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The Role of Pyrolysis and Gasification in a Carbon Negative Economy

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The Role of Pyrolysis and Gasification in a Carbon Negative Economy processes Review The Role of Pyrolysis and Gasification in a Carbon Negative Economy Robert C. Brown Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA; [email protected] Abstract: The International Panel on Climate Change and the 2015 Climate Summit in Paris have recommended that efforts to reduce carbon emissions be coupled with carbon removal from the atmosphere. Carbon negative energy combines net carbon removal with the production of energy products or other revenue-generating products beyond sequestered carbon. Even though both biochemical and thermochemical approaches to carbon negative energy can be envisioned, this paper considers the prospects for the latter including pyrolysis and gasification. The fundamentals of these two processes are described to better understand how they would be integrated with carbon removal. Characteristics of pyrolysis and gasification are related to the kinds of sequestration agents they would produce, the scale of their deployment, the fraction of biomass carbon that could ultimately sequestered, the challenges of effectively sequestering these different forms of carbon and the economics of thermochemical carbon negative energy. Keywords: carbon removal; carbon negative energy; pyrolysis; gasification; biomass; biochar 1. Introduction Despite policymakers’ efforts to regulate emissions of greenhouse gases, the concen- Citation: Brown, R.C. The Role tration of carbon dioxide in in the atmosphere continues to rise. In 2014, the International of Pyrolysis and Gasification in a Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recommended that efforts to reduce carbon emissions Carbon Negative Economy. Processes be coupled with carbon removal from the atmosphere [1]. Similarly, the 2015 Climate 2021, 9, 882. https://doi.org/ Summit in Paris concluded that nations should strive for a balance between anthropogenic 10.3390/pr9050882 emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases [2]. Carbon emissions from the transportation, industrial and residential sectors can be Academic Editor: Albert Ratner substantially addressed through energy conservation and efficiency measures and switching to renewable energy. Carbon emissions from agriculture can be addressed through adoption Received: 28 April 2021 of practices that reduce emissions of methane (CH ), nitrous oxide (N O) and carbon Accepted: 11 May 2021 4 2 Published: 18 May 2021 dioxide (CO2)[3]. Technologies for carbon reduction are well established and commercially available but their implementation has been slowed by unfavorable economics compared to Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the status quo. with regard to jurisdictional claims in In contrast, carbon removal technologies are in their infancy and face even more daunt- published maps and institutional affil- ing economic challenges than carbon reduction [4]. If carbon dioxide at a concentration of iations. 410 ppm is to be removed from the atmosphere (referred to as direct carbon removal or DCR), the energy requirement is substantial. To minimize the energy required to remove CO2 from air, Lackner proposed to “only skim the [air] stream for the highest available concentration of CO2”[5]. Carbon removal can be generally categorized as biological or engineered approaches [4,6]. Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. An appealing example of the former is shellfish aquaculture, which sequesters 0.22–0.44 tons This article is an open access article of CO2 as calcium carbonate in shells per ton of harvested shell fish [7]. Global mollusk distributed under the terms and harvest in 2014 was 16.1 million tons, thus sequestering 1–2 million tons of carbon annually. conditions of the Creative Commons A prominent example of an engineering approach are the use of giant fans to move air past Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// streams of aqueous sorbents to capture and concentrate CO2 for geological storage [8]. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ The shellfish example has two attractive features. First, it sequesters carbon as calcium 4.0/). carbonate, a solid that can be easily and safely stored for millions of years (as the White Processes 2021, 9, 882. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050882 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 move air past streams of aqueous sorbents to capture and concentrate CO2 for geological storage [8]. The shellfish example has two attractive features. First, it sequesters carbon as cal- cium carbonate, a solid that can be easily and safely stored for millions of years (as the Processes 2021 9 , , 882 White Cliffs of Dover in England testify). Second, seafood is a coproduct of2 ofthe 17 process, making it a potentially profitable enterprise even in the face of relatively modest prices for the sequestered carbon. In contrast, the only product from direct carbon capture pow- Cliffs of Dover in England testify). Second, seafood is a coproduct of the process, making ered by wind or solar energy is a concentrated stream of gaseous CO2, which is more dif- it a potentially profitable enterprise even in the face of relatively modest prices for the ficult to securely and safely store than a solid carbonaceous product. Furthermore, the full sequestered carbon. In contrast, the only product from direct carbon capture powered by burden of the enterprise’s profitability is the price society is willing to pay for sequestered wind or solar energy is a concentrated stream of gaseous CO2, which is more difficult to securelycarbon. and The safely cost of store this than DCR a solidprocess carbonaceous is highly uncertain product. Furthermore, with estimates the fullranging burden from $200- of$600 the enterprise’sper metric ton profitability carbon dioxide is the price ($/MT society CO is2) willing[9–11] towhile pay formarkets sequestered for carbon carbon. abatement Theare costwell of less this than DCR $100/MT process is CO highly2. uncertain with estimates ranging from $200–$600 per metricThe toncontrast carbon between dioxide ($/MTthese tw COo2 examples)[9–11] while illustrates markets the for at carbontractiveness abatement of arecarbon neg- wellative less energy, than $100/MT a system CO that2. combines net carbon removal with the production of energy productsThe contrast or other between revenue-gene these tworating examples products illustrates beyond the attractiveness sequestered of carbon, carbon as neg- illustrated ativein Figure energy, 1. aThe system prospect that combines of not only net carbonreduci removalng but reversing with the production the flow of of carbon energy between products or other revenue-generating products beyond sequestered carbon, as illustrated the lithosphere and the atmosphere might appear to violate the Second Law of Thermo- in Figure1. The prospect of not only reducing but reversing the flow of carbon between the lithospheredynamics. and However, the atmosphere by powering might appear the process to violate with the solar Second or Lawother of forms Thermodynam- of renewable en- ics.ergy However, the process by powering is perfectly the processfeasible. with If widely solar or adopted other forms by society, of renewable carbon energy negative the energy processwould isresult perfectly in a feasible. carbon Ifnegative widely adopted economy by society,in which carbon economic negative activity energy removed would rather resultthan inadded a carbon CO negative2 to the economy atmosphere. in which It should economic be activity noted removed that natural rather ecosystems than added are fre- COquently2 to the carbon atmosphere. negative It should energy be notedsystems that such natural as ecosystems marshlands are building frequently soil carbon carbon and negativecoral reefs energy building systems limestone such as marshlands formations. building soil carbon and coral reefs building limestone formations. CO2 Renewable Energy Products Carbon FigureFigure 1. 1.Carbon Carbon negative negative energy energy reverses reverses the flow the offlow carbon of carbon between between lithosphere lithosphere and atmosphere and atmosphere inin production production of of energy energy for society,for societ poweredy, powered by renewable by renewable energy. energy. Notably,Notably, natural natural ecosystems ecosystems store carbonstore carbon as relatively as relatively stable solids stable with solids the prominent with the promi- exceptionsnent exceptions of methane of methane clathrates clathrates and carbon and dioxide carbon hydrates, dioxide whichhydrates, are stablewhich only are stable at only theat the low low temperatures temperatures and high and pressures high pressures found in fo deepund oceanin deep trenches ocean or trenches artic environ- or artic envi- ments [12]. Ideally, human-constructed carbon negative energy systems would sequester ronments [12]. Ideally, human-constructed carbon negative energy systems would se- carbon as recalcitrant solids. However, many proposed systems would sequester carbon quester carbon as recalcitrant solids. However, many proposed systems would sequester as gaseous CO2 in depleted gas and oil wells, saline aquifers or deep ocean water, as subsequentlycarbon as gaseous discussed. CO2 in depleted gas and oil wells, saline aquifers or deep ocean water, as subsequentlyBoth biochemical discussed. and thermochemical processes could be combined with carbon removalBoth to achievebiochemical carbon and negative thermochemical energy. A prominent processes examplecould be of combined the former with is the carbon re- geologicalmoval
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