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Individuals, Communities, and Peacemaking in the Íslendingasögur

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Individuals, Communities, and Peacemaking in the Íslendingasögur (Not) Everything Ends in Tears: Individuals, Communities, and Peacemaking in the Íslendingasögur by Kyle Hughes, B.A., M.Phil PhD Diss. School of English Trinity College Dublin Supervisor: Dr. Helen Conrad O'Briain Submitted to Trinity College Dublin, the University of Dublin March 2017 Declaration I declare that this thesis has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at this or any other university and it is entirely my own work. I agree to deposit this thesis in the University’s open access institutional repository or allow the Library to do so on my behalf, subject to Irish Copyright Legislation and Trinity College Library conditions of use and acknowledgement. Name_____________________________________________ Date_____________________________________________ i Summary The íslendingasögur, or Icelandic family sagas, represent a deeply introspective cultural endeavour, the exploration of a nation of strong-willed, independent, and occasionally destructive men and women as they attempted to navigate their complex society in the face of uncertainty and hardship. In a society initially devoid of central authority, the Commonwealth's ability to not only survive, but adapt over nearly four centuries, fascinated the sagamen and their audiences as much as it fascinates scholars and readers today. Focused on feud, its utility in preserving overall order balanced against its destructive potential, the íslendingasögur raise and explore difficult questions regarding the relationship between individual and community, and of power and compromise. This study begins by considering the realities of law and arbitration within the independent Commonwealth, in the context of the intense competitive pressure among goðar and large farmers both during the Commonwealth period and in the early days of Norwegian rule. The portrayal of such socio-economic factors in the íslendingasögur reflects the saga writers' wider interest with questions of power, and of conflict between individual freedom and communal good in a society characterised by economic and ecological stress as Iceland's independence waned. Central to the formulation of this conflict is the concept of ójafnaðr; its threatening potential for destabilisation of the community is argued to be at the heart of the most destructive examples of saga-feud. Building upon this, Chapter Two considers the ójafnaðarmaðr Þorbjǫrn Þjóðreksson's tyrannical relationship to his followers and to the lǫg in Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings. Individual heroism, while praiseworthy, is contrasted with the need for broader, community-based support in controlling the oppressive tendencies of the ii ójafnaðarmaðr. The protagonists, comprised of the typically vulnerable members of society, are examined as representatives of the communal good in a society in which resources are scarce and competition for honour high. This chapter draws out some of the implications of ójafnaðr and its potential to transgress the boundaries of personal feud to affect the welfare of the district and all those who, in other circumstances, would look for support to their chieftains. Chapter Three turns to Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa to elucidate the complex sources of ójafnaðr as it potentially exists in every ambitious Icelander's actions, even in otherwise noble figures like the promising Bjǫrn. In the feud of the skalds, whose control of language and poetry enables them to further resist attempts to control their behaviour, this chapter also explores and interrogates ideas of royal power, the relationship of language and power, and roles of both community (in Iceland) and king (in Norway) as origins of law and peace. Lasting peace, it is argued, can only be achieved by a community itself invested in the peacemaking process. Chapter Four brings questions of ójafnaðr, compromise, and nonviolent resolution to a final conclusion in the celebrated and catastrophic feuds of Njáls saga. By chronicling the friendship and ambitions of the famous friends Njáll and Gunnarr, the sagaman of Njála forces his readers to engage with the question of what truly makes a good man, and the fine line between a sympathetic hero and a dangerous ójafnaðarmaðr. This chapter traces the fortunes and falls of the initially well-intentioned Njáll and Gunnarr, connecting their actions to the later fire and battle at the Alþing, exposing the delicate balance of power and peace as the lǫg is fractured and, ultimately and perhaps in spite of all odds, repaired peacefully. iii Acknowledgements It is often customary in the íslendingasögur to begin by relating individuals to families, and this lesson is equally important here. Without the unstinting support of my parents Debi and Joe, none of this would have been possible, and I am deeply indebted to them for everything they have done. Particular thanks are also due to my brother Adam and sister-in-law Jessy, who played a large role in keeping me sane towards the end of this endeavour. I am deeply grateful for the guidance of Dr Helen Conrad O'Briain in supervising me, and also to the rest of the faculty and staff in the School of English who have helped me in one way or another. The list is regrettably incomplete, but I must acknowledge the likes of Dr Alice Jorgensen, Dr Brendan O'Connell, and Dr Margaret Robson among others for their insight and advice, and to Diane Sadler for her seemingly-inexhaustible patience and helpfulness. There are many friends and peers who should be thanked for many reasons, but to begin with I would like to thank Sheila Armstrong, Dr Gerard Hynes, and Dr Erin Sebo. In addition to being constant sources of support, advice, and general banter, their final heroic endeavour to proofread various parts of my thesis is worthy of a poem in its own right. I also want to go some way towards thanking Gráinne Clear for her patience in listening to me think aloud time and again, and her belief in me that never wavered, even when I was at my most stressed. Likewise Killian MacCárthaigh, who habitually refused to accept any moments of self-doubt or self-deprecation, provided necessary moments of distraction, and just generally kept me grounded. I doubt I will ever be iv able to adequately express my gratitude, but hopefully this goes some way towards that. Equally important are the following friends who, though I do not have the space to thank in detail, played equally vital roles in supporting me as I brought this together: Alan Tuffery, Gina Hurley, Julie LeBlanc, Rebecca Merkelbach, Jennifer Harwood-Smith, Jonny Johnston, Méabh Hayes, Bram Cleaver, Diana La Femina, Caoimhe O'Gorman, Owen McLaughlin, Neil Goodman, Adam Johnson, Darren Ó hAilín, Ian Grant, and Fionnán Howard to name a few. Anyone would be lucky to have a band of such incredible supporters to turn to. Nú er þar til máls at taka… v Table of Contents Declaration i Summary ii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents vi Abbreviations and Conventions viii Chapter One: One Nation, Under Stress 1 The Reality of Law and Arbitration 9 Economic and Social Impetus for Arbitration 21 Flaws Within the System 33 Chapter Two: No Country for Old Men 47 Óláfr, Þorbjǫrn, and the Nature of Heroism 64 Sigríðr's 'Spell' 75 Old Age and Vengeance 88 The Use and Extent of Feud in Social Readjustment 114 Returning to Order and Reaffirming Rights 139 Chapter Three: Fighting Words 145 Old Enemies in New Surroundings 153 Verse and Violence 178 Too Little, Too Late: Þorsteinn's Intervention 200 Chapter Four: Njáll Politics is Local 211 vi Strange Bedfellows 222 Damage Control 252 Conversion and Damnation 278 Repentance and Salvation 303 Final Comments and Future Applications 325 Bibliography 335 vii Abbreviations and Conventions The three sagas providing the focus of this study (Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings, Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa, and Brennu-Njáls saga) will be referred to within the main text as Hávarðar, Bjarnar, and Njála respectively. All references to the Icelandic family sagas, kings' sagas, and þættir will be taken from the Íslenzk Fornrit (hereafter ÍF) editions unless otherwise stated. References to the contemporary sagas will be taken from Guðbrandur Vigfússon, ed., Sturlunga saga: Including the Islendinga saga of Lawman Sturla Thordsson and Other Works (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1878). References to the mythological sagas will be taken from the Fornaldarsögur Norðurlanda (hereafter FN). All direct references to these texts will be made to pagination, rather than chapter, for ease of reference. See bibliography for full citations, under the heading 'Primary Sources'. Sagas and Þættir In footnotes, the sagas and þættir will be abbreviated as follows: Auðun Auðunar þáttr Bjarn Bjarnar saga Hítdœlakappa Egil Egils saga Eyrb Eyrbyggja saga Grettis Grettis saga Ásmundarsonar Gunnl Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu viii Háv Hávarðar saga Ísfirðings Hrafnk Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða Hæn Hænsa-Þóris saga Íslb Íslendingabók Land Landnámabók Lax Laxdæla saga Ljós Ljósvetninga saga Njála Brennu-Njáls saga ÓláfsTr Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar Reyk Reykdœla saga ok Víga-Skútu Sturlu Sturlu saga VígG Víga-Glúms saga ÞorgH Þorgils saga ok Hafliða ÞorSt Þorsteins þáttr stangarhǫggs ÞórðHr Þórðar saga hreðu Legal Material References to Grágás Ia-b are taken from Vilhjalmur Finsen, ed., Grágás: Islændernes Lovbog i Fristatens Tid, udgivet efter det kongelige Bibliotheks Haandskrift (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1852). References to Grágás II are taken from Vilhjalmur Finsen, ed., Grágás efter det Arnamnæanske Haandskrift Nr. 334 fol., Staðarhólsbók (Copenhagen: Berlings Bogtrykkeri, 1879). References
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