Cassava in South America and the Caribbean*

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Chapter 2 Cassava in South America and the Caribbean*

Guy Henry1 and Clair Hershey2 1CIRAD-Amis, Rua Paulo Castro P. Nogueira 600, Campinas-SP 13092–400, Brazil; 22019 Locust Grove Road, Manheim, PA 17545, USA

Origin and Distribution of Cassava homelands. This history has not only had a pro- in Latin America found influence on the current status of the crop, but also on its potential for further development. Cassava and all its wild relatives have their Cassava has numerous traits that confer genetic origins in Latin America (the term Latin comparative advantages in marginal environ- America is used herein for the entire cassava- ments, where farmers often lack the resources to growing region of the New World). The crop was improve the income-generating capacity of their vital to the development of lowland tropical cul- land through purchased inputs. The species tol- tures throughout the New World. The Carib and erates acid soils, periodic and extended drought, Arawak Indians of the Caribbean and northern and defoliation by pests. It is highly compatible South America were probably some of the earli- with many types of intercrops and flexible as to est cultivators of cassava, and many of their cus- time of harvest. Furthermore, the crop serves a toms of cultivation and processing remain virtu- wide variety of food, feed and industrial purposes. ally intact today, in that region, and throughout These traits have combined to make cassava a the Amazon basin. Every tropical country of the significant sustaining force, benefiting the poor region produces cassava, but its cultivation is in the tropics. most highly concentrated in four areas: north- Latin America currently represents less ern and eastern coastal Brazil; southern Brazil than one-fifth of the global cassava output of 166 and eastern Paraguay; northwestern South million t. Of the continent’s 28 million t, Brazil America (especially the Caribbean coast of alone accounts for about 70%. Despite the histor- Colombia); and the Greater Antilles (Cuba, ical importance of cassava, in recent years it has Haiti, Dominican Republic). The Americas gave laggedbehindothercropsingrowthratesforpro- cassava to the rest of the world after the arrival duction and utilization. The reasons are many, of early European explorers. Along with the with vital implications for projections of future species itself, these explorers introduced cultiva- crop development. Among the main factors, gov- tion and processing techniques from cassava’s ernment policies and trends in food demand

* This chapter draws significantly on the work by Hershey et al. (1997) as the latter can be considered as the most complete and detailed assessment on this subject to date. Furthermore, the chapter incorporates cassava market information from consultancy reports by Henry et al. (1998) and Henry (1999).

©CAB International 2002. Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization (eds R.J. Hillocks, J.M. Thresh and A.C. Bellotti) 17

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18 G. Henry and C. Hershey

resulting from urbanization have tipped the Cassava in Selected Countries balance in favour of alternative food energy sources since the 1970s. Investment in cassava Cassava systems in South America and the has not been adequate to keep it competitive in Caribbean are highly varied in all their aspects; the agricultural and commercial worlds. As a hence it is useful to summarize cassava pro- crop predominantly grown and utilized by the duction in selected countries, before discussing poor, it has generally been relegated to a lower continent-wide systems and trends. For this status by both public and private research insti- purpose we highlight the seven countries with tutions. The future of cassava in Latin America the largest areas currently planted to cassava and the Caribbean (LAC) is defined most by its among producer countries in the region: Brazil, potential as a vehicle for linking the rural poor Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, Paraguay, Peru and to growth markets. This potential follows from Venezuela. These countries produce 97% of the the complex, interacting effects related to urban- region’s cassava (Table 2.1). ization, rising incomes, evolving trade policy and trends in other food and feed crops. This chapter gives an overview of cassava Brazil production, utilization and market aspects in the principal cassava-growing regions of Latin The region’s largest country has been near America. This will be accomplished by present- the top (currently third place) in total cassava ing briefs summaries of production systems and production globally, probably since the crop was production trends for cassava in several of the first cultivated. Cassava is a major crop in three major producer countries. Finally, some implica- of the country’s ecoregions: lowland humid tions for the future of cassava development in north (19.5% of production), the dry northeast Latin America are presented. (46.3%) and the subtropical south (21.1%).

Table 2.1. Latin American cassava production trends, by country, 1983–1999.

Year

Cassava production (t) 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999

LAC 28,229,148 30,695,572 31,275,691 32,530,441 28,749,602 Argentina 28,139,000 28,148,300 28,150,000 28,160,000 28,165,000 Bolivia 28,180,385 28,424,248 28,414,598 28,295,700 28,400,006 Brazil 21,847,888 23,499,960 24,530,780 25,315,620 20,171,600 Colombia 1,554,700 1,260,390 1,645,213 1,751,899 1,956,051 Costa Rica 28,221,100 28,240,000 28,283,610 28,125,000 28,119,470 Cuba 28,325,000 28,305,000 28,300,000 28,250,000 28,250,000 Dominican Republic 28,292,514 28,297,836 28,137,422 28,136,821 28,155,755 Ecuador 28,194,794 28,131,190 28,290,279 28,275,683 28,138,172 El Salvador 28,223,322 28,227,887 28,232,080 28,232,495 28,230,000 Guatemala 32,539,100 32,539,832 28,214,000 28,215,952 28,216,000 Haiti 28,265,000 28,290,000 28,335,000 28,300,000 28,320,000 Honduras 32,536,554 32,537,400 32,538,215 32,538,730 28,210,081 Jamaica 28,217,188 32,517,021 28,212,111 28,217,447 28,214,972 Mexico 32,532,115 30,695,907 30,695,386 32,531,688 32,531,100 Nicaragua 28,272,680 28,256,000 28,252,000 28,251,500 28,251,000 Paraguay 2,610,000 3,467,700 2,584,900 3,054,394 3,500,000 Peru 28,485,443 28,537,033 28,410,693 28,547,439 28,885,100 Suriname 32,532,659 32,533,855 32,533,058 32,537,000 32,534,000 Trinidad and Tobago 32,532,000 30,695,717 32,531,107 30,695,696 32,531,400 Venezuela 28,324,733 28,317,776 28,381,069 28,299,233 28,487,685

Source: FAOSTAT, FAO (1999).

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Cassava in South America and the Caribbean 19

There is minor production in the acid soil, 30–35 t ha−1 in intensive systems in Paraná and wet/dry savannahs of the central-west (campo Mato Grosso do Sul states. This has been due cerrado; 4.4%) and in the subhumid southeast mainly to better soils, larger farms and better (8.7%). Over the last 20 years, national produc- managers, but also, to a strong demand by tion has varied little, at about 2 million t year−1. cassava processors for cheap raw material, In the north (Amazon basin), however, produc- expanding production technology demand and tion has more than tripled in the past 25 years, adoption. reflecting the role of cassava in ‘frontier’ agricul- ture (IBGE, 1992). In Brazil bitter and sweet types of cassava are Colombia considered as different crops: aipim (sweet) and mandioca (bitter). Most of the cassava is of the Perhaps the Latin American country with the latter type (high cyanogenic potential), which highest agroecological diversity, Colombia hosts must be processed prior to consumption. The a wide range of systems for cassava cultivation main product is a coarse, toasted flour (farinha de and utilization. The highest proportion of pro- mandioca), the principal carbohydrate source of duction (45%) comes from the seasonally dry, the poor and a complement to many other dishes. semiarid Atlantic Coast region. Another 25% is The south leads in starch production for food and produced in inter-Andean valleys of the eastern industrial use (> 300,000 t year−1), as well as mountain range and 17% in the central part for on-farm feeding (roots and leaves). There is of the country. The eastern, acid-soil savannahs a nascent animal feed market for dried chips in (llanos orientales) and the high-rainfall Pacific the northeast, where the cultivation of cereal Coast are minor producers at 9 and 4%, crops is risky and shipping grain from the south respectively (Balcazar, 1997). (or Argentina) is relatively costly. Furthermore, Along with this diversity of environments during the last few years, some small- to comes a wide range of biological problems. All medium-sized factories in the south have started but a few of the pests and diseases that affect to produce a line of frozen cassava-based snacks cassava worldwide are endemic in Colombia. and convenience foods for national urban This not only represents a challenge for growers consumption and also for export. but also an opportunity for researchers to capi- Brazil has a strong national research pro- talize on ‘hot-spot’ environments when selecting gramme and a network of state programmes for host-plant resistance. Moreover, many of the working to improve cassava systems. The natural enemies of pests and pathogens thrive emphasis is on the production side, although in there and can be exploited in research and the past decade it has shifted towards greater production. emphasis on processing and marketing. The Except for the Amazon and llanos regions, National Cassava and Fruit Research Centre most cultivars have low cyanogenic potential (CNPMF) in Bahia State holds the world’s largest and are consumed fresh. Many traditional national-programme collection of cassava germ- Colombian food dishes include cooked cassava. plasm. The National Centre for Genetic Resources In addition, sour cassava starch is an essential and Biotechnology (CENARGEN) includes cas- ingredient for several popular Colombian bakery sava and wild Manihot species within their products such as pan de bono. More recently, mandates. Brazil has recently taken a strong several cassava-based snack and convenience leadership role in the adaptation of farmer foods for urban consumers have appeared in participatory techniques for technology develop- supermarkets. ment and diffusion (Pires de Matos et al., 1997). While cassava has traditionally been Some of the world’s more advanced cassava planted by small farmers (mostly intercropped agriculture is found in Brazil’s southern, sub- with maize, yams, etc.), more recently, larger tropical region. Local research and extension plantation-style plantings have been started programmes have been working to improve in response to a boost in demand from cassava cassava since the early 1940s. The results processors. are evident in their highly productive systems, In the mid-1980s Colombia recognized the with yields averaging 17–20 t ha−1 and up to potential of cassava as a substitute for imported

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20 G. Henry and C. Hershey

maize and sorghum in balanced animal feed not been economic, so the State subsidized them rations and began a programme involving a to help farms meet their production goals. More range of R&D institutions and farmers’ groups. attention is now being given to the economics This pilot project was built on the concept of production – the use of inputs to produce a of the ‘integrated cassava R&D project’, a profitable output. Despite this emphasis on tech- development model based on simultaneous work nology, yield levels have been disappointing – to improve production efficiency, develop new some of the lowest in the region. This is partly products and processing methods, and expand because cassava is being grown on the poorer markets. These projects first concentrated on soils, and there is a shortage of inputs. Fertilizers the animal feed market but later included fresh and herbicides are increasingly diverted to cassava, starch and flour. The combination of higher value crops. these initiatives contributed to an upturn in pro- Cuba’s research and extension system has duction from 1.3 million t in 1987 to 1.8 million t been among the most consistently productive in 1996. While this first model concentrated on in the region, with a long-term, well-balanced small farmer cooperatives on the Atlantic Coast, interdisciplinary effort. The programme has a more recent (1999) development, initiated developed packages of agronomic practices, new through a consortium of private and public sec- cultivars and pest control systems. Most Cuban tor actors (CLAYUCA; Consorcio Latin-Americano production is used directly for fresh consump- y del Caribe de Apoyo a la Investigación y Desarollo tion. One of the early research successes was to de la Yuca), focuses on a larger scale agribusiness develop a system to extend the period when fresh model in the Cauca Valley region. rootsareavailableonthemarket,bycombininga Colombia is host country for the Centro specific set of cultivars with differing maturities Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) and staggered planting dates. Cuba has been pro- and has not only contributed to the global cas- moting research on use of cassava in animal feed sava initiatives of this centre, but also benefited rations, but this is not yet a major market. from its presence. As participants in testing new technology in the field, Colombian farmers have had the opportunity to be early beneficiaries. Haiti Some of the original work on basic agronomic practices (stake selection and treatment, plant- Cassava is becoming more important in the ing position, plant density, herbicides) led to Haitian’s diet. Cassava is processed and baked recommendations that were quickly and broadly to make the traditional Caribbean form of large adopted. Because of an extensive collaborative flat bread casabe. Most cultivars are of the bitter varietal testing network, Colombian institutions type. From 1970 to 1995, annual per capita had an advance look at some of the new consumption increased from 32 to 35 kg, while materials. all other countries of the region saw a decline. This increasing dietary role is, unfortunately, being driven largely by the effects of bringing Cuba more marginal soils under cultivation, degrada- tion of existing cultivated land and very adverse Cassava production in Cuba follows two very economic conditions in the poorest and most distinct general forms: large state farms, where a populous country of the region. relatively high level of technology is applied, and Despite these pressing needs in a crop of small private plots, which are becoming more increasing importance, Haiti has almost no common. The state-controlled system allows research capacity. The language barrier, technology developed on experimental stations together with very volatile political interests (for to be transferred almost immediately to produc- R&D), has made it difficult for them to participate tion fields. These farms often have high-input fully in the regional and international networks systems for cassava, including mechanized land involved in cassava. The country desperately preparation, planting and harvesting, herbicide needs a substantial R&D effort in cassava as a and fertilizer applications, even irrigation. means of raising living standards of the rural Sometimes the use of fertilizer and pesticides has poor. What little research has been done has

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been mainly sponsored by non-governmental pest control and utilization. Towards the end of organizations (NGOs), with a short- to medium- the 1990s, there has been a renewed interest term perspective and insufficient local support. in cassava, especially regarding the potential of adding value to increase demand and farmer income, as well as to popularize cassava as a com- Paraguay mercial crop in areas where decreasing interest in growing cotton has left a major gap. Paraguay maintains a very strong cultural attachment to cassava as part of a history that goes back to the Guarani Indians’ reliance on Peru this crop. Per capita consumption is the second highest in the world (after Democratic Republic Most of Peru’s production is in the eastern of Congo). Most Paraguayans eat cooked part of the country, in the rainforest and on the cassava two or three times a day as part of the lower slopes of the Andes. The highly populated main dish or as a first course. Production nearly coastal area relies almost totally on irrigation tripled in the period from 1961 to 1996. In the and therefore grows higher-value crops. As else- peak years of the late 1980s, production reached where in the Amazon basin, cassava is a staple. almost 4 million t. This relatively high level of Production has been relatively stable for the production, and the strong agricultural sector in past 35 years, with a rising trend in the 1990s. general, would seem to favour the move towards As pressure on land increases, slash-and-burn use of cassava as an industrial raw material systems are more difficult to sustain; thus those for the production of animal feed or starch, for populations near urban markets seek to inten- instance. Cassava must compete in several of sify and commercialize their agriculture. Some these markets with maize, cotton and soybean, cassava is shipped across the Andes to Lima, which are also major crops there. mainly for recent immigrants to the city, who Paraguay is the most rural of South retain a preference for cassava over more American countries. Over 60% of the land area is accessible potatoes. Because most production agricultural, and nearly as many people live in is isolated from major markets, future develop- rural areas as in the cities, in contrast to most of ment will need to focus on internal markets close the continent where between three and seven to areas of cultivation. As most cassava is grown times more people live in cities. It also has the in humid rainforest environments, opportuni- highest share of agriculture in the GDP–26% – ties for drying chips for animal feed are limited if compared to its neighbours (Brazil, 9.6%; Argen- natural drying is to be used. Starch and flour are tina, 6.0%). Currently, however, it has one possible options for value-added products. of the continent’s highest urban growth rates Peru has a very limited research capacity (4.5% year−1), so the dynamics of urbanization in cassava and does not have any nationally are likely to drive some of the same trends as coordinated effort. Projects in processing for elsewhere on the continent – a move towards animal feed, flour for partial substitution in more industrial uses of cassava, with a conse- bakery products and marketing of treated fresh quent decline in food uses. cassava have been some of the principal thrusts The cultural importance of cassava has not in the last part of the 1990s. been accompanied by a concerted institutional interest. Resources for research have been most irregular, depending very much on the personal Venezuela interest of individual ministers of agriculture. The extension service has been relatively more With the global oil boom in the 1970s, Vene- active both in research and extension, attempt- zuela was not motivated to pursue agricultural ing to fill a void where no separate research effort development, and rural areas not linked to spill- was organized for cassava. During the 1980s, over from oil income suffered the consequences. one of the most active periods for research on The share of agriculture in the country’s GDP is cassava in Paraguay, substantial work was done quite low – only 5.0%. Land use is also low with on germplasm collection, agronomic practices, only about 25% of the total area in agriculture.

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22 G. Henry and C. Hershey

Nevertheless, the area planted to cassava and dominant component of the cropping system. In production have been relatively stable in the fertile inter-mountain valleys of the Andes, for past 35 years. This reflects the fact that most example, cassava is one of many crops. In the farmers who rely on cassava do not have many semiarid interior of northeast Brazil, or, in other options for income. Most of the growing the acid-soil rainforests, cassava can play a areas are drought-prone (coastal) or have acid, dominant role. low-fertility soils (savannah and rainforest). In some regions, production and harvesting Various private companies have tried to estab- are seasonal, determined by low temperature, lish a starch industry based on cassava, but with drought or excessive rain. In the highlands limited success. Currently, other agroindustries where plant growth is slow, the production cycle are applying the lessons of past failures and is typically 18–24 months. Similarly, in the are working in a more integrated manner to subtropics, farmers often leave the crop in the coordinate production with processing capacity ground over winter and harvest after the second and market demand. These industries manage growing season. Where rainfall is very low, cassava plantations, with technology and per- growth may be so slow that reasonable pro- formance levels similar to those in the state of duction is obtained only after the second or Paraná in Brazil. third rainy season. In areas of seasonal flooding During the 1960s and 1970s, Venezuela (varzeas of the Amazon region), harvest may be had a strong cassava research and training as early as 5–6 months because cassava does not programme based at the Central University at tolerate water-saturated soils. Maracay. This group initiated countrywide work The more traditional systems tend to be in germplasm collection and evaluation, produc- more complex and rely on labour rather tion practices, developing expertise in the areas than purchased inputs. System complexity has of utilization in animal feeding and pest manage- evolved out of the complementary interaction ment. Currently, the private sector is sponsoring effects of individual components to provide a a modest but effective research programme balance between stability and productivity. on cassava, aimed mainly at production for In more modern systems, farmers incorporate starch. purchased inputs to achieve greater productivity and reasonable stability. The labour-intensive nature of cassava Production Systems in Latin America husbandry is an area of concern as the labour force in agriculture declines. This is most notable Cassava is nearly always part of a farming in South America, less so in the Caribbean. From system that includes other crops or animal com- 1970 to 1990, the average number of labourers ponents. System characteristics are associated per hectare of agricultural land in Brazil, Colom- with environmental influences, economic con- bia and Paraguay declined from 0.29 to 0.21. In straints and opportunities, and cultural tradi- Haiti and Cuba the decline in absolute numbers tions. The cassava plant can tolerate long was the same, but went from 0.71 to 0.63 periods of drought after it is established, but it labourers. By comparison, in Thailand, Indone- must be planted during a period of adequate soil sia and India, the number of agricultural water. In most systems, growers plant cassava labourers remained stable in the same period, near the beginning of the rainy season. Cassava at about 1.25 labourers ha−1. As the cost of is slow to develop a canopy, so early weed rural labour increases, mechanization becomes a control is crucial. This is accomplished mainly more urgent issue, especially for planting and by hand weeding, but use of herbicides (pre- and harvesting, a top priority for more high-input post-emergence) is increasing. Farmers rarely high-outputfarmers.Whilemechanizedplanters apply inputs to control pests or diseases. are becoming more popular in southern Brazil, As there is no sharply defined maturity appropriate harvesters are still in a develop- period, harvest may extend over several weeks or mental phase. Different prototypes exist, but even months, depending upon the end use. As relatively high purchase costs and too high the level of drought, soil infertility and/or acidity harvest losses (breakage of roots) still need stress increases, cassava tends to become a more additional research.

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Cassava in South America and the Caribbean 23

Production trends 1977 and 1984, area planted steadily declined, as the full impact of wheat import subsidies In comparison with Asia or Africa, production (in Brazil) and other policy disincentives were trends for cassava in Latin America have been translated into reduced consumer demand for quite stable over the past 25 years. Brazil cassava. Since the mid-1980s, the area planted accounts for most of the aggregate variations. has been relatively stable with some tendency to This country strongly dominates the Latin decline. Production climbed at a higher rate than American cassava production. Most countries increases in planted area during the 1960s but have had gradual tendencies to increase or then continued at constant levels for the next decrease production, but few have realized dra- 25 years. In the past few years, there has been matic shifts due to major production or market a trend of increasing yields, as the adoption of forces (Table 2.2). This is to be expected in the productivity-enhancing technology accelerates traditional production systems and constrained in the region. However, the true impact of these markets that characterize most of the region. technologies has been masked to some extent Aggregate production since the 1960s can due to the negative climatic impacts on yields be broadly characterized into three phases. From caused by El Niño and La Niña. In the past 15 1961 to 1972, there was a marked increase years, there have been wider cyclical variations in area and production, mainly in response to in area and production as compared to the continued population growth. Area harvested previous two decades. Specific causes of this peaked at 2.85 million ha in 1977. Between fluctuation are difficult to pinpoint but may be

Table 2.2. Cassava production, area and yield in LAC, 1990 and 1999.

Production (t) Area harvested (ha) Yield (kg ha−1) Cassava-producing countries 1990 1999 1990 1999 1990 1999

LAC 32,154,182 28,578,126 2,738,936 2,353,252 117,397 121,441 Antigua and Barbuda 32,154,145 32,154,140 2,738,939 2,738,939 50,000 44,444 Argentina 32,140,000 28,165,000 2,714,000 2,716,000 100,000 100,000 Bolivia 32,393,590 28,400,006 2,736,358 2,740,000 108,254 100,002 Brazil 24,284,700 20,171,600 1,933,620 1,539,180 125,592 131,054 Colombia 1,939,020 1,956,051 2,207,310 2,184,718 93,532 99,856 Costa Rica 32,165,000 28,119,470 2,734,700 2,736,000 138,298 199,117 Cuba 32,300,000 28,250,000 2,772,000 2,765,000 41,667 38,462 Dominican Republic 32,132,027 28,155,755 2,720,476 2,724,000 64,479 64,898 Ecuador 32,134,245 28,138,172 2,724,590 2,719,760 54,593 69,925 El Salvador 32,128,600 32,130,000 2,731,800 2,731,900 158,889 155,263 French Guyana 32,118,967 32,110,375 2,731,983 2,731,690 95,648 61,391 Guadeloupe 32,151,654 32,151,460 2,738,120 2,738,130 137,833 112,308 Guatemala 32,115,700 32,116,000 2,735,000 2,735,000 31,400 32,000 Guyana 32,121,800 32,125,957 2,732,000 2,732,200 109,000 117,986 Haiti 32,330,000 28,320,000 2,782,000 2,774,418 40,244 43,000 Honduras 32,157,968 32,110,081 2,731,000 2,731,100 79,680 91,645 Jamaica 32,111,803 32,114,972 2,738,991 2,738,780 119,102 191,949 Mexico 32,153,073 32,151,100 2,738,407 2,738,145 75,504 75,862 Nicaragua 32,153,000 32,151,000 2,734,800 2,734,700 110,417 108,511 Panama 32,129,965 32,130,309 2,736,040 2,735,400 49,611 56,128 Paraguay 3,549,947 3,500,000 2,239,900 2,240,000 147,976 145,833 Peru 32,381,069 28,885,100 2,740,794 2,780,000 93,413 110,638 Puerto Rico 32,152,377 28,578,281 2,738,300 2,353,239 79,233 72,051 Venezuela 32,301,647 28,487,685 2,737,795 2,740,000 79,811 108,060

Source: FAOSTAT, FAO (1999).

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24 G. Henry and C. Hershey

related to uncertainties in the cassava market- demand in these areas. The traditional farinha de place as agricultural and trade policy in the mandioca industry in southern Brazil has been region undergo reform and adjustment. For a under increasingly heavy competition for raw more detailed treatise on trends by individual materials by the growing starch industry. country, refer to Henry and Gottret (1996). Drought conditions in northeast Brazil have Several less-aggregated trends exist although boosted the demand for farinha (from the south) they are less obvious. For example, while cassava for the past several years, but this is not sustain- yields in north and northeast Brazil are struggl- able. At present, it is not clear what the future ing to overcome natural calamities, in the south prospectsarefortheseindustries(CERAT,1997). and southwest, both area and yields continue to In Colombia, Peru, Brazil (Ceará) and Ecua- rise. Furthermore, during the last decade (Table dor,experiencesfromintegratedcassavaprojects 2.2), cassava area and yields are rising markedly show that there is some potential for cassava in many of the Central American and Caribbean to substitute partially for wheat flour in bakery, countries. This phenomenon can be explained pastry and snack food industries (Henry, 1996; partly by the bullish export demand for fresh and Ospina et al., 1996; Eguez, 1996). To benefit from frozen cassava from the European Union (EU) some of these opportunities, appropriate socio- and USA, mainly supplied by Costa Rica. economic and political conditions are necessary and detailed ex-ante feasibility studies are required. Currently, there is renewed interest Utilization, Market Systems in Brazil for developing cassava flour-based and Trends products for urban and export markets.

Fresh cassava roots and flour for human consumption Chips and leaves for animal feed

More than half the cassava produced in the On-farm feeding of fresh or dried cassava has a region is used directly for human food and long tradition, but mainly in very non-intensive the remainder for animal feed or industrial systems. With rapidly increasing demand for uses. This aggregate picture, however, masks animal products – meat, milk and eggs – cassava regional variations. In Brazil and Paraguay – the is finding markets in balanced rations for animal two largest producers – 50 and 65%, respec- feeds. The technical details for managing dried tively, of production is destined for animal feed. cassava in these rations are well established in (These official figures may not reflect reality; the terms of both the milling and blending process, authors believe that 30% for Brazil and 40% for as well as the animal nutrition side (Buitrago, Paraguay may be more realistic.) Much of this is 1994). The main constraints for continued for on-farm use in non-intensive systems for pigs expansion of this market are constancy of raw and chickens. In nearly all the other producing material supply throughout the year, stability of countries, the food market predominates, and product quality and price competitiveness. only 10–20% of production goes for animal feed. Ospina et al. (1996), Henry and Best (1994) Previous fresh cassava and flour production and Hershey et al. (1997) have reported exten- trends and the current situation in LAC, have sively on the cassava chip experiences and its been analysed extensively by Henry and Gottret future potential for animal feed in Brazil and (1996) and Hershey et al. (1997). Consumption Colombia. Gottret et al. (1997) report a calcu- of fresh cassava in Colombia and Paraguay, and lated demand potential by the feed industry in farinha in northeast Brazil will increase with Colombia of > 500,000 t year−1 at certain rela- decreasing cassava prices (relative to its major tive prices and quality levels. Actual cassava chip substitutes) for the lowest income groups in both utilization averages 30,000–50,000 t. However, rural and urban areas. Furthermore, studies as mentioned earlier, a recent plan for an indus- (Henry, 1996) have shown evidence that the trial-size integrated production/processing plant average urban consumer in Brazil is willing to in the Cauca Valley is taking shape. Similar pay more for better quality farinha; thus, higher and higher figures have been reported for Ceará quality cassava products may expand traditional State, Brazil (Henry, 1996), depending on the

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Cassava in South America and the Caribbean 25

level at which cassava is included. In Ceará the containing wheat flour. The cassava/cheese potential demand for chicken and pig feed rations breads are the commonest products from sour is augmented by the demand from dairy farmers starch. Native and modified non-sour starch are for supplementing with cassava chips during the used in an array of food and industrial products: dry season. food processing, adhesives, paper and textile Besides utilizing cassava roots and leaves for manufacturing, and others. animal feed, cassava starch and flour processing In Brazil, cassava starch production by-products have traditionally been valued for increased from 200,000 t in 1990 to approxi- feed use. While this practice at the farm level mately 300,000 t in 1997 (Vilpoux, 1998). seems to offer good returns, the larger-scale Roughly 70% of Brazil’s starch utilization is industries face the constraint of cost-effective based on domestic maize starch, currently bring- drying options. In Thailand the existence of large ing the total industry an estimated 1 million open-air drying floors has reduced this problem. t year−1 (Vilpoux, 1998). Hence Brazil’s starch expansion has been typically maize-based. Maize starch manufacturing is concentrated in two Starch-based applications large international (US origin) companies: CPC International/Refinação de Milho Brasil Starch is not a major product from cassava in and Cargill, both based in southern Brazil. The the region overall, but it is important in local cassava starch industry represents small- economies, especially in Colombia (northern to medium-sized companies, distributed in Cauca Province), Brazil (south) and Paraguay, the states of Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais, Santa and its production is increasing. The two basic Catarina,Paranáandlately,MatoGrossodoSul. forms are native and modified. One of the popu- Current utilization of starch is detailed in lar forms of starch modification is fermentation Table 2.3. This shows 69% of total starch for the for a variety of bakery goods. Fermentation and food sector, 17% for the paper industry and 5% sun drying combine to give cassava starch the for the textile industry. It also shows that 43% capacity to trap air and expand. Baked products is native, 46% is hydrolysed (sweeteners) and have a consistency similar to the gluten- 11% is other modified starch. Vilpoux (1998)

Table 2.3. Utilization (t) of Brazilian starch and starch derivatives by industrial sector, 1997.

Food sector Paper sector Bakery/ Powder Textile Other Starch type Sweeteners pastry products Others Paper Cardboard sector sectors Total

Native starch 2,100 26,500 93,000 109,100 66,300 43,500 20,000 77,000 ,437,500

Modified ,113,250 Acid modified 2,600 1,500 29,900 4,300 30,000 , 68,300 Cationic 1,800 ,200 , 2,000 Anfoteric 24,300 , 24,300 Dextrins/pregel. ,100 ,300 ,100 , 50 ,100 18,000 , 18,650

Hydrolysed ,472,200 Glucose syrups 141,200 ,800 3,100 30,400 ,200 1,000 ,176,700 Glucose powder ,200 ,100 ,300 5,100 ,100 , 5,800 Maltose syrups 271,500 ,271,500 Malto dextrins ,400 ,300 2,800 14,400 ,300 , 18,200

Total 146,500 27,700 99,300 432,300 122,400 48,050 50,700 96,000 1,022,950

Source: Henry et al. (1998).

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26 G. Henry and C. Hershey

notes that, in 1997, the food industries that reported at a very competitive price compared increased their starch utilization the most were to Colombian starches. The main starch source the frozen and dehydrated foods sectors (with in Venezuela remains maize starch, mostly 18.2%). Furthermore, the same source notes imported from the USA. that future growth in demand for starch The main cassava starch products in (modified and native) in the food sector will be Colombia are sour and native starches. There are especially strong for the ready and semi-ready reports of a recent investment in the province of product lines. Other US private sector informa- Cauca for a cassava-based glucose syrup factory tion (PROAMYL, 1996) notes the potential (Gottret et al., 1997). However, no data are avail- increasing demand for cationic starches for able on production or capacity figures. Cassava the high-quality paper industry. sour starch production is mainly concentrated There are several constraints for cassava to in the Cauca Valley, with a total average pro- compete against maize as a starch source crop. duction of 23,000 t from approximately 200 One of these is market concentration. Two com- small-scale processing units. Several larger units panies in Brazil account for the 700,000 t of producing native cassava starch operate in the maize starch production, whereas the cassava Atlantic Coast region. Colombian starch utiliza- industry is divided among more than 60 firms. tion is principally satisfied by starch imports Big maize starch companies can invest in product from the USA (maize), Venezuela (cassava), research, reach bigger customers and reduce Brazil (cassava/maize) and sometimes Ecuador production costs, which is more difficult for cas- (cassava). Several maize-based starch factories sava starch firms. The other major constraint (Maizena) exist, but at least one seems to be in regards the relatively higher production costs of the process of closing down. Gottret et al. (1997) cassava (as raw material for starch), as shown in report the relatively high prices of Colombian Table 2.4. cassava-based starch. In 1997, Colombian Few hard data exist regarding the cassava native starch was priced at US$500–550 t−1 starch situation in Venezuela. Scattered first- versus US$450–480 t−1 for imported maize hand information reports that there are starch. At these prices, Thai and even Brazilian currently two large-scale integrated (with root starch possibly could be imported at a significant production) starch factories. One of these profit. It should be noted that the Colombian operates a 7000-ha cassava farm, partly irri- starch market is in the hands of only a very few gated, with an average productivity of 25–30 t operators, dictating imports and market prices. ha−1 year−1. The roots are processed into native Few hard data on cassava starch are starch and glucose syrup. While the latter still available for Paraguay. Henry and Chuzel represents a small share, the immediate objective (1997) have noted that small volumes of cassava is to increase this product output. The primary starch have traditionally been manufactured market is Venezuela, but native starch exports in small-scale household processing units, for for the Colombian paper industry have also been manufacturing of chipas, a typical snack. More

Table 2.4. Main cassava and maize production costs.

Maize Cassavaa

US$b % US$b %

Mechanized activities 80.08 35.8 85.36 18.4 Input 223.86 61.2 34.61 7.4 Labour force 62.18 17.0 345.02 74.2 Total 366.12 465.00

Source: Vilpoux (1998). aOne year-old cassava with 20–25 t ha−1 productivity. b1997 US$.

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Cassava in South America and the Caribbean 27

recently, however, there is growing interest cassava export product remains fresh/frozen among Brazilian starch manufacturers across cassava roots for human consumption, targeted the border (Paraná and Mato Grosso do Sul) for to ethnic population groups in the European joint-venture investments in large-scale cassava Community (EC) and USA. Table 2.5 sum- starch manufacturing (> 200 t day−1), taking marizes EC fresh cassava imports between advantage of relatively lower land and labour 1993 and 1997. Note that the figures for 1993 prices. Most starch utilized in Paraguay cur- and 1994 relate to the EC with 12 members, rently originates from Brazil and, to a lesser while 1995/96/97 figures relate to the EC with extent, from the USA (maize starch). 15 members. No data are currently available to assess how much more cassava was imported to the EC as a result of Austria, Sweden and Finland’s entrance to the community. However, Cassava-based snacks and none of these countries has large ethnic popu- convenience foods lations from developing countries (those most likely to consume fresh cassava) and conse- Fast foods made from cassava in the form of quently we can safely assume that the enlarge- chips are commercialized in Europe and in some ment of the EC had little effect on fresh cassava Latin American countries. In Europe these chips imports. The same table indicates that imports are sold in supermarkets as a snack food, very have increased both in value and quantity over similar to extruded maize products. There is recent years. Costa Rica is the primary supplier, a prawn-flavoured product made in France with Ecuador, Surinam and Ghana supplying with Thai cassava starch produced by the much smaller, but still significant quantities. Tai-Yang company. Similar products (Fritopan In 1997 the UKimported approximately and Mandiopan) exist in Colombia and Brazil, 940 t of fresh cassava (estimated from data sup- respectively. These products are not ready to eat plied by the Home Grown Cereals Authority, UK). and have to be fried, to allow expansion of At 23% of the estimated 1997 EC imports, this the product. The necessity of frying makes figure indicates that the UKis one of the major consumption of this product difficult, which buyers within the EC. As consumers in the UK affects its marketability. tend to come from ethnic minorities, the market The fast growth of the urban areas, the dis- size is limited. Cassava enters the country either tance between work and home, and accelerated as fresh whole roots that have been preserved in life styles are determinants of the constant clear wax and fungicide, or, as frozen pieces that expansion of frozen food markets. In Brazil the arrive in refrigerated containers. The UKmarket 3.6- million-t frozen food market is still relatively is currently oversupplied. Traders either predict a small, compared to the US market of 14.5 decline in the market or, at most, a continuation million t. Data from the Brazilian Food Industry of the current level of sales (personal communi- Association (ABIA) show that frozen and dehy- cations, various traders, New Spitalfield Market, drated foods were the segments that grew most in London, 1997). Prospective entrants to the 1997 (Gazeta Mercantil, 1998). Five years ago, EC market would have to be competitive with the Agricultural Cooperative of Cotia (CAC) was exporters from Costa Rica, who operate highly the only big enterprise selling a frozen cassava efficient market channels. product similar to potato chips. Today, there US Department of Commerce trade figures are several frozen cassava and cassava-based (summarized in Table 2.6) reveal significant products in the market, produced and distributed imports of cassava to the USA. The figures relate by different-sized enterprises. to frozen, fresh or dried cassava, although they import very little or no dried cassava (personal communication, Linda Wheeler, USDA Foreign Latin American cassava-product exports Agricultural Service, 1997). The figures in the table therefore, can be assumed to relate almost While limited volumes of cassava starch are entirely to fresh or frozen cassava, again coming exported from Brazil, Latin America’s main mostly from Costa Rica.

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28 G. Henry and C. Hershey

Table 2.5. EC imports of fresh cassavaa by country of origin.

1993b 1994b 1995c 1996c 1997d

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value

t ‘000 US$ t ‘000 US$ t ‘000 US$ t ‘000 US$ t ‘000 US$

EC Total 3409 1914 3480 2509 4022 3015 5001 3571 4147 3187 Costa Rica 2502 1532 2747 2015 3485 2590 4089 2807 3658 2699 Ecuador 0 0 5 3 76 50 219 161 230 219 Surinam 133 68 411 213 188 133 272 205 26 18 Ghana 91 45 124 63 89 75 220 210 152 134 Malaysia 8 7 7 6 17 16 34 27 36 31 Barbados 0 0 0 0 17 13 22 15 1 1 Brazil 20 12 0 0 0 0 34 41 5 5 St Vincent 4 3 49 62 29 30 4 5 6 6 Dominican R. 0 0 8 2 28 10 10 8 0 0 Vietnam 2 3 10 10 7 7 22 16 7 17 Philippines 0 0 0 1 10 12 8 10 11 14 Honduras 131 86 63 45 20 18 0 0 0 0 Singapore 11 9 6 5 14 13 2 7 0 0 Ivory Coast 7 7 0 0 14 9 0 0 2 29 India 0 0 2 4 0 0 15 7 0 0 Guatemala 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 3 2 Indonesia 15 32 35 67 9 21 2 5 0 0 Trinidad and 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 13 0 0 Tobago El Salvador 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 7 Guyana 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 5 0 0 Grenada 0 0 4 4 7 6 0 0 0 0 Thailand 424 63 6 6 0 0 3 4 1 2 Jamaica 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 Venezuela 32 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 USA 18 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dominica 9 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Source: Henry and Westby (2000). aDefinition: fresh and whole or without skin and frozen manioc, whether or not sliced, for human consumption. bEC12. cEC15. dEC15 preliminary figures.

The Institutional Resource Base These national programmes were comple- mented by the establishment of CIAT in Colom- During the 1970s Latin America in general bia. The CIAT Cassava Programme became a was committed to improving agriculture as a major institutional force for cassava research strategy for broad-based development. Many and training, as well as for acting as a convenor countries sent key scientists, or whole teams, to bring together national scientists in forums for advanced training and strengthened their for international exchange and collaboration. research system in expanded and improved The strong interdisciplinary orientation of facilities. The cassava sector benefited from this this programme became an operational model broad investment in agricultural research. Sev- for many national programmes in the following eral countries that previously had no cassava years. programme at all, or very minor efforts, devel- This surge in interest and investment was oped national plans for cassava and established followed by an economic downturn for much of research teams to carry them out. the region by the mid-1980s. This was especially

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Cassava in South America and the Caribbean 29

Table 2.6. USA imports of fresh cassava by country of origin.

1996 1997a

Quantity Value Quantity Value

t ‘000 US$ t ‘000 US$

USA total 32,343 16,070 34,285 21,044 Colombia 20,339 20,318 31,740 31,740 Costa Rica 31,744 15,691 32,953 20,317 Dominican Republic 20,378 20,326 20,170 20,142 Ecuador 20,331 20,311 20,221 20,118 Egypt 31,744 20,310 31,744 20,312 Fiji 31,740 31,740 31,742 20,312 Ghana 20,364 20,324 20,352 20,316 Honduras 20,321 31,747 20,326 20,314 Hong Kong 31,740 31,741 31,748 31,744 India 31,740 31,740 31,742 31,741 Indonesia 20,320 20,344 31,740 31,740 Ivory Coast 31,740 31,740 31,740 31,742 Jamaica 31,740 31,743 20,319 20,325 Malaysia 31,745 31,744 31,740 31,740 Mexico 20,366 31,740 20,154 20,331 Nicaragua 31,740 31,740 31,744 31,744 Nigeria 20,318 20,319 31,740 31,740 Panama 31,740 31,740 20,102 20,335 Peru 31,749 31,748 31,740 31,740 Philippines 20,198 20,188 20,201 20,199 Thailand 31,743 31,744 31,740 31,740 Tonga 20,340 20,311 20,312 20,313 Venezuela 31,740 31,740 20,344 20,394 Vietnam 31,743 31,741 20,312 31,744

Source: Henry and Westby (2000). aEstimated values.

acute for countries that had borrowed heavily, very experienced staff. In a reorganization in were experiencing runaway inflation and had late 1996, CIAT replaced its commodity-oriented difficulty making loan payments. Paring back on programmes with a project structure that gives government expenditures often hit agriculture less emphasis to commodity development and hardest, with its declining political power. higher priority to integrating commodities with Within agriculture, the cassava sector was resource management. Hence this institution’s among the least important. The once-strong ability to support national cassava programmes or moderate programmes of Mexico, Panama, has been somewhat diluted. On the other hand, Dominican Republic, Ecuador and Venezuela CIAT becomes more of a resource for integrat- were phased out, or reduced to very low levels ing key components into broader agricultural of operation. development. Currently, the core of countries with strong During the mid-1980s to early 1990s, institutions in cassava R&D is very limited – CIAT gave high priority to promoting network only Brazil and Cuba retain an interdisciplinary development. Several semi-formal and informal team in the context of a programme with networks were formed with missions and activi- national responsibility for cassava research. Cas- ties relevant to Latin America. In reality, most sava programmes areplagued byahighturnover of these networks are a latent resource rather of scientists although some programmes have that actual functioning entities. Many depended

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30 G. Henry and C. Hershey

heavily on CIAT for operational support and with participation by Paraguay, northern have not been able to find other resources to Argentina and southern Brazil. The activi- continue their activities. ties of this network have since been absorbed by the more discipline-oriented networks. • The Cassava R&D Network, while never • Plant protection practitioners have func- given a formal network structure, is a broad tioned in a sort of consortium of regional association of cassava scientists working efforts to address the highly eco-regional across all disciplines and areas, linked by nature of pests and diseases. This network a regional newsletter published at CIAT, has not held regional meetings but has by attendance at various cassava-related been involved in cross-institutional train- meetings, by communication, by visits and ing and implementation of pest manage- interchange of technology components. ment strategies. • The Cassava Breeding Network held its • A global Postharvest Network brings first meeting in Cali, Colombia in 1987 and together a large group of scientists, mainly reconvened for triennial meetings there- from universities and private industry, who after. Cassava does not lend itself well to previously had little contact with each the types of international cultivar-testing other. The interchange in meetings and programmes that are often the main thrust informal communication have been a of breeders’ networks. None the less, the major contribution to setting the stage for interchange of information and germplasm the innovations and initiatives needed to fostered by the network, has contributed bring expanded market-led benefits to the significantly to upgrading the quality and cassava sector. uniformity of genetic improvement activi- • In 1999, as a result of additional cassava ties in the region. R&D resource reductions at CIAT, coupled • The Manihot Genetic Resources Network with increased demands for R&D support (MGRN) was established in 1992 under the from cassava-sector representatives, the auspices of the International Plant Genetic regional private/public sector consortium Resources Institute (IPGRI). Latin America, CLAYUCA was formed. Institutional part- with its position as a centre of origin for ners CIAT and CIRAD joined public cassava, clearly should be taking a lead role agencies and private groups (feed, food and in assuring the viability and productivity industrial sectors) from five (still increas- of MGRN. As for the other networks, poor ing) countries in the region to co-finance funding and a diminishing core of cassava this novel network to offer concrete scientists are making this nearly impossi- solutions to common high-priority sector ble. The breeders’ network and the MGRN constraints. have now informally merged in view of their overlapping functions and interests. • The Cassava Biotechnology Network (CBN) functions globally and includes active Projections and Future Perspectives participation from several Latin American countries, especially Colombia, Brazil, Cuba Several projections exist regarding future and Venezuela. This is the only network cassava production and utilization levels (Henry with strong involvement of advanced and Gottret, 1996; FAO, 1997; Rosegrant and research institutions in developed coun- Gerpacio, 1997). However, the different time tries. As CBN evolves towards a regional- periods and data sets used, applied to very differ- ized structure, the Latin American ent models, generated results that are very hard participants will intensify their contacts to compare (or validate). It is sufficient for our and interchange, possibly to collaborate purpose to discuss some summarized results on more region-specific issues. from FAO (1997) regarding projected produc- • A Southern Cone Network was established in tion/utilization growth rates to the year 2005. the late 1980s to address some of the spe- Table 2.7 shows that total Latin American cific problems of subtropical environments, cassava utilization (or production) is projected

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Cassava in South America and the Caribbean 31

Table 2.7. Global cassava utilization growth rates (past and projected) and shares by continent, 1983/93–1993/05.

World Africa Asia LAC Share of total Region (%) (%) (%) (%) use (%)

Total use 1983–1993 2.4 4.3 1.6 0.7 100 1993–2005 1.8 2.4 2.5 1.5 100

Food 1983–1993 2.4 3.9 0.1 0.7 59 1993–2005 2.2 2.5 2.0 0.8 58

Feed 1983–1993 1.1 7.6 4.7 0.6 24 1993–2005 −0.2− 1.8 2.5 1.3 22

Other use 1983–1993 4.7 5.3 6.8 1.1 17 1993–2005 3.1 2.3 4.2 3.4 20

Source: FAO (1997), as cited in Henry and Westby (2000).

to increase significantly from an earlier annual can be expected. Economic benefits from new growth rate of 0.7% to 1.5% by the year cultivars can easily take 15–20 years from the 2005. Furthermore, the feed utilization annual time of making a cross in the breeder’s nursery. growth rate is projected to double, while starch The design of production research has to antici- utilization (other uses) is projected to triple its pate and be coordinated with planning for mar- annual growth to the year 2005. Rosegrant and ket expansion or new market development. Gerpacio (1997) and Henry and Gottret (1996), The fact that experimental yields easily on the other hand, project annual growth rates reach levels three to five times the national to be in the order of 0.8 and 0.6–0.8%, respec- average suggests that some quite effective yield- tively. In addition, these authors assign future increasing technologies already exist. Further- production growth largely to yield increases, more, farmers who adopt these technologies while FAO assigns similar shares to area and are able to realize significant yield gains. Most yield, contributing to future growth. farmers, however, are constrained from realizing the full potential of new technologies by their economic and environmental conditions. In the- Supply-side interventions ory, purchased inputs can alleviate most stresses including drought, low soil fertility, pests and A constrained market for cassava in much of diseases. However, the application of these Latin America does not mean that work on the inputs may not be economical, may simply not be production side is unwarranted. Market viability available, or, the credit systems to allow farmers and farmers’ ability to earn a fair profit follow to invest in these inputs are unavailable or closely from production efficiency. This is true unsatisfactory. This review therefore concen- for all markets but is increasingly decisive in trates on those technologies with applicability for industries where cassava competes in global resource-poor farmers, following on the previous markets with other carbohydrate sources. discussion of constraints and opportunities. There is a long lead time for many technology components, especially varietal improvement. Environmental resources The simplest new production practices normally entail at least a 5-year development, testing and Broad priorities for environmental protection diffusion period until impact at the farm level in cassava-production areas are similar across

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32 G. Henry and C. Hershey

continents: soil erosion control and fertility conservation and regeneration techniques, maintenance, protection of fragile or ecologi- especially for the wild species; safe exchange cally significant natural habitats and minimiz- of germplasm; documentation and evaluation; ing environmental contamination from farm and utilization (IPGRI, 1994). Since its establish- chemicals or pollutants from processing. The ment, the network has had limited activity, relative importance of each varies from one despite the pressing needs it faces. region to another. The Americas have the addi- Most of the currently held collections in the tional responsibility of protecting the habitats Americas were made in the 1960s and 1970s, for diversity of wild Manihot species. with periodic small additions in later years. There Approaches to controlling soil erosion are is no comprehensive catalogue of the existing very much linked to cropping systems and it is collections in the Americas. The two principal appropriate that research be directed specifically collections (CIAT and CNPMF) are well charac- at the unique features of cassava-based systems, terized for basic morphological and agronomic while drawing on more general knowledge traits, but there is no reliable way to relate this to about erosion. Farmers already apply several the total genetic diversity. Some experts consider traditional practices to control erosion, and new the existing ex situ collections to represent a large methods are available at the experimental level. proportion of the total diversity, while others The first challenge is to demonstrate to farmers believe much more needs to be collected. The first the extent and the consequences of erosion under priority should be to pursue a path towards current practices. There are simple, inexpensive consensus. The MGRN is the obvious forum ways of capturing soil runoff and measuring for this discussion. Agreement is needed on losses. These have been used mainly in research methodology for measuring genetic diversity but can also be an effective tool in demonstration reliably, a comprehensive inventory of existing plots for farmers and in participatory research. information on in situ and ex situ diversity, and Given that adoption of suggested practices has identification of methodology and resources for usually been disappointing, farmer participation filling information gaps. in research design is an important step forward. Conservation of Manihot esculenta is refined Several Colombian and international institu- to a point of quite high security with a combi- tions are collaborating in pioneering work in nation of in vitro and field techniques. CIAT the Andean hillside systems of Colombia, and (Latin America and Asia), IITA (Africa) and a this effort needs to be expanded to a range of few national programmes maintain their local agroecosystems. germplasm in vitro. The global needs for germ- plasm security certainly do not require that every country have in vitro laboratory facilities. A more Genetic resources efficient, cost-effective approach would be an Cassava genetic resources available in the internationally coordinated, secure system that Americas are of critical global importance. This holds a base collection and one or two duplicates evolutionary homeland of cassava and its wild at key sites. This should not be a disincentive for relatives includes the major part of the crop’s any country to manage its germplasm properly, genetic diversity, as well as the inter- and intra- but is an acknowledgement of the practical species diversity of the natural enemies of many realityofmanycountries’financialandtechnical cassava pests and diseases. The region holds two difficulties in developing secure systems. of the principal cassava germplasm collections in the world: at CNPMF/CENARGEN, Brazil, Varietal development with about 2000 accessions and at CIAT in Colombia with over 6000 accessions. New cultivars have long benefited both large Managing these resources adequately for and small growers. Specifically targeting bene- long-term future use must be a research priority. fits to small and medium resource-poor farmers, An important step toward this end was however, is a possible option for cassava pro- formation of the MGRN in 1992. Several grammes. Cultivars that rely on unavailable or working groups identified research priorities expensive inputs to express their potential, are in germplasm collection (wild and cultivated); not suitable for most cassava growers. Breeders

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in the past few decades have generally sought Crop management adaptation to stressful environments as a means Because New World farmers have cultivated to benefit resource-poor farmers. Pest and dis- cassava for thousands of years, they have been ease resistance, drought tolerance, adaptation able to optimize resources to a remarkable to acid soils and nutrient-use efficiency, are degree within traditional cultivation systems. some of the key traits that will increase yields Cassava is often known as a crop that will and farmer income with moderate input use. yield reasonably even when given suboptimum At the same time, reasonable responsiveness care. Other more sensitive crops may fail com- to improved soil fertility allows farmers to take pletely unless more attention is given to manage- advantage of inputs when conditions permit. ment. In this context it makes sense for farmers to Exploration of novel traits for new production give a lower priority to cassava in multiple-crop systems can have substantial long-term payoff. systems. It also means that new management Changes in plant and root architecture to practices will have to be relatively simple and meet the demands of mechanization, to improve inexpensive to be successful. Science has had nutrient-use efficiency, or to increase plant den- limited success in improving these traditional sity need to be introduced into plant breeding practices unless some change is introduced from schemes 15–20 years before on-farm demand is outside the system. Recommendations to change anticipated. planting position, plant density or plant arrange- The basis of new cultivars is the broad array ments, by themselves, rarely provide more than of farmer-selected landraces. Most cassava- minor yield advantages. On the other hand, growing countries of the region have identified when any new technology component is superior local germplasm. Recommendations introduced, such as a new cultivar, chemical of these to local growers and transfer to other weed control or chemical fertilizer, concomitant regions are some of the quickest and most changes in other components will probably be effective means of deploying superior genetic required to re-optimize the system. This has long materials. With the application of scientific been known by crop scientists – hence the typical principles, the evaluation process is now recommendation that farmers should adopt more systematic and the interchange broader technology packages rather than individual in scope. components. This continues to be a major CIAT has played a prominent role in supply- challenge for research and extension workers. ing improved germplasm for evaluation by The principal crop management opportuni- national programmes. The international centres ties for sustainable increases in production in general are reducing their investment in profitability lie in increasing labour productivity, varietal development on the basis of national improved quality of planting material, improved programmes’ acquiring capacity in genetic soil fertility and better weed control. improvementoverthepastfewdecades.National programmes did indeed develop capacity in • Labour productivity. Rising wages, driven cassava improvement, but much of that has by advancing economies, and tighter been lost in budget-cutting for both personnel profit margins from competition with other and operations. Today there are few programmes carbohydrate sources, will drive farmers in Latin America with the institutional capacity to strive continually for higher labour to implement a full breeding programme; most productivity. Land preparation, weeding have only the most rudimentary capacity of and harvesting occupy the largest share of evaluating finished cultivars. R&D planners production labour inputs. Farmers at any must combat the reality that there is a serious scale of operation are usually economically erosion of capacity in germplasm management rational when choosing production meth- and varietal development in the Latin American ods that are labour-intensive versus labour- public sector, with no current prospects for saving. In most areas where terrain is ame- investment by private companies. Strengthening nable, mechanization is making inroads. existing programmes and extending their bene- Most of this is non-crop-specific, such as fits through networking are clear needs for the land preparation or mechanical weeding. region. The private sector will manage quite well in

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34 G. Henry and C. Hershey

offering non-crop-specific mechanization There is already a large body of knowledge to cassava growers, who in turn will make about planting material management, economically rational decisions about which needs to be adapted and comple- adoption. mented by national programmes for local • Cassava-specific mechanization is very conditions. As this has always been a key little used. This tends to be quite expensive link in the production process, there is because the market will not as yet support relevant indigenous farmer knowledge that mass production. Certainly there are some has not been documented or tapped. inherent complexities in mechanization. • In the longer term, non-conventional types With much of cassava produced on moder- and systems of planting material will be ate or steep slopes, conventional machinery able to contribute substantially to the eco- may be inappropriate. There is a special nomics of cassava production. Alleviating need to design small-scale machinery the constraints imposed by bulkiness and adapted to irregular terrain. Mechanization perishability of planting material will would probably force a move towards become increasingly important for adding monoculture, given the complications of even greater flexibility to production sys- mechanized intercropping. Currently, there tems. This can be done either with varia- are a few planters and harvesters on tions on vegetative propagation systems the market, but these are used almost or with true seed. The possibility of true- exclusively in large plantation-type opera- seed propagation of cassava was proposed tions. There should be potential for custom seriously more than 10 years ago. A broad, planting and harvesting businesses, or, for integrated initiative to look at both agro- farmer cooperatives to pool resources to nomic and genetic aspects should be under- purchase machinery. taken. Given the long lead time required – • Typically, mechanization and breeding certainly more than the typical 10–15 objectives evolve in parallel – breeders years for cultivar development – this type of adapt crop characteristics to limitations research already needs to be anticipating or possibilities of machinery, and engineers the needs of a very different cassava sector design machinery to fit changing varietal a few decades into the 21st century. The traits. One might envisage this pheno- main advantages could be a lower level menon in cassava, especially for harvest of disease transmission (especially viruses) machinery. Breeders may need to produce from one generation to the next, ease of more erect plant types to accommodate handling, storability and added flexibility row-crop harvesters and select for root in production system design. Problems forms compatible with mechanical lifting to overcome include seed harvest, seedling mechanisms. germination and vigour, and genetic vari- • Another practical need for mechanization ability of seed-derived populations. is for sowing cover crops of small-seeded • Soil fertility. Technically, the solution to species within cassava plantations. Farmers low-soil fertility is straightforward – nutri- may be enthusiastic about the benefits ents added at recommended levels. The of cover crops but are reluctant to adopt first step to efficient fertility management the practice if seeding management is too is farm-level soil testing to define nutrient difficult. needs. Few cassava farmers have ready • Quality of planting material and novel access to this service and can understand- propagation systems. Planting material, in ably be reluctant to add fertilizer when the the form of stem pieces, can be improved soil nutrient status is unknown. Access through either management or genetics. to soil analyses on a regular basis must On the management side, the critical be the foundation of economic decisions on research entry points should be in estab- fertilizer use. In some countries this service lishing criteria for culture of mother plants is offered by fertilizer-supply companies, (e.g. seed banks), storage conditions and but recommendations may be considered treatments to enhance viability vigour. suspect because of obvious interests in

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promoting sales. Partnerships between of environmentally sound pest control private companies and extension services methods. could go a long way towards providing • There are already some good examples of timely and credible soil analyses for cassava managed, enhanced biocontrol systems in growers. the Americas, and others in Africa. Benefits • Fertilizer is often the most cost-effective to Africa from controlling mealybugs and way to add required nutrients, but it is cassava green mites with predators and not the only way. Farmers in traditional parasites introduced from the Americas systems have generally succeeded in have already come to billions of dollars. achieving stable, albeit low, yield levels There are still untapped biocontrol by various management systems. Fallow resources that will be exploited in the future periods, crop rotation, intercropping, green for the benefit of all cassava-growing manures and nutrient-efficient cultivars regions. contribute to soil fertility. Some of these • The cassava hornworm is a migratory pest methods may not meet the needs of with highly unpredictable movements from high productivity agriculture to support one season to the next. The larvae are vora- society’s growing demands adequately, cious feeders and can completely defoliate a but understanding the principles behind plantation in a matter of days. The young the traditional systems is a prerequisite to larvae are susceptible to a potent, naturally rational change. occurring baculovirus, easily prepared • Mycorrhizae, soil-borne fungi associated from infected late-instar larvae and stored with some plant roots, play a major role in dry or frozen. By artificial application of this P uptake in cassava. These fungi are pres- virus, hornworm populations can be con- ent in virtually all cassava plantations. In trolled effectively with no risk to humans the absence of these associations, cassava or the environment. The techniques are will, in fact, produce reasonably only if commonly used in southern Brazil. Early fertilized at very high rates of P. There are work on whiteflies and burrowing bugs is known variations in the efficiency of differ- promising. We may expect that continued ent strains, but preliminary work in this intensification of cassava systems will place area has been constrained by difficulties of further pressures on the balance between controlled multiplication and inoculation cassava pests and their natural enemies. of these organisms. While a considerable • CIAT, IITA and national programmes in amount of basic research has been done, as Latin America and Africa are now involved well as some attempts to move technology in developing model systems for integrated to the practical field level applications, the pest management that span the range work has not received the long-term from farmer input into research design to support needed to realize farm-level socio- advanced technology for biotype identifica- economic impact. tion of natural enemies by genetic finger- • Pest management. As cassava production printing. These programmes will make practices gradually move ever farther from extensive use of the biological resources of the equilibrium between an ancient crop the Latin American cassava systems. and its pest environment, some of the con- • Weed control. Latin America does not have trol agents that were once broadly effective the same tradition as much of Asia for in traditional systems now need to be man- intensive input to cropping systems that aged carefully. It is critical that they not be keep weeds under very close control. destroyed by unwise use of pesticides that Weeding consumes a major part of labour affect non-target species. Beyond this, the inputs in cassava production and is often population levels and their biotype makeup inadequate. Some of the options are often need to be managed artificially for improved mechanical control, herbicides, full effectiveness. Continuing the pursuit of cultivars with rapid canopy development basic and applied knowledge of these sys- or intercropping systems to achieve tems will be critical to timely deployment rapid shading and competition. In general

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farmers have already made optimum use of programmes, no other country has a multi- intra- or interspecific canopy characteris- disciplinary research team with national tics for weed control. Breeders could easily responsibility. One of the highest priorities for produce very vigorous cultivars that would a global cassava development strategy needs to make an even greater contribution to con- be to reverse this decline. This does not mean trolling weeds; however, these gains would investment to re-create capacity in the same probably not come without an offsetting model of previous decades. sacrifice to production potential. The better Support for cassava R&D has historically option is to focus cropping system and been almost exclusively in the public domain. varietal traits on more productivity- Some new models for private investment are oriented alternatives and control weeds by beginning to emerge, and other alternative other means. possibilities for strengthening the cassava sector • In many cropping systems herbicides are need to be considered. Neither the public nor becoming the most economical means of the private sector alone will be able to come up controlling weeds, health and ecological with the resources for sustaining an adequate concerns notwithstanding. Some broad- long-term R&D effort. Creative and practical spectrum, pre-emergent herbicides [e.g. public/private partnerships will be the key opera- metolachlor (Dual) and diuron (Karmex)] tional and funding mode for the coming years. can be used effectively on cassava. Herbi- Cassava farmers are generally all too aware of cide development has been largely in the the limitations of past public-supported research. private sector and very much concentrated Budgets are stretched thin, and it is nearly on crops with potential for high sales impossible for many institutions to address volumes. Cassava has not been a focus of more than a few high-priority areas. chemical company research for the simple One of the principal emerging forms of reason of low market share. This will change research support is from the processing/market- only gradually, but eventually more cassava- ing sector. In the past cassava reached a level oriented herbicides will reach the market. of commercialization to attract private research • A medium-term possibility is to incorporate investment in a few areas, such as southern herbicide-resistance genes into the cassava Brazil (alcohol, starch) and Venezuela (starch). genome as is already being done commerci- In Colombia there are now several models based ally with several species, most notably maize on ‘processing poles’, where entrepreneurs and and soybean. For example, glyphosate- public research come together to design and resistant cassava could be sprayed post- implement integrated production and processing emergence with no damage to the crop, systems for animal feed and starch. greatly reducing labour inputs. This tech- Commercialization will attract private nology will best be developed in partner- investments only when there are reasonable ships between the public and private sector. expectations of short- to medium-term profit. The legal issues of patent rights and farmer- Cultivars, often the first production component produced seed will need to be debated for private research, are too easily multiplied on jointly by scientists, producers and policy- farm for a seed company to profit from sales. makers. The risk and complexity may make Agrochemicals are a lucrative business in many chemical/biotechnology company invest- crops. Cassava could attract chemical company ment unattractive unless a form of public interest as a research area, but the merits of institution support can be integrated into this interest from a producer viewpoint could be the commercialization process. questioned. Public institutions would be chal- lenged to provide unbiased information about ecologically and economically sound pest man- Institutional support agement alternatives to balance the potential The declining cassava R&D capacity within promotionofchemicalusebyprivatecompanies. national and international programmes in Latin The private sector will slowly but increas- America is alarming. While Brazil and Cuba ingly invest in cassava research, but it will not continue to support comprehensive research be motivated to cover all the research areas of

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cassava relevant to meeting development goals. in plastic bags. The techniques have been sub- Universities and research centres must be sup- jected to several semi-commercial pilot studies ported in their responsibilities for training and and launched in a few commercial markets technology development that contribute to each by private entrepreneurs. In higher income country’s broad goals for its citizens. neighbourhoods, frozen cassava is popular, but costs are still prohibitive for poorer consumers. The Caribbean and parts of Latin America Demand-side interventions are near-neighbours to one of the fastest growing Latin populations in the world – in the USA. Processing is at the interface between supply- Many of these residents have retained some of and demand-side interventions. It is foremost a their tropical dietary customs including a taste means of converting a highly perishable and for cassava. This is a specialized and lucrative bulky product into ones that are easily stored market. Fresh roots for export are commonly and transported. Beyond these basic functions, coated with a thin film of paraffin to prevent dete- processing adds value, from which the processor rioration for up to a few weeks. Costa Rica has earns income and consumers obtain a more established a near monopoly on this market, but desirable product. Processes that generate its potential growth should allow a broadened income directly or indirectly for the producer participation in the benefits. This commerce is can make a significant contribution to develop- driven almost wholly by private enterprise and ment objectives. would be a good opportunity to promote private/ The Americas are home to many of the inno- public complementary R&D. vations that transform cassava from a fresh root to a multi-use processed product. While there Flour is considerable diversity across these processes, tradition probably has had a significant role in Brazil, with its large market share of processed limiting the exploration of new uses in any given cassava, has been the Latin American leader locality. Most of the current processed forms of in research on processing. The largest volume cassava are practically unchanged from those is converted to farinha, consumed especially in used hundreds or thousands of years ago. In both the northeast. There is a wide range of levels of Asia and Africa many of these forms were sophistication for farinha processing – from the adopted, but they also added many new pro- primitive family units to large mechanized facto- cesses. The global experience clearly shows the ries – but by far the most is processed in small high potential for expanding the product range units. Except for progressive small improve- for cassava. Success in doing so entails parallel ments in processing, this traditional product in development of processing and markets. Inter- its current form, with its low-income elasticity, ventions in process development are needed both does not have a high potential to impact demand to improve efficiency and quality of current pro- for cassava. The private sector will continue to cesses and to develop new products with high develop and apply innovations to this industry. market potential. Many technologies are specific The public sector may play a role in adapting to the process leading to a given end product; and transferring technologies from larger others have broader application. industries to small rural industries in order to encourage their competitive status. Adding further value by modifications to processing to The fresh market create a greater diversity of flour-based products The patterns of consumption of fresh roots are is also possible. changing, and this warrants a new look at how A potentially more dynamic market is for this product is managed. The main challenge is refined flour for partial substitution of wheat to conserve roots economically while conform- in bakery products. This is not a new product ing to the needs of marketing in urban environ- but has been mainly an artisanal enterprise. To ments. CIAT developed inexpensive techniques develop this market at significant volumes, cas- for prolonging the shelf-life of fresh roots by sava flour must be of consistently high quality means of a preservative treatment and storage and at a lower price than the product it replaces.

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38 G. Henry and C. Hershey

Consistency of quality is a challenge, given the shut down for 4.5 months of the year when roots inherent nature of cassava cultivation. Wheat are unavailable); (ii) operational capital; (iii) is cultivated in highly managed systems and is markets; and (iv) technology and quality. Some harvested at low moisture content. Cassava roots of the large industries that use starch are invest- are exposed to highly variable environments, are ing in the starch production sector to solve these in contact with high microbiological populations problems. in the soil and have a high water content until Fermented starch is a more complex pro- processed. Cassava flour contains residual cess, and the end users normally require some cyanogenic compounds, whose level varies quite specific traits. Most is used in baking, where depending on inherent levels and processing consistent flavour and texture are fundamental technologies. Currently few official standards to meeting consumer demand. Efficiency of exist for levels acceptable in flour for human starch extraction may be important but is consumption. These will need to evolve with the secondary to producing a consistent, quality product (Jones et al., 1996). Early indications product. Three critical components impinge on from Peru, Ecuador and Colombia are positive in this quality: (i) fresh root characteristics; (ii) terms of appropriate technology development, quality of the water used in starch extraction; market demand and product quality. and (iii) microbial environment. Any one of these canbedifficulttocontrolintheartisanalfactories wheremostsourstarchisproduced.Itisprobably Starch the unique combination of all these variables Starch is a growing commodity in Latin America that give the specific traits to the starch from but still absorbs only a very small part of total any given area. This location-specificity of starch production. In 1992 the region produced only characteristics is in a sense a value-added 4% of the world’s starch: 330,000 t from trait that can command a market premium. cassava and 1 million t from maize. Brazil Consumers can readily identify quality differ- produces about two-thirds of the region’s ences in the starch from different regions. More cassava starch, of which about 68% is used as research needs to be directed at identifying native starch, 28% as modified starch (10% as the factors that impinge on product quality, sour starch) and 3% as tapioca (Cereda et al., finding means to stabilize these variables and to 1996). capitalize further on region-specific quality traits Most starch is processed in small- and with a market premium. These highly location- medium-sized, community-level factories in and process-specific traits may allow small-scale labour-intensive techniques. Large, modern producers and processors to compete with larger factories are found mainly in southern Brazil, factories. with a few in Colombia, Paraguay and Vene- Cassava residue and waste water from zuela. There is a wide range of opportunities starch extraction are becoming increasing envi- that should be pursued in starch processing. The ronmental concerns. Small factories typically main considerations are water quality and use, have small enough quantities of waste that it can efficiency of extraction, consistency of quality be used as backyard animal feed and the waste and waste management. water discharged without major environmental Cereda et al. (1996) cite the difficulties of impact. This is not to say waste management is competing with maize starch, whose prices are optimal or that the effects are not damaging; but stable and quality is high and consistent. Native there is usually little incentive for the private starch from maize and cassava are commercial- sector to invest in pollution-reducing strategies, ized in virtually the same markets: foodstuffs except where some payoff from recycling or (cheese breads, cookies, ice cream, chocolate, from by-product utilization is feasible. The public processed meats), paper and cardboard, textiles, sector institutions need to take the lead role in pharmaceutical products, glues and adhesives, educating processors about environmental deg- and modified starches. Major constraints of radation, working with governments to define the industry are: (i) consistent supplies of raw reasonable regulations and finding economically materials (Brazilian cassava starch factories viable alternatives.

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Animal feed Eguez, C. (1996) Cassava flour and starch in Ecuador: its commercialisation and use. In: Dufour, D., Use of cassava in balanced rations is a well- O’Brien, G.M. and Best, R. (eds) Cassava Flour developed science as a result of an extensive and Starch: Progress in Research and Development. research background and long-term use in some CIAT/CIRAD, Cali, Colombia. countries; however, it is still a nascent industry FAO (1997) Workshop on Global Cassava Strategy, in the Americas. There is localized experience IFAD, Rome 10 -11 June. Draft working notes on in chipping and drying for this industry in selected chapters of the world cassava economy: Colombia and Brazil, but not elsewhere. The recent trends and medium term outlook. Basic tools and techniques are extremely simple in Foodstuffs Service (ESCB) of the Commodities and Trade Division, Rome. environments that allow sun drying – basically FAO.FAOSTATdatabase,variousyears,www.fao.org/ a chipper and a cement patio for sun drying. As waicent/faoinfo/economic/giews/ this market develops and expands throughout Gazeta Mercantil (1998) Novidades na indústria de the Americas, local adaptation of this process alimentos.AnoLXXVII,no.21.250,12January. will need to be developed. In some environments Gottret,V.,Ostertag,C.,Alonso,L.andLaing,D.(1997) this will involve artificial drying or combined Estudio de Mercado de los Diferentos Usos de la Yuca artificial and sun drying. There are a wide range en Colombia. CIAT in collaboration with CCI, Cali, of chipping machines on the market, driven by Colombia. pedal power, electric motor or gasoline/diesel Henry, G. (1996) Etudes de marchés et débouchés pour engine. The fine-tuning process for each region les nouveaux produits dérivés du manioc. In: Griffon, D. and Zakhia, N. (eds) Valorisation des can best be a private–public joint venture. While Produits, Sous-produits et Déchets de la Petite et the technology exists for drying under nearly Moyenne Industrie de Transformation du Manioc en any conditions, the focus needs to be on eco- Amerique Latine (Rapport Scientifique Final, CEE nomic viability to produce a commodity that will STD3). CIRAD, Montpellier, pp. 284–332. compete in very tight markets with the coarse Henry, G. (1999) A integração do Brasil nos mercados grains. internacionais. Invited paper presented at the X This market depends on up-to-the-minute CongresoBrasileirodeMandioca,11–16October, price and supply information to optimize pur- Manaus-AM, Brazil. chasing for lowest cost rations. The information Henry, G. and Best, R. (1994) Impact of integrated deficiencies in the cassava sector are a serious cassava projects among small-scale farmers in selected Latin American countries. In: Ofori, F. detriment to competitiveness. Upgrading this and Hahn, S.K. (eds) Proceedings of the 9th capacity needs to be part of development Meeting of the International Society for Tropical planning. Root Crops, 20–26 October. Accra, Ghana, pp. 304–310. Henry, G. and Chuzel, G. (1997) Internal CIRAD trip report of Paraguay, March 1997, CIRAD, References Montpellier, France. Henry, G. and Gottret, V. (1996) Global Cassava Trends. Balcazar, V.A. (1997) Desarrollos del cultivo de la Reassessing the Crop’s Future. CIAT Working Doc. yuca en Colombia. Paper presented at the Global No. 157. CIAT, Cali, Colombia (also published in Cassava Development Strategy Progress Review Thai). Workshop, 10–11 June, Working Doc. 5, IFAD, Henry, G. and Westby, A. (2000) Global cassava Rome. starch markets: Current situation and outlook. Buitrago, J. (1994) La Yuca en la Alimentacion Animal. In: Howeler, R.H., Oates, C.G. and O’Brien, G.M. CIAT, Cali, Colombia. (eds) Proceedings of the International Symposium CERAT (1997) Unpublished information from on Cassava, Starch and Starch Derivatives, meetings with industry representatives. UNESP 7–12 November, Nanning, Guangxi, China, CERAT, Botucatu-SP, Brazil. pp. 79–100. Cereda, M.P., Takitane, I.C., Chuzel, G. and Vilpoux, O. Henry, G., Westby, A. and Collinson, C. (1998) Study of (1996) Starch potential in Brazil. In: Dufour, D., Global Cassava products and markets, phase 1. O’Brien, G.M. and Best, R. (eds) Cassava Flour and Report of a consultancy, FAO-ERS, Rome. Starch: Progress in Research and Development. Hershey, C., Henry, G., Best, R. and Iglesias, C. (1997) CIRAD/CIAT, Cali, Colombia, pp. 19–24. Cassava in Latin America and the Caribbean:

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resources for global development. Regional O’Brien, G. and Best, R. (eds) Cassava Flour and Review report, IFAD, Rome. Starch: Progress in Research and Development. IBGE (1992) Brazilian statistical data sets, by state. CIAT-CIRAD, Cali, Colombia, pp. 324–332. Sao Paulo, Brazil. Pires de Matos, A., Eloy Canto, A.M.M., Ospina P., IPGRI (1994) International Network for Cassava da Silva Souza, J. and Fukuda, W.M.G. (1997) Genetic Resources. Report of the First Meeting Farmer participatory research: the turning point of the International Network of Cassava Genetic for the cassava development in Northeast Brazil. Resources, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 18–23 August, Paper presented at Global Cassava Development 1992. International Crop Network Series No. 10. Strategy. Progress Review Workshop. Working International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Doc. 5, IFAD, Rome, 10–11 June. (IPGRI), Rome, Italy. PROAMYL (1996) Unpublished data. CIRAD-AMIS, Jones, D.M., Trim, D.S. and Wheatley, C.C. (1996) Montpellier, France. Improving processing technologies for high- Rosegrant, M.W. and Gerpacio, R.V. (1997) Roots quality cassava flour. In: Dufour, D., O’Brien, and tubers in the 21st century: their role G.M. and Best, R. (eds) Cassava Flour and Starch: and importance in the global food market. Progress in Research and Development. CIRAD/ IFPRI Discussion Document, IFPRI, Washington, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, pp. 276–288. DC. Ospina, B., Poats, S. and Henry, G. (1996) Integrated Vilpoux, O. (1998) O mercado de amido, Fax Jornal cassava research and development projects in No. 71, 20 January, UNESP-CERAT, Botucatu, Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil. In: Dufour, D., Brazil, pp. 1–2.

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