DIPLOMARBEIT / DIPLOMA THESIS Titel der Diplomarbeit / Title of the Diploma Thesis “Forsaken, subjected, traumatised: Forms of female suffering in selected Somali novels” verfasst von / submitted by Anne-Sophie Zechmeister, BA angestrebter akademischer Grad / in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Magistra der Philosophie (Mag. phil.) Wien, / Vienna, 2016 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt / A 190 333 344 degree programme code as it appears on the student record sheet: Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt / Lehramtsstudium UF Deutsch UF Englisch degree programme as it appears on the student record sheet: Betreut von / Supervisor: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Ewald Mengel Acknowledgements During the writing process of this thesis, I was lucky to receive support from a number of people. First of all, I would like to utter my appreciation to my family. I want to thank my parents, Manuela Türk and Josef Zechmeister, as well as my grandmother, Franziska Bauer, without whose encouragement and financial support I would have never managed to complete this thesis. I truly appreciate what you have done for me. I would also like to thank my boyfriend Michael Obermann for providing understanding and motivation throughout the whole writing process. Secondly, I would like to thank my university colleagues Olivia Brunner and Anna Pacher, with whom I spent a vast amount of time in the library. Exchanging thoughts and talking about both progress and difficulties does not only bring relief, but can broaden one’s mind. Finally, I especially would like to express my gratitude to Univ.-Prof. Dr. Ewald Mengel for sparking my interest in Somali literature with his seminar on contemporary African Anglophone novels and for his professional guidance and continual support in writing my thesis. Abbreviations Am: Aman: The Story of a Somali Girl BitbR: Born in the big Rains FaCR: From a Crooked Rib TOolS: The Orchard of lost Souls Table of contents 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 2 Theoretical background: Living in a collapsed state ...................................... 3 2.1 Historical and political events: Understanding a nation’s struggle ............... 3 2.2 Gender relations in Somalia ........................................................................ 7 2.2.1 Marriage in Somali society ................................................................ 8 2.2.2 Divisions of labour ............................................................................. 9 2.3 Trauma in the context of Somalia ...............................................................12 2.3.1 The notion of trauma ........................................................................12 2.3.2 Posttraumatic stress disorder ...........................................................13 2.3.3 Trauma-resultant emotions ..............................................................17 2.3.4 Gender-based trauma ......................................................................19 3 Representation of Somali women’s suffering in literature ............................21 3.1 The low value of women in From a crooked rib and Born in the big rains ..23 3.1.1 Marriage as a necessity in a patriarchal society ...............................23 3.1.2 Women as “a man’s property for sale” (FaCR 150) ..........................27 3.1.3 Relocating a girl like an object ..........................................................31 3.2 FGM in Aman and Born in the big rains ......................................................35 3.2.1 Types and procedures of FGM .........................................................35 3.2.2 Performance and reactions of FGM .................................................37 3.2.3 Emotional and physical consequences of FGM ...............................42 3.3 Rape and abuse in Aman and From a crooked rib .....................................50 3.3.1 Sexual violence in Somalia ..............................................................50 3.3.2 Marital abuse and rape .....................................................................52 3.3.3 Repeated sexual abuse and rape ....................................................58 3.3.4 Emotional consequences of rape .....................................................60 3.4 Forlornness and violence in The orchard of lost souls ................................65 3.4.1 Disruption of a girl’s world ................................................................65 3.4.2 The loss of beloved people ..............................................................70 3.4.3 The cycle of violence ........................................................................74 4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................80 5 Bibliography ......................................................................................................82 5.1 Primary sources ..........................................................................................82 5.2 Secondary sources .....................................................................................82 5.3 Online sources ............................................................................................85 6 Appendix ............................................................................................................87 6.1 German abstract .........................................................................................87 Introduction 1 1 Introduction Somalia is a country that is shaped by “decades of one of the world’s most complex and protracted conflicts” (UNDP Somalia Human Development Report xvii). Civil war and the subsequent atrocities left enormous traces in a state that is dominated by contrasts and in need of a functioning unified government. The country’s lawlessness as a consequence of on-going civil war additionally negatively influenced the progress of women’s rights due to severe shortcomings regarding a guarantee of basic human rights (Noor Mohammed 458). Resulting from Somalia’s strict patriarchy, “[y]oung women end up greatly disadvantaged in all spheres of life, a reality that hinders their rights and development, and perpetuates intergenerational cycles of gender inequality and the feminization of poverty” (UNDP Somalia Human Development Report xviii). Especially the frequent application of customary law strongly contributes to the violation of women’s rights as various forms of mistreatments within the domestic sphere are not meant to reach the public. Both males and females are used to distinct gender roles and male supremacy, wherefore women are not only in an inferior position regarding labour and within marriages, but also tend to consider themselves as mentally inferior compared to their male counterparts. Hence, gender discrimination frequently results in a shortage of self-confidence which in turn further enhances the dominance of men as females are accustomed to subjugation and frequently do not consider to advocate for their rights. Publishing stories about Somali women’s traumatic experiences in a patriarchal country serves those who are unheard and had to endure severe suffering, as their narratives might be “perceived by an empathic listener” (Van der Merwe and Gobodo- Madikizela 27). Since the selected novels do not represent an individual’s case but rather apply to the experiences of numerous Somali females, concerned persons might feel less forlorn while readers hopefully develop an understanding and interest in distinct cultures and the struggles of others. In general, it can be assumed that novels result in an emotional response on the side of the reader while more objective texts such as newspaper articles tend to be forgotten due the information flood consumers are regularly confronted with (Mann 343). In the selected Somali novels – Aman (Barnes, Virginia Lee), Born in the big rains (Korn, Fadumo), From a crooked rib (Farah, Nuruddin), and The orchard of lost souls Introduction 2 (Mohamed, Nadifa) – such traumatic experiences and their effects on women are demonstrated. Besides oppression and subjugation, the majority of female Somalis are subjected to female genital mutilation (FGM), a rather discriminating and brutal practice that harms women both physically as well as psychically. FGM still remains a tradition and is commonly used as it is believed to enhance a girl’s purity and protect her virginity which subsequently positively influences her value. This in turn is important for her family and male relatives who often decide on her prospective husband. However, so-called arranged marriages not only tend to be non-consensual, they also contribute to a higher percentage of marital abuse and rape, as a married woman is obliged to satisfy her husband’s needs. In addition to such forms of gender based-violence, Somali women also struggle from forlornness as well as the loss of beloved people due to critical development’s in the country. This thesis shows the above mentioned aspects of female Somali’s suffering and analyses the physical as well as emotional consequences of traumatic experiences on the respective persons. After a theoretical background on historical and political events in Somalia that strongly influenced Somali society and an introductory part on trauma and its resultant emotions, women’s suffering in the selected novels is discussed. The focus is on physical as well as emotional harm caused to women while trying to find answers