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Erythropoietin and Cancer: the Unintended Consequences of Anemia Correction

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Erythropoietin and Cancer: the Unintended Consequences of Anemia Correction REVIEW ARTICLE published: 11 November 2014 doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00563 Erythropoietin and cancer: the unintended consequences of anemia correction Nataša Debeljak 1*, Peter Solár 2 and Arthur J. Sytkowski 3 1 Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia 2 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, Košice, Slovakia 3 Oncology Therapeutic Area, Quintiles Transnational, Arlington, MA, USA Edited by: Until 1990, erythropoietin (EPO) was considered to have a single biological purpose and Pietro Ghezzi, Brighton and Sussex action, the stimulation of red blood cell growth and differentiation. Slowly, scientific and Medical School, UK medical opinion evolved, beginning with the discovery of an effect on endothelial cell Reviewed by: Ralf Schindler, Charité, Germany growth in vitro and the identification of EPO receptors (EPORs) on neuronal cells. We Domenico Ribatti, University of Bari now know that EPO is a pleiotropic growth factor that exhibits an anti-apoptotic action on Medical School, Italy numerous cells and tissues, including malignant ones. In this article, we present a short Chris Thiemermann, Queen Mary discussion of EPO, receptors involved in EPO signal transduction, and their action on non- University of London, UK hematopoietic cells. This is followed by a more detailed presentation of both pre-clinical *Correspondence: Nataša Debeljak, Faculty of Medicine, and clinical data that demonstrate EPO’s action on cancer cells, as well as tumor angio- Institute of Biochemistry, University genesis and lymphangiogenesis. Clinical trials with reported adverse effects of chronic of Ljubljana, Vrazov trg 2, SI-1000 erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) treatment as well as clinical studies exploring Ljubljana, Slovenia the prognostic significance of EPO and EPOR expression in cancer patients are reviewed. e-mail: [email protected] Finally, we address the use of EPO and other ESAs in cancer patients. Keywords: erythropoietin, erythropoietin receptor, receptor partners, cancer, cell response, angiogenesis, clinical trials INTRODUCTION more detailed presentation of both pre-clinical and clinical data The presence of a circulating hemopoietic factor controlling the that demonstrate EPO’s diverse actions on cancer cells as well red blood cell (RBC) production was first suggested in 1906 (1). as possible receptors involved in the response of cancer cells to This humoral factor was experimentally confirmed almost half EPO/ESA therapy. Finally, we review current recommendations a decade later and the name erythropoietin was given (2). In for the use of rHuEPO and other ESAs as supportive therapy in 1977, the protein was isolated from human urine (3) enabling cancer patients with anemia that often develops during the radio- research toward cloning of the gene, its characterization, and or chemotherapy. in vitro expression (4, 5). Only 4 years later, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first commercially ERYTHROPOIETIN available recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO), epoetin The human EPO gene spans over 3 kb and contains five exons alfa, for the treatment of anemia associated with chronic kid- encoding a 193 amino acid protein (4, 5). It is a single copy ney disease (CKD) (6). Later on, it was approved also for use gene located on chromosome 7 at position 7q22 (14, 15). A in patients with other anemias including cancer patients under- single splice variant of EPO gene is known (http://www.ncbi. going chemotherapy (7). Thereafter, rHuEPO became a leading nlm.nih.gov/gene/2056). Gene expression is regulated by oxygen drug for treatment of anemia virtually abolishing the need for levels through hypoxia. Transcription factors involved are stim- RBC transfusion in some types of anemia. As a result, since ulatory HIF-2, HNF-4alpha and inhibitory GATA-2, NF-kappaB the 1990s, several new erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESA) [reviewed in Ref. (16, 17)]. have become available on the market or are under development During post-translation modification, the N-terminal 27 [reviewed in Ref. (8)]. amino acid signal peptide is cleaved and R166 removed result- Erythropoietin (EPO) was first considered to have a single ing in a 165 amino acid mature protein (18). Urinary protein biological purpose and action – the stimulation of RBC growth containing 166 amino acids has also been characterized (19). and differentiation and, as such safe, for use in cancer patients. The single-chain protein is heavily glycosylated with a molecu- Slowly, scientific and medical opinion evolved, beginning with lar weight ranging from 30 to 39 kDa. Three N-linked (N24, N38, the discovery of an effect on endothelial cell growth in vitro (9) and N83) and one O-linked (S126) oligosaccharide side chains and the identification of EPO receptors (EPORs) on neuronal represent 35–40% of the EPO molecular mass. Protein structure is cells (10). We now know that EPO is a pleiotropic growth fac- stabilized with two intra-chain disulfide bridges between C7–C161 tor that exhibits an anti-apoptotic action on numerous cells and and C29–C33 (19, 20). N glycosylation does not affect hormone tissues, including malignant ones [reviewed in Ref. (11–13)]. In function in vitro but is essential for in vivo biological activity like this article, we present a short discussion of EPO, its signaling, biosynthesis, structural stability, secretion, plasma half-life, and and its action on non-hematopoietic cells. This is followed by a clearance (21–23). www.frontiersin.org November 2014 | Volume 5 | Article 563 | 1 Debeljak et al. Erythropoietin: tissue protection in cancer In adult human beings, the hormone is produced mainly by the EPO-EPOR signaling cascade. EPO has two non-identical binding renal cortex (24, 25), while in the developing fetus, the liver is the sites toward EPOR receptors, a high-affinity G151 (nano-molar) principal source (26). EPO is secreted into the bloodstream, circu- to the first, and a low-affinity R103 (micro-molar) interaction lates to the bone marrow, and binds to EPOR situated on the cell to the second receptor (33). Main signaling pathways activated surface of erythroid progenitors promoting their survival,prolifer- by EPO are JAK2/STAT5 pathway, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase ation, and differentiation (27). EPO is also produced by numerous (PI3K) pathway, RAS/MAP kinase pathway, and protein kinase C non-hematopoietic cells and may act in endocrine, autocrine, and (PKC) pathway (34)(Figure 1). The JAK2/STAT5 and RAS/MAP paracrine manner (28). kinase (RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK) pathways are associated with hor- Commercially available rHuEPO has the same 165 amino acid mone mitogenic action, while the PI3K pathway (PI3K-AKT) is sequence as naturally occurring hormone (29). However, the level related with anti-apoptotic activities (27). of glycosylation in rHuEPO depends on the expression system used In non-hematopoietic tissue,some other receptor partners have (30). Glycosylation pattern can be analyzed by isoelectric focus- been proposed, including the beta common receptor (bcR) (35) ing enabling, thus distinguishing endogenous EPO (eEPO) from and the epinephrine B4 receptor (EPHB4) (36). The EPO mole- rHuEPO (31). Also, urinary and serum EPO have some minor cule was indicated to bind to the hetero-dimmer EPOR-EPHB4 heterogeneity in glycosylation levels (32). or hetero-trimmer EPOR-bcR-EPOR. Most probably, the high- affinity site is involved in binding to EPOR, while other receptor ERYTHROPOIETIN SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION partners are bound with low affinity or an alternative site result- In classical signal transduction in erythropoiesis, one EPO mole- ing in activation of different, tissue-protective part of EPO-EPOR cule binds to an EPOR homo-dimer leading to activation of the signaling cascade. FIGURE 1 | Erythropoietin receptor and signaling pathways. The structure of the receptor dimer is outlined; docking sites for several intracellular proteins are marked with P and linked with black-dotted arrow to individual pathway components. Positive interactions are presented with full black arrows, negative with dotted red. Frontiers in Immunology | Inflammation November 2014 | Volume 5 | Article 563| 2 Debeljak et al. Erythropoietin: tissue protection in cancer Erythropoietin receptor European patent application [EP 2 492 355 A1 (36)] dis- The human EPOR gene spans over 6 kb and contains 8 exons closes a molecular composition(s) of a novel tissue-protective encoding a 508 amino acid protein (37). The gene is located EPO-binding receptor protein complex, termed NEPOR. NEPOR on chromosome 19 at position 19p13.3-p13.2 (38, 39). Sev- represents a novel EPOR derived from a unique combination of eral EPOR splice variants are known such as non-coding RNA, EPOR heteroreceptor dimer EPOR-EPHB4, homoreceptor EPOR- functional transmembrane protein (EPOR-F), truncated protein EPOR, and EPHB4-EPHB4, and other components derived from (EPOR-T), and at least one soluble variant (EPOR-S) (40–42) ephrin biology (Figure 3). (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2057). EPO receptor is a member of the type I cytokine receptor super- Other partners family (43). During post-translation modification, the N-terminal Interaction of EPOR with several receptors has been indicated. 24-amino acid signal peptide is cleaved and the protein is modified Some interactions were suggested only on the level of receptor by glycosylation, phosphorylation, and ubiquitination to a
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