POLICY DROUGHT: WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, URBAN GROWTH, AND TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS IN POST-WORLD WAR II ATLANTA A Dissertation Presented to The Academic Faculty by Eric M. Hardy In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in History and Sociology of Technology and Science Georgia Institute of Technology December 2011 Copyright © Eric M. Hardy 2011 POLICY DROUGHT: WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, URBAN GROWTH, AND TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS IN POST-WORLD WAR II ATLANTA Approved by: Dr. Steven Usselman, Advisor Dr. Gregory Nobles School of History, Technology School of History, Technology & Society & Society Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Ronald Bayor Dr. Martin Melosi School of History, Technolgy Department of History & Society University of Houston Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Douglas Flamming Date Approved: October 27, 2011 School of History, Technology & Society Georgia Institute of Technology For my girls, Lee and Simone ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Although completing a dissertation is certainly a cause for celebration it should also a humbling experience. Rare is the young scholar that is so self-possessed and whose work is so intellectually mature that he or she did not benefit from a multitude of helping hands. My debts are indeed many, and it is with the utmost sincerity that I hope that I can repay those who have so generously invested their time and energy in me. Steve Usselman‘s contributions to my intellectual development are incalculable. I vividly recall a seminar session during my first semester at Georgia Tech when I began to think out loud about some of the implications of David Landes‘s magnum opus The Unbound Prometheus. It was one of my first encounters with the daunting literature in the history of technology and, unsure of my observation and hesitant to make a fool of myself, I paused mid-sentence. I sheepishly looked across the table and made eye contact with Steve, who was listening intently at the far end. He nodded slowly and then gestured reassuringly, as if to say ―you‘re on solid ground, don‘t be afraid to take the next step.‖ It would not be the last time he would shepherd me in this way. During my time at Georgia Tech I have had the good fortune to observe and engage Steve from a number of vantage points, as his seminar student, teaching assistance, and dissertation advisee. He has shown infinite patience with me as I have tried to complete the dissertation while living in New Orleans and juggling a full-time teaching load and the responsibilities of a husband and father. His wisdom and wit are greatly appreciated, and I firmly believe that I will be a better historian and educator because I was under his wing. v I would also like to express my earnest appreciation to the other members of my dissertation committee for their critiques and suggestions. My time spent as a student of and teaching assistant for Ron Bayor, Greg Nobles, and Doug Flaming convinced me that their respective insights into urban history, environmental history, and southern history would be indispensible to this research project. Ron, whose scholarship on racial politics in Atlanta initially led me to consider graduate studies at Georgia Tech, has been a steadfast supporter of my interest in urban history as it expanded beyond issues of race and ethnicity to include technology and the environment. This interest in the environment was fostered in a seminar conducted by Greg Nobles, who encouraged me to consider the importance of geography and that use of Chattahoochee River did not simply begin with urban development in Atlanta. Greg and his wife Anne‘s satisfaction in seeing me complete the dissertation was truly touching. Doug Flamming‘s interest in social history has prodded me to never lose sight of what happens ―on the corner of First and Main,‖ while his warmth and commitment to teaching has produced a rapport with his students that is worthy of emulation. Lastly, I am grateful to Martin Melosi for sharing his deep knowledge in the evolution of urban infrastructure and environmentalism and look forward to continuing what I hope will be a mutually beneficial dialogue. Thanks go out to numerous members of the HTS community for their continued support. Bill Winders has been fountain of good humor and advice while LaDonna Bowen has been an invaluable administrative resource. I would like to include a special note of appreciation for John Krige. John essentially put the dissertation topic in my lap and arranged a key meeting with former Georgia President G. Wayne Clough that yielded my first set of primary documents. John additionally helped me secure a one –semester vi teaching position at Georgia-Tech Lorraine, a post that allowed me and my wife and daughter to travel extensively throughout Western Europe. Lastly, John‘s willingness to visit me in New Orleans to witness firsthand the ravages of Katrina (and share his fried crawfish with Simone) was impressive beyond words. I would also like to thank the many individuals outside of Georgia Tech for their continued support. Renatta Milner at the Georgia Archives, Richard Parker and John Reinhardt with the Department of Watershed Management, and Justin Wiedeman of Wiedeman and Singleton are but a few that deserve recognition for helping me locate scattered records and documents. Three of my former professors from the University of New Orleans—Arnold Hirsch, Raphael Cassimere, and Jack O‘Connor—have remained guiding lights as scholars and educators and welcomed guests in my home. Thanks also to David Moore, the chair of the History Department at Loyola University, for agreeing to hire an ABD and creating a schedule flexible enough for me to teach and write. Dean Jo Ann Cruz‘s interest in my interdisciplinary training and thoughtful inquiries into my progression has been equally reassuring. The encouragement of Loyola University colleagues such as Rian Thum, Adrian De Gifis, Justin Nystrom, and Behrooz Moazami in the History Department and Chris Schaberg and Laura Murphy in the English Department was a substantial boost when the work load was heavy. Scott Farrin‘s close friendship has been immeasurable satisfying, particularly in moments when I thought the world was about to cave in. I am also appreciative of John and Anne Levert, my in-laws, for their abiding enthusiasm and support and for Jamey and Greg (my younger brothers) for keeping me grounded. I am especially thankful to my father, Jerry Hardy, for teaching vii me the value of hard work and for my mother, Dorothy Hardy, who has demonstrated an unshakable faith in me despite every indication that I was a lost cause. My deepest appreciation is reserved for my wife Lee and daughter Simone, who have been my companions through the ups and downs and years of graduate study. Simone‘s boundless curiosity about the world has been an infinite source of inspiration to me and reminder of the need to stop and enjoy the moment. Lee has endured more lonely nights than any wife should and has deferred her dreams while I pursued mine. She has remained, nevertheless, my biggest advocate and my best friend. For that I am eternally grateful. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv SUMMARY xv INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose of Study 5 Scholarly Contributions 6 Relevant Background Material 6 Literature Review 12 Organization of Study, Sources, & Methodology 21 CHAPTER ONE DRAWING WATER FROM ROCK: RESOURCES AND EARLY SETTLEMENT IN THE ATLANTA REGION 29 A Brief History of Georgia‘s Geologic Time 30 Native Territory 36 Making ―Second Nature‖ 46 Conclusion 72 CHAPTER TWO ―ATLANTA GROWS WHERE WATER GOES‖ 74 The Roots of Regional Planning and the Potential of a Regulated River 76 The Battle for Buford and Buckhead, 1947-1952 89 Engineering ―the Plan,‖ 1952-1962 102 ix Conclusion 115 CHAPTER THREE ―SEWERS HAVE NO SEX APPEAL‖: THE CHALLENGES OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN POST-WAR ATLANTA 117 The Federal Anti-dote to Water-borne Disease in Atlanta, 1935-1952 121 Canaries in the Coalmine, 1952-1957 139 Atlanta Kicking and Screaming: 1960s 150 The Big Clean Up, 1972-1985 163 Conclusion 173 CHAPTER FOUR TROUBLED WATERS: POLICY AND PROTEST OVER POLLUTION CONTROL IN ATLANTA 175 Atlanta‘s Dirty Water: Increased Regulation of Plants, Pipes, and CSOs, 1985-1990 177 Don‘t Flush on Me: Water Pollution, Policy, and Protest in the City of Atlanta, 1990-1998 189 The Noose Tightens: Litigation and Negotiated Settlements, 1995-1999 205 Clean Water Atlanta: 1998 and Beyond 212 Brother, Can You Spare and Dime: Financing Clean Water Atlanta 229 Conclusion 234 CHAPTER FIVE THE BIG THIRST: THE ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF THE TRI-STATE WAR WARS 236 Metropolitan Development and Downstream Anxieties, 1950-1975 238 Water Resource Management Through Re-Regulation and Reallocation, 1975-1989 249 The Politics of Reallocation: The Tri-State Water War, 1990-1998 259 Will the Water Last? 269 Conclusion 275 x CONCLUSION 277 BIBLIOGRAPHY 283 xi LIST OF TABLES Page Table 4.1: Comparison of CSO Control Options, 2001. 217 Table 4.2: Pollutant Removal at the Outfall for Viable Options. 217 Table 5.1: Freshwater Withdrawals by State in ACF River Basin, 1990. 268 Table 5.2: Net Consumptive Use of Chattahoochee River 274 xii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1.1: Georgia‘s Geologic Provinces. 33 Figure 1.2: South River Station in 1887. 69 Figure 1.3: Artesian Well at Five Points, ca. 1894. 70 Figure 2.1: The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River Basin. 80 Figure 2.2: Mayor William B. Hartsfield. 84 Figure 2.3: Proposed Annexation Area, 1950. 96 Figure 2.4: AWW Service Area, 1965.