with the unclean. dietary stipulations were God-or - by their association with the un - dained: “The food laws are seen in clean. the Pentateuch as a product of God’s Some modern versions have mis- revelation and not as an invention of takenly translated the word koinos as In the history of the Christian monastery that followed the rules of a priestly school or other special “unclean” in several New Testament Church, though the meatless diet strict abstinence, whose monks do group of people in Israel.”7 passages, but it simply does not has never been demanded of its not eat meat or enjoy wine or other The distinction between clean mean “unclean.” For example, in adherents, many have chosen it: intoxicating drinks. and unclean meats is plainly evident Romans 14:14, 20, Paul does not say • James the Just, the brother of • In the modern era, John Wesley, in the early chapters of Genesis— that no foods are unclean. He says Jesus and first head of the church in the founder of the Methodist Church, long before the Jewish nation was in that no food is koinos, “common,” Jerusalem after the death and ascen- extolled the virtues of the meatless existence. And later, when the defiled by association with the sion of Jesus, was a vegetarian. Both diet: “Thanks be to God: since I gave clean/unclean principle is again unclean. Paul is rejecting the current Heg isuppus and Augustine testify up flesh and wine, I have been deliv- highlighted in Leviticus 11, at the Judaic principle of defilement by that James was even raised as a vege- ered from all physical ills.”6 end of the discussion there is the association, and not the law of clean tarian.5 Some of history’s greatest hu - keyword “holy” (kodesh). and unclean foods. To be faithful to • Both Athanasius and his oppo- man itarians were vegetarians and/or The scope of the dietary laws is the apostle Peter’s understanding of nent Arius were strict vegetarians. In strongly in favor of vegetarianism, not only the human body, but the his vision, it cannot be used to argue fact, many early church fathers were including Plutarch, Leonardo da whole human personality as an against the divine stipulations of vegetarian, including Clement of Vinci, Sir Isaac Newton, Jean Jacques inseparable entity. This is in com- clean/unclean meat. Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, Heir - Rousseau, General William Booth, plete accord with the fundamental Perhaps the largest and most sig- onymus, Boniface, and John Chry - Ralph Waldo Emerson, Percy Bysshe conception of Judaism, which always nificant group of Christian vegetari- so stom. Shelley, John Harvey Kellogg, strives at a unity of matter and ans today is found within the Sev- • Basilius the Great, in the fourth Horace Greeley, Susan B. Anthony, mind, body, and soul. enth-day Adventist tradition. This century, was a vegetarian who dis- Leo Tolstoy, Upton Sinclair, H. G. In the New Testament, Jesus Protestant denomination recom- cussed the morality of eating meat. Wells, George Bernard Shaw, Albert Himself calls for the same complete mends vegetarianism to their mem- • Many monasteries, both ancient Schweitzer, and Mahatma Gandhi. commitment to God of mind, soul, bers, of whom nearly one-half do and modern, have practiced vegetar- Jew ish humanitarian vegetarians and strength (Mark 12:33). not eat meat. Those who do choose ianism. Boniface (672-754) wrote to include Isaac Bashevis Singer, Presently, some Christian writers to eat meat are careful to observe the Pope Zacharias that he had begun a Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Franz Kafka, cite Peter’s vision as evidence that clean/unclean distinction. Because
36 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews37 University, 2007 13 Perspective Digest, Vol. 12 [2007], Iss. 1, Art. 3 of their dietary practices, Seventh- grave problem of diseased animals: moral, and the physical powers are scriptural principles found also day Adventists have frequently been “Flesh was never the best food; depreciated by the habitual use of within Judaism, markedly yields the object of scientific studies in - but its use is now doubly objection- flesh meats. Meat eating deranges even present benefits. volving the relationship of diet to able, since disease in animals is so the system, beclouds the intellect, REFERENCES health. Published results have con- rapidly increasing. . . . Could you and blunts the moral sensibilities. 1 J. Hurewitz, “The Care of Animals in sistently found that Adventists live know just the nature of the meat you . . . Your safest course is to let meat Jewish Life and Lore,” in The Jewish Library, longer and enjoy better health than eat, could you see the animals when alone. . . . The mortality caused by L. Jung, ed. (London: Soncino, 1968), vol. 1. the rest of the population in the living from which the flesh is taken meat eating is not discerned; if it 2 N. N. Glatzer, The Writings of Josephus United States. when dead, you would turn with were, we would hear no more argu- (New York: Meridian, 1960). 3 Joe Green, “The Jewish Vegetarian Tra- Ellen White, one of the founders loathing from your flesh meats. The ments and excuses in favor of the dition,” Johannesburg, South Africa (October of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, very animals whose flesh you eat, are indulgence of the appetite for dead 1969). Cited in Richard H. Schwartz, Judaism wrote expansively on the im portance frequently so diseased that, if left flesh. We have plenty of good things and Vegetarianism (New York: Lantern, of diet. She speaks of the significance alone, they would die of themselves; to satisfy hunger without bringing 2001), p. 215. of the diet given by God in the Gar- but while the breath of life is in corpses upon our table to compose 4 Steven Bouma-Prediger, For the Beauty 12 of the Earth: A Christian Vision for Creation den of Eden and discusses many them, they are killed and brought to our bill of fare.” Care (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), p. 125. issues involved in eating meat: market. You take directly into your “The moral evils of a flesh diet 5 Cited in Carl Skriver, Die vergessenen “Not an ounce of flesh meat system . . . poison of the worst kind, are not less marked than are the Anfange der Schopfung und des Christentums should enter our stomachs. The eat- and yet you realize it not.”9 physical ills. Flesh food is injurious (Bad Bellingen, Germany: Order of the ing of flesh is unnatural. We are to The treatment of animals raised to health, and whatever affects the Nazoreans, 1977). English translation, The Forgotten Beginnings of Creation and Chris- return to God’s original purpose in for slaughter also concerned White: body has a corresponding effect on tianity, now in manuscript, Section II, Part 4. 13 the creation of man. “Think of the cruelty to animals the mind and the soul.” 6 Quoted in Steven Rosen, Food for the “Is it not time that all should aim that meat-eating involves, and its White exhorts the development Spirit: Vegetarianism and the World Religions to dispense with flesh foods? How can effect on those who inflict and those of healthful eating habits motivated (San Diego: Bala/Entourage, 1990), p. 108. those who are seeking to become who behold it. How it destroys the by the desire to glorify God in our 7 Jiri Moskala, The Laws of Clean and Unclean Animals In Leviticus 11: Their pure, refined, and holy, that they may tenderness with which we should bodies and to preserve physical and Nature, Theology, and Rationale: An Intertex- 10 have the companionship of heavenly regard these creatures of God!” spiritual health. The major world tual Study (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Adventist angels, continue to use as food any- “Those who use flesh foods little religions manifest dietary concerns, Theological Society, 2000), p. 192. thing that has so harmful an effect on know what they are eating. Often if but the diet proposed in the Judeo- 8 Counsels on Diet and Foods, p. 380. soul and body? How can they take the they could see the animals when liv- Christian tradition is the most 9 Ibid., pp. 384, 385. 10 Ibid., p. 383. life of God’s creatures that they may ing and know the quality of the meat wholistic, involving ethical, ecologi- 11 Ibid., p. 388. consume the flesh as a luxury? Let they eat, they would turn from it cal, eschatological, and spiritual is - 12 Counsels on Diet and Foods, p. 391. them, rather, return to the whole- with loathing.”11 sues. Vegetarianism, based on the 13 The Ministry of Healing, p. 315. some and delicious food given to man White viewed diet wholistically, in the beginning, and themselves discussing how the physical and the practice, and teach their children to spiritual natures are affected by what practice, mercy toward the dumb is eaten. She observed that diet is creatures that God has made and has linked not only to health, but also to placed under our dominion.”8 holiness, recalling the Old Testament White was also sensitive to the principle: “The intellectual, the https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pd/vol12/iss1/338 14 39 Davidson: World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet of their dietary practices, Seventh- grave problem of diseased animals: moral, and the physical powers are scriptural principles found also day Adventists have frequently been “Flesh was never the best food; depreciated by the habitual use of within Judaism, markedly yields the object of scientific studies in - but its use is now doubly objection- flesh meats. Meat eating deranges even present benefits. volving the relationship of diet to able, since disease in animals is so the system, beclouds the intellect, REFERENCES health. Published results have con- rapidly increasing. . . . Could you and blunts the moral sensibilities. 1 J. Hurewitz, “The Care of Animals in sistently found that Adventists live know just the nature of the meat you . . . Your safest course is to let meat Jewish Life and Lore,” in The Jewish Library, longer and enjoy better health than eat, could you see the animals when alone. . . . The mortality caused by L. Jung, ed. (London: Soncino, 1968), vol. 1. the rest of the population in the living from which the flesh is taken meat eating is not discerned; if it 2 N. N. Glatzer, The Writings of Josephus United States. when dead, you would turn with were, we would hear no more argu- (New York: Meridian, 1960). 3 Joe Green, “The Jewish Vegetarian Tra- Ellen White, one of the founders loathing from your flesh meats. The ments and excuses in favor of the dition,” Johannesburg, South Africa (October of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, very animals whose flesh you eat, are indulgence of the appetite for dead 1969). Cited in Richard H. Schwartz, Judaism wrote expansively on the im portance frequently so diseased that, if left flesh. We have plenty of good things and Vegetarianism (New York: Lantern, of diet. She speaks of the significance alone, they would die of themselves; to satisfy hunger without bringing 2001), p. 215. of the diet given by God in the Gar- but while the breath of life is in corpses upon our table to compose 4 Steven Bouma-Prediger, For the Beauty 12 of the Earth: A Christian Vision for Creation den of Eden and discusses many them, they are killed and brought to our bill of fare.” Care (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), p. 125. issues involved in eating meat: market. You take directly into your “The moral evils of a flesh diet 5 Cited in Carl Skriver, Die vergessenen “Not an ounce of flesh meat system . . . poison of the worst kind, are not less marked than are the Anfange der Schopfung und des Christentums should enter our stomachs. The eat- and yet you realize it not.”9 physical ills. Flesh food is injurious (Bad Bellingen, Germany: Order of the ing of flesh is unnatural. We are to The treatment of animals raised to health, and whatever affects the Nazoreans, 1977). English translation, The Forgotten Beginnings of Creation and Chris- return to God’s original purpose in for slaughter also concerned White: body has a corresponding effect on tianity, now in manuscript, Section II, Part 4. 13 the creation of man. “Think of the cruelty to animals the mind and the soul.” 6 Quoted in Steven Rosen, Food for the “Is it not time that all should aim that meat-eating involves, and its White exhorts the development Spirit: Vegetarianism and the World Religions to dispense with flesh foods? How can effect on those who inflict and those of healthful eating habits motivated (San Diego: Bala/Entourage, 1990), p. 108. those who are seeking to become who behold it. How it destroys the by the desire to glorify God in our 7 Jiri Moskala, The Laws of Clean and Unclean Animals In Leviticus 11: Their pure, refined, and holy, that they may tenderness with which we should bodies and to preserve physical and Nature, Theology, and Rationale: An Intertex- 10 have the companionship of heavenly regard these creatures of God!” spiritual health. The major world tual Study (Berrien Springs, Mich.: Adventist angels, continue to use as food any- “Those who use flesh foods little religions manifest dietary concerns, Theological Society, 2000), p. 192. thing that has so harmful an effect on know what they are eating. Often if but the diet proposed in the Judeo- 8 Counsels on Diet and Foods, p. 380. soul and body? How can they take the they could see the animals when liv- Christian tradition is the most 9 Ibid., pp. 384, 385. 10 Ibid., p. 383. life of God’s creatures that they may ing and know the quality of the meat wholistic, involving ethical, ecologi- 11 Ibid., p. 388. consume the flesh as a luxury? Let they eat, they would turn from it cal, eschatological, and spiritual is - 12 Counsels on Diet and Foods, p. 391. them, rather, return to the whole- with loathing.”11 sues. Vegetarianism, based on the 13 The Ministry of Healing, p. 315. some and delicious food given to man White viewed diet wholistically, in the beginning, and themselves discussing how the physical and the practice, and teach their children to spiritual natures are affected by what practice, mercy toward the dumb is eaten. She observed that diet is creatures that God has made and has linked not only to health, but also to placed under our dominion.”8 holiness, recalling the Old Testament White was also sensitive to the principle: “The intellectual, the
38 Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews39 University, 2007 15