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Feasibility of Harvesting Solar Energy for Self-Powered Environmental Wireless Sensor Nodes

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Feasibility of Harvesting Solar Energy for Self-Powered Environmental Wireless Sensor Nodes electronics Article Feasibility of Harvesting Solar Energy for Self-Powered Environmental Wireless Sensor Nodes 1, 1, 1 2 2 Yuyang Li y, Ehab A. Hamed y, Xincheng Zhang , Daniel Luna , Jeen-Shang Lin , Xu Liang 2 and Inhee Lee 1,* 1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; [email protected] (Y.L.); [email protected] (E.A.H.); [email protected] (X.Z.) 2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; [email protected] (D.L.); [email protected] (J.-S.L.); [email protected] (X.L.) * Correspondence: [email protected] These authors contributed equally to this work. y Received: 5 November 2020; Accepted: 30 November 2020; Published: 3 December 2020 Abstract: Energy harvesting has a vital role in building reliable Environmental Wireless Sensor Networks (EWSNs), without needing to replace a discharged battery. Solar energy is one of the main renewable energy sources that can be used to efficiently charge a battery. This paper introduces two solar energy harvesters and their power measurements at different light conditions in order to charge rechargeable AA batteries powering EWSN nodes. The first harvester is a primitive energy harvesting circuit that is built using elementary off-shelf components, while the second harvester is based on a commercial boost converter chip. To prove the effectiveness of harvesting solar energy, five EWSN nodes were distributed at a nature reserve (the Audubon Society of Western Pennsylvania, USA) and the sunlight at their locations was recorded for more than five months. For each recorded illumination, the corresponding harvested energy has been estimated and compared with the average energy consumption of the EWSN with the most power consumption. The results show that the daily harvested energy effectively compensates for the energy consumption of the EWSN nodes, and the battery charge capacity of 295 mAh can reliably support their daily dynamic energy consumption. Keywords: batteries; energy harvesting; environmental monitoring; illumination; solar energy; sunlight; wireless sensor networks (WSNs) 1. Introduction Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have extensive popularity in the field of environmental monitoring [1–5]. Recently, an Environmental Wireless Sensor Network (EWSN) has been exceptionally enhanced due to the development of the Internet of Things (IoT) [6]. EWSN nodes are deployed in open areas (e.g., forests); accordingly, they are not connected to the main power supply because of high wiring cost and difficulty. Instead, an EWSN node usually depends on a rechargeable or non-rechargeable battery to operate; while a non-rechargeable battery requires regular replacement, a rechargeable battery can be recharged by energy harvesting and thus more reliable and effective in the long-term cost [6]. A high capacity battery can be used to lengthen the period of successive replacement or recharging, but it typically increases the node size and weight [7,8]. Alternatively, an energy harvester can be utilized to scavenge the surrounding ambient energy (such as heat, electromagnetic, motion, and light energy) and convert it to electrical energy that charges a battery and thus powers an EWSN node [9,10]. Efficient conversion from ambient energy to electrical energy is crucial for a practical energy harvester. Conversion from thermal energy to electrical energy is established based on the Seebeck Electronics 2020, 9, 2058; doi:10.3390/electronics9122058 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 Efficient conversion from ambient energy to electrical energy is crucial for a practical energy Electronicsharvester.2020 Conversion, 9, 2058 from thermal energy to electrical energy is established based on the Seebeck2 of 13 effect [6,9,11–16], which depends on the temperature difference between pairs of p‐type and n‐type esemiconductorffect [6,9,11–16 ],plates. which The depends thermoelectric on the temperature conversion di hasfference low betweenefficiency pairs because of p-type it is andlimitedn-type by semiconductorCarnot cycle efficiency plates. The [9,15,17], thermoelectric and the conversion conversion has process low e ffistopsciency at becausestable heat it is when limited both by Carnot plates cyclesettle eatffi ciencythe same [9,15 temperature,17], and the [6,18–20]. conversion On process the other stops hand, at stable the heat ambient when bothRadio plates Frequency settle at (RF) the samesignals temperature (radar, Wi [‐6Fi,,18 –Bluetooth,20]. On the and other cellular hand, thenetworks ambient [9,21–23]) Radio Frequency are sources (RF) signalsof electromagnetic (radar, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,energy that and can cellular be harvested networks and [9, 21converted–23]) are sourcesto electrical of electromagnetic energy. The widespread energy that canexistence be harvested of RF andsignals converted and their to vast electrical frequency energy. range The make widespread them appropriate existence of for RF powering signals and numerous their vast WSN frequency nodes rangein a large make area. them Nevertheless, appropriate the for harvested powering energy numerous greatly WSN varies nodes according in a large to the area. distance Nevertheless, between the harvestednode and RF energy source greatly [9,24]. varies according to the distance between the node and RF source [9,24]. The fact that EWSN nodes are deployed in a natural environment makes them subject to wind and sunlight.sunlight. TheThe kinetic kinetic energy energy of of wind wind can can be convertedbe converted to electrical to electrical energy energy using using turbines turbines or rotors, or givingrotors, highgiving harvested high harvested power [ power6,25,26 ].[6,25,26]. However, However, harvesting harvesting wind energy wind requires energy requires large wind large turbines, wind andturbines, sometimes and sometimes the wind isthe neither wind availableis neither nor available predictable nor predictable [6]. Alternatively, [6]. Alternatively, sunlight is a sunlight remarkable is a renewableremarkable source renewable of energy source that of energy can be that harvested can be e harvestedffectively [effectively6,27], using [6,27], photovoltaic using photovoltaic solar cells thatsolar convert cells that solar convert energy solar to energy electrical to energyelectrical [1 ,energy28]. Solar [1,28]. cells Solar are connectedcells are connected in series in and series parallel, and formingparallel, modulesforming modules or solar panels,or solar to panels, increase to theincrease total harvestedthe total harvested power [6 ].power In addition [6]. In toaddition solar cell to size,solar thecell solar size, energythe solar obtained energy fromobtained the sunfrom is the also sun proportional is also proportional to the illumination to the illumination level, which level, is inconstantwhich is inconstant and varies accordingand varies to time,according region, to and time, weather region, [6,29 and]. Therefore, weather a [6,29]. rechargeable Therefore, battery a isrechargeable often included battery with is a often solar energyincluded harvester with a solar to store energy the solar harvester energy to in store the chemicalthe solar formenergy [9, 30in ,31the]. Itchemical is used toform power [9,30,31]. the EWSN It is used nodes to when power the the light EWSN source nodes is unavailable. when the Figurelight source1 shows is anunavailable. overview ofFigure the solar 1 shows energy an overview harvesting of process the solar starting energy from harvesting the solar process panel andstarting ending from with the the solar EWSN panel node. and Solarending energy with the cannot EWSN be controlled,node. Solar but energy it is predictablecannot be controlled, during the but day it andis predictable seasons [6 during,32]. To the keep day a nodeand seasons battery [6,32]. from energyTo keep depletion, a node battery the average from energy energy depletion, consumption the average of an EWSN energy node consumption must not surpassof an EWSN the average node must harvested not surpass energy the from average the sun harvested [6]. energy from the sun [6]. Figure 1. SolarSolar energy energy harvesting process for the target application.application. In this work, we propose two energy harvesters to avoid the battery replacement of the ESWN nodes. The firstfirst harvesterharvester is is a a primitive primitive energy energy harvesting harvesting circuit circuit that that is built is built using using elementary elementary off-shelf off‐ components,shelf components, while while the second the second harvester harvester is based is based on a on commercial a commercial boost boost converter converter chip. chip. They They are designedare designed using using commercially commercially available available components components so that so the that harvester the harvester design design can be rapidlycan be appliedrapidly appliedto similar to applications. similar applications. Moreover, Moreover, the effectiveness the effectiveness of the harvester of the harvester is verified is by verified using by light using intensity light intensitymeasurement measurement on the exemplary on the EWSN exemplary nodes EWSN [7,33–35 nodes] in a nature [7,33–35] reserve in a (Audubon nature reserve Society (Audubon of Western Pennsylvania,Society of Western USA) Pennsylvania, for 5 months. BasedUSA) onfor the 5 measuredmonths. Based light profileon the and measured harvesting light effi profileciency, and it is estimatedharvesting that efficiency,
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