DIFFUSION OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN UTTAR PRADESH SINCE 1980's
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF iWaster of ^Ijilosopi)? IN GEOGRAPHY
BY MD. SHAMIM KHAN
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. ATEEQUE AHMAD (Reader)
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2005 DS3938 Dr. Ateeque Ahmad Department of Geography Reader Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh-202002 (India)
Dated ^:tJ<..
This is to certify that Mr. Md. Shamim Khan has compehed his
M.Phil, dissertation entitled "Diffusion of Agricultural Technological
Innovations in Uttar Pradesh since 1980" under my sueprvision. The work presented in the dissertation in my opinion is fit for evaluation. He completed this work with unflagging zeal, interest and enthusiasm and tried to learn the subject assidously.
(Dr. Ateeque Ahmad) CONTENTS Page No. Acknowledgement List of Figures List of Tables
r-I INTRODUCTION 1 -• 36 (a) Meaning and Definition of Diffusion of Innovations i"^) Sowces of DaVa (c) Work Review Done so Far (d) Methodology (e) Hypothesis (f) Objectives
Chapter-II GENERAL PHYSICAL SETTING AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF 13TTAR PRADESH ^"^ - ^'^ (i) Geogrpahical Background f (a) Physical Feature (b) Geology ^(c) Soil) (d) Groundwater /(e) Climate ) (f) Rainfall ^ (g) Drainage f (h) Physical Resource Base (i) Importance of Agriculture in State Economy (ii) Demographic Characteristics Chapter-Ill AGRICULTURAL DEVLEOPMENT 68-119 (i) Techno-Institutional Development in ^^ Agriculture - A Spatio-Temporal A.nalysii s J (a) Patterns of Modern Agricultural Technology:' Farm Machinary (Tractor, Iron plough, Wooden plough)*! (b) Irrigation Machinery (electric pumpset, diesel pumpset) f (c) Fertilizer Consumption J (d) Cropping PatternJ (e) Intensity of Cropping j /'(f) Crop Combination I (f(g) Ranking of Crops ^ f (h) Agricultural productivity j»
::hapter-IV LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS : C A SPATIO-TEMPORAL ANALYSIS 120-159 ^ Fertilizer | Irrigation 1 Implements Composite Scores of level of Diffusion of innovations | I, Correlation between Agricultural Productivity and Diffusion of Innovations | j^CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS^ 160-166 '^BIBLIOGRAPHY) ^ 167-176 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise be Allah who gave the guidance and blessing to complete this humble work. I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ateeque Ahmad, Reader, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh under whose painstaking guidance and kind super\'ision, this work was carried out. His patient discourses and discussion on the research problems and analysis has been the guiding light informing a correct approach to the subject. His inspiration and encouragement motivated me to complete this work. I also owe great deal to Prof. Salahuddin Qureshi, Chairman, Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University for providing me all possible helps during the course of the completion of this work.
I am thankful to Prof Ali Mohammad, Dr. Hifzur Rahman, Late Dr. Mohd. Siddiquie, Dr. Najmul Islam Hashmi, Dr. Fazlur Rahman, Dr. Kauser Shamim, Dr. Jamshed Ahmad and Mr. Ghayasuddin from whom I have drawn necessary inspiration for completion of this work. I am deeply indebted to staff members of the Research Library, Department of Geography for their generous help and co-operation in placing the desired material at my disposal. I am also thankful to the staff of the library of the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh for their constant help. It gives me immense pleasure to express my gratitudes to my parents, maternal uncle, sisters and brothers, Mr. Mohd. Noorain Khan, Mr. Mohd. Meraj Khan, Dr. Reyaz Ahmad, Sajida, Majida, Nigar and Nilo whose continuous encouragement and blessings have always remained a source of enlightenment in my academic career. I do not have appropriate words to thank my friends colleagues and well wishers, Qaiyum Khan, Majid Khan, Tauheed, Afzal, Shahalam, Mustaqeem, Shazi, Naushad Javed, Imran, Zubair, Ramiz, Yasmeen, Shabahat, Kazma and Anwari who accompanied me during the completion of this work. I owe my special gratitude to Mr. Wahab, Asif, Miss Sanobar, Miss Shabnam, Miss Nazish and Miss Saba for extending me the moral support and valuable suggestions.
^i^^"^"^ (Md. SftaBUm Khan) LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page No. No. 1.1 Model of Diffusion of Innovation 9 1.2 Logistic Curve of Innovation Adoption 10 2.1 Uttar Pradesh - Administrative Divisions 39 2.2 Uttar Pradesh - Physical Divisions 45 2.3 Uttar Pradesh - Geology 48 2.4 Uttar Pradesh - Soils 52 2.5 Uttar Pradesh - Drainage 58 3.1 Use of Tractors per' 000 hect. 72 3.2 Use of Electric Engines per'000 hect. 74 3.3 Use ofOil Engines per'000 hect. 78 3.4 Use of Fertilizer Consumption in kg per hect. 80 3.5 Use of Wooden Plough per'000 hect.- 82 3.6 Use oflron Plough per'000 hect. 83 3.7 Crop Combination Regions 104 3.8 Ranking of the Crops - First Ranking 108 3.9 Ranking of the Crops - Second Ranking 110 3.10 Ranking of the Crops - Third Ranking ] 12 3.11 Uttar Pradesh-Productivity Region (1985) 116 3.12 Uttar Pradesh - Productivity Region (1995) 118 4.1 (A) Levels of Diffusion of Fertilizer Consumption (1985) 126 4.1(B) Levels of Diffusion of Fertilizer Consumption (1990) 127 4.1(C) Levelsof Diffusion of Fertilizer Consumption (1995) 128 4.2(A) Levels ofDiffusion of Irrigation (1985) 134 4.2(B) Levels ofDiffusion of Irrigation (1990) 135 4.2(C) Levels ofDiffusion of Irrigation (1995) 136 4.3(A) Levels ofDiffusion of Implements (1985) 142 4.3(B) Levels ofDiffusion of Implements (1990) 143 4.3(C) Levels ofDiffusion of Implements (1995) 144 4.4 Levels ofDiffusion of Innovations (1985) 146 4.5 Levelsof Diffusion of Innovations (1990) 148 4.6 Levels of Diffusion of Innovations (1995) 150 5.1(A,B,C) Correlation between Agricultural Productivity and Level of 156-158 Diffusion of Innovations (1985,1990, 1995) 5.1 Regression Line between Agricultural Productivity and Level 156-158 (A,,Bi,Ci) ofDiffusion of Innovations (1985, 1990, 1995) LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page No. No.
2.1 Population of World compared India and Uttar Pradesh 40
2.2 Demographic Characteristics of Uttar Pradesh (2001) 63-65
3.1 Level of Mechanization per '000 hectare in Uttar Pradesh 75-77 3.2 Net Irrigated Area by different sources in Uttar Pradesh 84
3.3 Land Utilization in Uttar Pradesh (1980-81 to 1995-96) 86
3.4 Percentage share of Area under Selected Crops in Uttar 88-99 Pradesh (1980-81 to 1996-97)
4.1 Levels of Diffusion of Fertilizer (1985, 90, 95) 124-125
4.2 Levels of Diffusion of Irrigation (1985, 90, 95) 132-133
4.3 Levels ofDiffusionoflmplements (1985,90,95) 140-141
4.4 Correlation between Agricultural Productivity in Rs./hect. 154-155 and level of Diffusion of Innovations in Uttar Pradesh (1985, 90, 95) Chapter-I
INTRODUCTION
Meaning and Definition of Diffusion of Innovations
0 ( The term innovation usually is meant to refer to something new in
tehcnology, method, idea or invention. Innovation is change over the new
ideas, objects or practices from existing one by or constituents of social
system. Innovation may show either slight modification significant
replacement of ideas in vague. The "idea" is the central element of an
innovation either in material form or behavioural form. For idol result the
innovation should be adopted both in term of ideas and form i.e. material or
behavioural which ultimately felt by attaining intended consequences of an
innovation.^ j^- ^^7
(^ ( Innovation refers to some new ideas method, or technology, and its
diffusion means not only the spreading of the information over the entire
area but also the adoption of the innovation. Nevertheless, the process of the
spread of information is vital to the process of adoption, thus the entire
diffusion process itself. The diffusion is the process in the course of which
an innovation is adopted by those who had not adopted it earlier. In other
words, diffusion is the process by which an innovation spread within a social
system. Innovation diffuses within a social system at group level and to
individuals through its "adoption". Diffusion and adoption are complementary
to each other, thus they are closely interrelated.]' LJi '^ Pi
(\ ffln agriculture the term "innovation" manifests a material form which include improved implements, high-yielding and disease resistant seeds, chemical fertilizers and plant protection chemicals such as pesticides, fungicides and herbicides.)J , j'^^ ^/•^/
^Diffusion of agricultural innovations refers to the spread and implementation of new and improved agricultural practices over the existing one by the farmers in terms of use of HYV, pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, mechanisation agricultural farming etc. The reflection of some
innovation may be seen in behavioural form e.g. improved cultural practices.
In other words we can say that diffusion of agricultural innovations means spread of adoption of improved agricultural practices j ^ -A-w "A/y
\3> { Innovation do vary in their diffusion rate, some diffuses at higher rate, while other at slight rate. An innovation which show only a slight modification of an existing idea or practices will obviously diffuses at a
faster rate than the one which represents a significant modification over existing one. It is due to the fact that, in slight modification the society need not worry about the changing of whole existing setup or the major part of it.
In case of significant modifications there are problems for society to adopt new practices in which major part of existing practices is to be reinstalled.) 7
Some of the important traits of an innovation, which influences its rate of aodption are : utility, compatiability, complexity, communicability and divisibility.)? -j^^^^ 'fy
(2) ( Utility of an innovation refers to the degree to which it is perceived as useful and advantageous by farmer. Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be in conformity with the ideas, value and practices of a social system. Complexity refers to the relative difficulty to understand the nature and use of air innovation. Communicability is the degree to which the use and resuh of an innovation can be observed communicated to others. Divisibility refers to the degree to which an innovation can be tried out in a small scale before making the decision to adopt it.^? y..// Y^/
(^ f Diffusion of agricultural innovations has a very strong bearing upon the agricultural efficiency and productivity in any region or area. Diffusion of agricultural innovations vary from one social system ot another and also within the social system itself because of the way in which it is perceived is more important. At present all new ideas, practices and technology are geared to the improvement in agricultural efficiency (which is directly proportional to the diffusion of innovation) more so in less developed countries of the world such as India. It has been proved beyond doubt by now that the technology of even the late 19th century would not have been able to provide sustenance to the present large population of the world.
They have been a number of innovation which have brought about revolutionary changes in the agricultural productivity and efficiency all over the world. In this connection we can cite the exmaple of India, where the diffusion has been rather slow, but at numerous instances, it has shown positive reuslts. V
(\o) f Taking the case of mechanisation of farming operations, a tractor makes possible cultivation of wide spread areas more effectively in a much shorter period.In India major part of cultivable land left fallow in the form of culturable waste because of inefficiency of animal driven plough, however with the introduction of tractors, it has been brought under cultivation, use
of machinery for sowing, irrigation, harvesting and separating grain from
husl<, has made commerce to the cropping cereals like wheat, use of power
(mechanical or electrical) has made irrigation possible in many unirrigated
areas, j ^^
{T\) ( More or equally important has been the result of diffusion of
practices of using HYV, chemical fertilizers. This has been a major factor
insolving India's food problem to a greater extent. Many new varieties are
better suited to the environmental conditions in various regions. Being
adverse environmental suited varieties, the chances of its failures is reduced
significantly. Chemical fertilizers have proved a boon, as our agriculture
suffered a lot due to exhaustion of fertilities have made possible the
practices of double and sometimes even multiple cropping in the areas where
even a single crop would be at the mercy of weather elements J
\\y) \~- Practices like contour bunding have made cultivation possible on
slope. Innovation is the field of agricultural infrastructure have gone a long
way in ensuring returns to the farmers and nowadays there are arrangements
for timely lifting of perishable commodities, p _- - n 3 ) ( Thus a lot of loss, which used to be thereas a result of non-lifting
of products in time, has been made available due to the diffusion of
innovations. We can say that diffusion of innovations has a direct positive
bearing upon agricultural efficiency. As regards our own country a lot has
been done and we are reaping the benefits in the forms of better efficiency
and consequently increased production. However, Indian farmers are still very much tradition bound and need a lot of effort encouraging and coaxing them to adopt the new, may be equipment, a farmer techniques, a new seeds
or a new chemical fertilizersYlt takes time for an innovation to diffuse throughout a social system because all farmers in a community never adopt
an innovation just after its introduction. There is always a variation among the members of a social system in the way they respond to an innovation i.e.,
idea or practice due to variation in nature and behaviour of different
members within the society and among the societies]) ^-^
5y ( The concept of diffusion of innovation forms an important aspect
in geography, which is a model of time-space relationship. Not only
geographers are involved but sociologists, psychologists and economists are
also paying much attention towards diffusion studies because it is having
inter-disciplinary approach. The term "diffusion" generally refers to
dispersion, spreading out or intermingling whereas scientifically it has more precise meaning (Hagget, 1975)'. Diffusion of innovation is not a quick process, it has two important elements - the time and the space. The spatial
diffusion help in innovation, emigration alteration, change or spread of ideas
occuring in human society. The transfer may be economic, social or psychologicaUy\ccording to Wilson and Kirkby (1975)^^aid that [the ' diffusion also implies the spatial redistribution of some components or / activities, more often than not, emanating from one or more centres J f
ff Development is an innovative process leading to the structural transformation of social system (Friedman, 1969)^ however development is a state of mind which emphasize an individual to use natural reosurces for the benefit of the society (Misra, 1985)^ Innovation according to the Friedmann (1969) is the successful introduction of ideas perceived as new,
into a given social system. The diffusion of innovation invovles directly the
acceptances over time of some specific idea or practice by individuals,
groups or other adopting units (Berry, 1972)V)
(n) f The diffusion studies in the very beginning were conducted by
anthropologists, however, both sociologists and anthropologists have been
interested for a long time. The later part of 19th century witnessed the
establishment of the "diffusion school" of thought in anthropology, opposing
the "evolutionists" argument that each culture given independently of other
following identical evolutionary stages. The evolutionists were believers of
"psychic unity" of man contributed to this process of evolution of each
culture followed by number of stages through independent inventions
discovery of ideas, materials, and practices "diffusionists" countered the
argument by stating man was too uninventive to come up with same ideas and
practices repeatedly. L. '^
(\^ f Bernet (1953)'' identified eight traits which influence the
acceptance of a novelty within a social system, compatibility, efficiency,
advantage, prestige, pleasure, wastery, penalty and cost.) j ^___----'^
(J3 ( (Till 1950s diffusion studies could not get serious attention from
sociologists. Albeit Gabriel Trade and F. Stuart Chapin'' were first to show
that the adoption of new ideas within a social system follows an S-shaped
growth curve.] ) y'
[ly ( / A review of 468 studies on the diffusion of agricultural conducted
until 1967 have shown that the majority of these studies were conducted in North America, especially in United States, followed by Europe and Asia. Of
the 46 studies conducted in Asia until 1967, almost 70 percent were made in
''zj) IndialrWith the humble begining in the early 1960s the diffusion studies
grew rapidly between 1965 and 1974, after some time the decline started in
the number of such studies in between 1975 and 1979, and they came down
almost to a trickle in 1985 to 1990y ^.-—-
(Hy f The diffusion studies in India have been mostly in agricultural
colleges and universities state departments of agriculture and research
institutes. The finding of these studies are expected to assist extension
agencies in encouraging farmers to adopt improved farming practices.) „
(; T. Hagerstand (1952)^ was the first to demosntrate the idea of
diffusion of agricultural innovations. He figured six components in the
process of diffusion i.e. (i) area, (ii) time, (iii) item, (iv) origin, (v)
destination and (vi) path.
(3i7 // Area according to him, the environment or space in which the
process takes place may be uniform or highly marked off. Time is exhibitive
of the stages by which innovation proceeds. Item is the component to be
dispersed. Other three elements are absolutely spatial elements. Origin
refers to the source from where innovations begins and destinations are the
points, which are recipients in the process. Eventually, path is the footmark
or route followed in diffusion process, jj.
^^ (An assured innovation can have more acknowledgements from
human being in the comparison of others. So the process of acceptors
depends upon the significance of an innovation. They may be marked out five vital components of communication : (i) information source, (ii) transmitter,
(iii) channel, (iv) receiver, and (v) destination (Shanon and Weaver, 1949)'^. jj
( Map showing diffusion of innovation marked with two kinds of
locational patterns (Cox, 1972)'°. There are spatial trend and inversion. The
date of innovation on the one hand develop with distance from some site or
sites and on the other hand develop with distance from site or sites at a point
or line. Very absolute differentiation is there, between the two, because in
most case spatial diffusion maps explain links with the elements. Similarly a
composite or ambiguous pattern on maps appear to be confusing and ill
defined. Thus necessitates fitters to break off signals from noise (Gould,
1969)". Diffusion may be mononuclear or polynuclear types depending
whether the originating source diffusion is single or multiple, j __.
\^ /( Hagerstrand (1952) derived a four stage model to explain the
passage of what he named innovation waves more popularly called diffusion
waves. From maps of the diffusion of several innovation ranging from bus
routes to agricultural techniques in Sweden, he drew a series of cross-
sections to present the wave profile at different points of time (tp i^ .... t^^) ]
(Fig. 1.1).
0:31 i A. Primary Stage : This stage marks the begining of the diffusion process,
! which is apparent by the system of the centres of the adoption.
^^ ( B. The Diffusion Stage : It signals the start of the actual spread process in
which diffusion being transmitted and a network of centres of innovation
being raised up even in the remote areas, j
^y \ C. The Condensing Stage : In this stage the relative increase in the numbers 1 /" 6( CM\TjJ I f"'A^ o ' / HIERARCHIC DIFFUSION HYPOTHETICAL PROFILES FOR DIFFUSION WAVES ® U>Mr l*v(l ®
(A) • e Uttlltf
» 0 lAltiij OiiliKCf froa OMiin
Cmt'r
CDlA^lO OOWNWAiOPBtAO fBOH wood i(V(i Swtf: H«fffiln»<
DIFFUSION WAVES INTIHEt SPACE
fC) SLOW UfWABO SFBCAOTO UPMI UVCl
(D) lAIJB OOWHWAIO miAD MOU UMCIIIVCL
^MMt AfUrr.Hivttt
louru: Aflir l.l.U«rriU
Fig. 1.1 II 10 i -''-^ /- J rj u
NORMAL CURVC
^^ Innovotl Eprly Lot* Loggords or« lojorfty IWoJorMy TIME
Innovators Eorly Lolt loijsaMt Majority Mctjority DISTRieUTION OF INNOVATION ACCUMULATINO'THC OlSTRiBUnON ACCEPTORS OF INNOVATION ACCCPTOftS
•.... *•'.. .V V'.' • Jj ... .UPPER LIMIT - a a ^ 100 M (A CC CURVE ^(/ Ul a H SO- //CURVE A u a ••f / O < 60 u. M o 1.0 a 8 0 ^ nwrby (a) a a. 1 2 3 <• 5 $ TIME PERIODS ( T) TIME PERIODS (T)
THELOOISTIC CURVE OF CURVES OP INNOVATION ADOPTION INNOVATION ADOPTION CONTROCEO BY DIFFERENT PARAMETERS*
Fig. 1.2 11
of accepting an item is equal in all locations, regardless of their distance
from the original innovation centre.
(31// D. The Saturation Stage : The final (saturation) stage is marked by slowing
and eventual cessation of the diffusion process, which produces a further
flattening of the acceptance curve. In this final stage, the item being diffused
is accepted throughout the region or country so that there is very little
regional variation (Cliff and Hagget, 1981)'^. Ij
\^^ '' ( Hagerstrand (1968)'^ has observed that if population of adopters is
accumulated and mapped through time, the curve will be logistic or S-shaped
(Fig. 1.2)^
Sources of Data/-^ 2 I
The study is based on the analysis of statistical data covering the
period from 1980-81 to 1997-98, collected from[the secondary data which
has been obtained from the published literature, government reports and
districts statistical bulletins, daily and weekly newspapers and unpublished
records of the public administrative and semi-government agencies. The
soruces of secondary data utilised in the present study are enlisted in the
following succession :
i. Survey of India Toposheet
ii. Census of India Statisfics
iii. State Adminsitration Statistical Bulletin
iv. District Census Handbook .
V Conference Proceedings
vi. Newspapers and periodicals 12
vii. Uttar Pradesh Agricultural Statistical Bulletin
viii. Departmental District Head Office Records) /
(ji^r^ Work Review done SO far j) /> /^ ^,As.vve-/> "* ^~
/Thompson (1926)''* analysed the relatively productivity of British
and Danish farming and expressed it in terms of gross output of crops and
livestock. Ganguly (1938)'^ for computing productivity in agriculture of
Ganga Valley presented a theoretical discussion. Kendall (1939)'^ expressed
the productivity measurement as a mathematical problem and initiated a
system of farm coefficients of productivity, ranking, money value and starch
equivalent or energy. Hirsch (1943)'^ used "Crop yield Index" to measure
productivity. Ryan Bryceus (1948)'^ analysed the diffusion of hybrid seed
cord as technological development in terms of time sequence in cultural
change.
Hagerstrand (1952) explain the idea of diffusion of innovation in
agriculture by enlisting six components in this process (i) area (ii) time,
(iii) item, (iv) origin, (v) destination and (vi) path) Rennet (1953)''^
examined the speedy development of agricultural innovations by considering
the socio-economic conditions of the farmers. Thirumalai (1954)^'' pointed
out the ways to gain immediate and in long term with the use of modern
techniques and implements further he discussed the problems in agricultural
development in India. Stamp (1958)^' applied calorific value of farm
production in measuring the agricultural productivity. Ramsey et al. (1959)^^
examined the problems that arise during acceptance of new innovation and
its diffusion. Shafi (1960)^^ used Kendall's ranking coefficient in calculating 13
; the agricultural efficiency in Uttar Pradesh. Bose (1961)^"\24* explained the j
. characteristics of farmers who adopt the improved practices earlier.
! Commen (1962)^^ measured the productivity on the yield per acre vv'hile
\ working out the trends of agricultural productivity in Keralajrpasgupta
(1963)^^ explained three types of adopters of innovation, viz. innovators
early adopters and late adopters with certain variables) Bose (1964)^''
examined whether the adopting innovation follows any definite pattern) Garg
(1964)^^ explained the trends in agricultural development with respect to
total cropped area gross cropped area^artd food grains production in the
different districts of Uttar Pradesh]/^.lain (1966)^^ emphasised that
mechanisation is highly responsible for raising the agricultural productivity.
. / Panse and Singh (1966)-^'^ analysed that the technological change is one of
j the critical factors in the development of Indian agriculture, which consists
\ of adoption of farming techniquesjf Frank (1967)^' explained that there is no
association between adoption and new farm practices and net farm practices j (^/Bardhan (1970)^2 concluded on intensive study of the effects of the green
revolution on agricultural labours. Chaudhri (1970)-^-^ examined that farmers
\ in order to produce more, need to spend more or improved seeds/inputs,
^ which must be financed without saving or borrowing.! Bose, A.B. (1966)^'^ studied the area of Rajasthan village and
reached an another conclusion that a comparison of diffusion curves of four
separate innovations showed that although they all approximated the S-shaped
curve, they were important difference between them. Bose, S.P. and
Dasgupta, S. (1962)^5 studied innovation in West Bengal, it was found that
innovation varied widely in their rates of diffusion. Dube, S.C. (195(S)^^ 14
found that the advantage of an innovation, however is not always received in
economics terms by its potential adopters., As has been noted the farmers of
western Uttar Pradesh villages rejected a high yielding variety of wheat
because it was perceived to be socially disadvantageous.
Kelkar, A.G. and Sahni A.W. (1965)^'' defined in his studies have
reported statistically significant relation between characteristics of
innovations and their rate of diffusion. Raj S.A., Knight, A.J. (1977)^^
described in their study and found significant correlation between seven
attributes of innovations and their adoption by farmers. Sahni, P.V. and Pawar,
M.D. (1966)^^ analysed the diffusion of innovations in study conducted in
Maharashtra villages, as cost was not found to have a negative influence on
the adoption behaviour of farmers at all.
Tripathi, S.N. and Dantal, S. (1974)'*'^ described the innovation of
Uttar Pradesh as in which farmers were asked to rank eight innovation
attributes in terms of their importance in influencing adoption behaivour,
profitability communicaiblity and cost were ranked as the three top
attributes. Chaudhari, D.P. and Saini, G.R. (1968)"^' emphasized of diffusion
of innovation in two Tamil Nadu villages. Danda A. and Diplai D. (1971)'^2
expressed it in terms of farmer do not make eocnomic decisions in isolation
from social and cultural consideration of West Bengal villages.
Singh, T.R. and Singh, S.N. (1980)''^ pointed out significance of
innovation as there can be great variation among farmers in the way
innovation attributes are perceived. Parek Udai and Singh, Y.R (1966)'^'^ analysed the significance of innovation in Punjab villages by four 15
innovations, high yielding variety of seeds, hybrid corn, 2-4, D spray and
wheat threshers. Reddy, K.J. and Reddy, G.B. (1972)'^^ examined his view on
the adoption of improved agricultural practices in Andhra Pradesh. Singh
Madan and Mathur, P.N. (1984)"^^ analysed it in terms of constraints analysis
in adoption of fertilizers and plant protection measures in Bajra cultivation.
Waghmare, S.K. and Pandit, V.R. (1982)'*'' expressed it as constraint in
adoption of wheat technology by tribal farmers of Madhya Pradesh.
Sanoria, Y.C. (1970)'^^ pointed out on socio-economic factors in
adopting farm practices in Punjab on the farmers who discontinued the use
of an innovation did not all necessarily come from lower socio-economic
groups. Sinha, M.N. and Sinha, P.R.P. (1974)'^^ expressed it as in terms of
adoption process as operating with artificial insemination in cattle by 143
farmers in four Punjab villages. Dasgupta, Debabaratra and Sadataldas Gupta
(1978)^*' described agricultural innovation as awareness of an innovation by
farmers proceeds at a faster rate than its adoption.
Bose, A.B. (1966)^' analysed the innovation as in terms of the
length of the adoption period of earlier adopters is shorter than that of later
adopters. Padhria, M.M. and Patel, I.C. (1975)^^ expressed it as in term of
adoption pattern of recommended farm practices in Gujrat. Junghare, Y.N.
(1962)'^ defined the innovation as it is measure an improvement over the preceeding one is that it not only differentiates between adopters and non- adopters but also between adopters according to the degree of their adoption behaviour.
Tripathi, S.L. and Chhotdal Misra (1971)^^ pointed out it as social personal factors and new ideas in farming in five district of Uttar Pradesh. 16
Reddy, S.K. and Marthy, D.R. (1973)^^ analysed the adoption behaviour in his method of classifying adoption was conducted in Andhra Pradesh.
Sengupta, T. (1968)^^ examined the adoption process and adopted categories with the use of mean and standard deviation. Deb, P.C. and Sharma, M.L.
(1967)" defined the adoption process as farmers are then divided into a number of adopter categories by using arbitrary cut off points in their adoption scores in Punjab villages. Dasgupta, Satadal (1974)^^ pointed out the adoption process as more improved variants of this measure is represented by what is called "years of use adopted applicable practices".
Shelly, N.S. (1968)^^ examined the adoption categories of agricultural innovation in terms of the adopter distribution, however does not always closely conform to the normal distribution and the percent distributions of farmers into five adopter categories for three recommended farmering practices in the Mysore villages showed from the normal distributions. Reddy, K.J. and Reddy, G.B. (1972)^^^ measured the adoption used and the procedure followed to the classify adopters into three categories and called them innovators, early adopters and late adopters.
Singh, S.N. and Reddy, S.K. (1965)6' defined it in his paper adoption of improved agricultural practices by farmers. Aggrawal, B.K. and
Deb, P.C. (1974)62 expressed the adopter process in term of socio-economic context of differential agricultural development in Punjab. Bose, A.B.
(1966)6'' analysed it in his paper of relative importance of socio-economic factors in adoption of innovation. Sachachidananda (1972)^^ defined the adoption categories in his paper of socio-dimensions of agricultural development of Delhi. 17
Pareek, Udai and Chattopadhyay, S.N. (1966)^^ expressed the adoption quotient in term of it is a measure of multi-practice adoption behaviour developed in several dimensions : potential, extent, time consistency and weight. Alam, M.O. (1965)^^ Joshi, Pushkar Lai {\91lf\
Mishra, G.L.N. K. and S. Sahoo (1976)^^ Nirwal, R.S. and Arya, B.S.
(1974)69 defined the adopter characteristics and personal characteristics such as the relationship between the age of farmers and their adoption behaviour. This is explained by the fact that young people are hardly in a positive to make decisions about adopting agricultural innovations. Basran,
G.S. (1970)''" examined the adoption behaviour of the people as the young people have a lack of experience in farming, they hesitate to make a decision of adoption practices by themselves without consulting their older and more experienced kinsmen.
Singh, S.N. and Reddy, S.K. (1965)^' analysed the point of literacy and education as there is no relationship between litracy and education and the adoption of new practices and found that the farmers who were literate had a significantly higher level of adoption than those who were non- literates. Akhori, M.M.P. and Singh, K.P. (1974)^^ defined there is no relationship between literacy and adoption of HYV of wheat and bajra. Bose,
Santipriya (1961)^^ found that there is no any relationship between the tenure status of farmers and their adoption behaviour. Dasgupta, Satadal
(1975)'"* expressed there is close relationship between caste and tenure status and these affects the nature of agricultural activities in Indian villages and adoption behaviour of farmers. Chaukidar, V.V. and George, P.S. (1972)^^ found in his study that non-adopters belongs to mostly to lower castes. Bose, S.R, Dasgupta, S., Rudra, B. and Biswas, T. (1964)^^
Dasgupta Satadal and Madan, G.R. (1978)^^ Mulay, S. and Roy, G.L.
(1965)^^ Patel, B.T. and Patel, H.W. (1973)^^ pointed out the adoption behaviour and found that the level of adoption was higher among farmers belonging to castes of intermediate status to whom farming was a traditional caste occupation than among farmers who belonged to castes of high ritual status. Dasgupta, Satadal (1963)^° expressed the social participation of
farmers in West Bengal and found to participate in a wide variety of formal organizations. Co-operative, agricultural marketing society, Kisan samity,
school committee, village development committee, village library, village
defence party congress committee, and Hat committee, Shetty, N.S. (1969)^'
concluded the social participation had a positive impact only on the adoption behaviour of farmers who were non-literate.
Fliegel, Frederick, C.R, Roy, L.K. Sen and Kelvin, J.E. (1969)^^ expressed is terms of adoption and found that there is positive relationship between extension and adoption in the villages of Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra and West Bengal. Reddy, S.K. and Kelvin, J.E. (1968)^^ pointed out the contact of farmers as in terms of there is greater degree of contact of farmers with extension personnel, the greater are the possibilities of farmers being influenced to adopt agricultural innovations. Reddy, S.K.
(1968) analysed the agricultural innovation and fund that the relationship between the material level of living of farmers, rather than the socio economic status and their adoption behaviour. Bose, S.P. (1965)^'^,
Choudhary, K.M. and Maharaja, M. (1966)^^ Tyagi, K.C. and Sohal, T.S.
(1984)^^ examined the relationship of knowledge about agricultural 19 innovations, aspirations, occupation and farming efficiency to adoption behaviour to the farmers. There is positive relationship between farming efficiency and adoption behaviour.
Bose, Santipriya and Satadal Dasgupta (1962)^'' emphasised on the traditional values and agricultural innovations. Bose, S.P. (1964) analysed that the modernization of peanut values and adoption behaviour. Junghare,
Y.N., Rahudkar, W.B. (1962)^^ Malik, Rashila (1979)^^ Rajaguna, Gand C.
Salapathy (1973)^'^ expressed on the influence of family on the adoptio'h behaviour of farmers in India are relatively few in number. Bhowmik, K.L.
(1978)^' examined the relationship between adoption behaviour and family as in term of these are positive relationship between the size, structure and educational status of the members of a farmer's family and his adoption behaviour. Das, Puranjan, Jyotirmoy Basu, Roychoudhry and S.K. Santra
(1973)92, Sharma, S.K. and Potti, V.S.S. (1966)'^^ emphasised on the existence of reference groups (reference group is a group to which the individual relates himself as a part or to which he aspires to relations self psychologically among Indian farmers and their influence on adoption behaviour.
Bose, S.P. and Basu, S.K. (1963)^'' pointed out that in a village a farmers adoption of recommended farm practices was influenced by the adoption of his friends, relatives and work exchange groups. Dasgupta, S.
(1966)9^ expressed his views on the community factors in aodption of agricultural innovations. Fliegel, Fredrick, C. (1969)9^ Kilvin, J.E., Fliegel,
F.C. and Sen, L.K. (1968)^^ explained it in term as there was a significant associaotn between the level of adoption of village audits access to 20 extension agencies, urban centres, and the mass media, population size and literacy, non human reosurces such as availability of electricity, equipment and transportation and organizational, leadership and caste structures.
Dasgupta, S. (1966)^^ found in his study that farmers operating holdings of similar size but belonging to different castes have been found to differ in adoption behaviour.
Dasgupta, S. (1975)^^ explained the castes structure of a village affects its level of adoption of agricultural innovations. Singh, Shrinath
(1976)'°° find the relationship between cast structure and modern technology in a study of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Singh, Avtar (1973)'°' explained the agricultural development as that villages with high level of adoption and agricultural development have also been found to have extensive participation of its residents in activities related to its development. Kalamegam, E.V. and Radhakrishna Menon, K. (1977)'°^ explained the relationship between soruces of information and adoption behaviour of the farmers. Supe, S.V. (1971)'°-^ analysed it in terms of there is a statistically significant positive correlation between the use of the print mass media and adoption behaviour. Shetty, N.S. (1969)'°^* pointed out his view of use of adoption in Mysore villages as about one fifth of the famaers in this villages used the mass media in the awareness stage for information on improved seeds and chemical fertilizers.
Lakshmanna, C. and Satyanarayana, M. (1969)'°^ Parshad, R. and
Sinha, P.R.R. (1971)'°^ analysed the adoption behaviour as there is negative relationship between age and use of institutional soruces of information.
Singh, K.N., Singh, R.R and Mishra, A.R (1971)'°^ explained use of 21 institutional soruces and mass media, increased with increasing level of literacy and formal education of farmers in Bihar villages. Rahudkar, W.B.
(1962)'*^^ analysed the adoption process such as that there is a significant association between the size of holding and use of information sources.
Singh, B.N. and Jha, P.N. (1965)'^^ reported a relationship between the caste status of farmers and their use of information soruces. They found that farmers belonging to upper castes used institutional sources more frequently than those of lower castes. Mathura, P.N., Singh, K.N. and Lokhande, M.R.
(1974)110 examined that there is positive relationship between the socio economic status of farmers and communication behaviour.
Rahudkar, W.B. (1962)'" found that the whole diffusion process as
Y-pattern in Indian villages. The agricultural information first reaches the large farmers from mass media and extension agents, who in turn inform and influence other farmers in a village to adopt an innovation.
Mass media Extension Agents
Large Farmers
Small farmers
Fig. Y-pattern of Diffusion of information and innovations.
Bose, A.B. and Saxena, P.C. (1966)"2, Deb, P.C. and Sharma, ML.
(1968)"3, Dubey, V.K. (1972)i'^ Raju, K. Neeladri (1969)i>5 all of these explained that there is positive relationship between the adoption behaviour communication process. 22
Bose, A.B. (1966)"^ Rose, S.P. (1964) and Shankar, R. (1979)"^ analysed the diffusion of innovations as there is definite pattern in which innovations diffuses within a community. They have also defined further that the adopters of an innovation over time within a social system ahve shown that the resulting curve assumes the form of a S-shaped growth curve.
Hagerstrand (1975)"^ explained the concept of diffusion as an immitable model of time-space relationship, which forms an improtant aspect in geography. Mohammad, N. (1976)"^ pointed out that for increasing production and bringing about a remarkable result immediately after the introduction of an innovation. Bhalla (1977)'^° examined that the variation in the agricultural productivity is important mainly by the nature of various inputs of technology. Shafi (1981)'^' pointed out that the irrigation is indeed the surest way in which agricultural production could be increased.
Shafi (1981) explained the agricultural development depends on a larger extent to the level of technology and the system of farming. Mohammad. N.
(1981)'^^ emphasised that the use of modern technology for bringing about a change in agriucltural output. Mohammad (1981) examined that India can increase its agricultural production to a larger extent, if adequate and assured irrigation faiclities are made available. Sharma, A.N. (1984)'^^ suggested that all agricultural productivity acfivides requires for their sustenance to some degree of credit. Arshad. M. (1986)'^'* explained that the introduction of HYV along with new technology and fertilizers alone could not balance agricultural production. Vasant, N.S. (1987)'^^ emphasised that the supply and application of all other inputs needed for irrigated agriculture can produce sufficient foodgrain for over increasing population of India. Ghose, B.N. (1997)'^^ examined that there are different types and
forms of diffusion. These are some of the theories on the diffusion of
innovation which are given by different geogrpahers in different way.
/ Methodology j f)p ;; \ 2'i> ^^^/AVS
The qualitative and quantitative techniques have been used for the
analysis of the present study are as under : j
(1) Descriptive approach has been adopted to put down the acocunt of
physico-cultural account of study area, j
(ii) Interpolation method has been followed to represent relief of the
region by taking spot heights as the base, j
(iii) For determining the development of agriculture by technoinstitutional
factors, per thosuand hectre of land has been chosen as unit of
mechanization, by knowing the number of electronic pumps, tractors,
threshers, fertilizer drillers, seed drillers, diesel pumps, ploughs per
thousand hectare. Besides, size of holding and consumption of
fertilizer kg per hectare. J
Kj/f) ((iv) Weaver's minimum deviation method has been used to find out
^ different crop combination regions. Formula is given as : d = [(d'-)/n]
by calcualting deviation from the real percentages of crops for all
possible combinations in the compound aerial units against theoretical
standard.
( (v) Kendall's Ranking method has been used to analyse the various crops
under different scale of preference over a period of time. 7 24
/ (vi) For the determination of productivity the value is represented in terms
of Rs. per hectare by per unit of area converting the volume of products
of all the crops into Rs. at current price. I
agriculture productivity and diffusion innovations. Standard score
(Z score) is represented by X-Y Z= SD
where Z = Standard score X = Original value of the observation X = Mean of all values of X SD = Standard deviation of X
^ (^Hypotheses^ ^ 2 3
V 1 . Thpe farmerfarmprQs onf Ilarg e size of holdings tend to adopt improved
agricultural practices more than the farmers of other size of holdings. A I 2. The rate of adoption among owner farmers is high as compared to
•%i ^ owner share-cropper or share-share cropper. ]
3. ^ The farmers having adequate and assured irrigation faiclities are more
.^^ adoptive of agricultural innovations as compared to others.] ' V ^ 4. "" Adequate and timely availability of power tend to promote speedy
4 adoption of agricultural innovations among farmers. \ s 5NS Availability of adequate and timely credit facilities promotes quick •"*? adoption of agriculture innovations. ; ^^ 25
' 6. Availability of incentives in the form of subsidies tends to promote
speedy adoption of improved agricultural practices. ' / 7. Timely and adequate availability of inputs promotes adoption of
agricultural innovations. / / \( 8. The rate of adoption of an innovation is positively related to its
ultimate returns, j
'. Availability of incentives in the form of assured fair prices for
agricultural produce tends to promote speedy adoption of agricultural I innovations.
10. The high adoption diffusion of innovations is direclty proportional to
high productivity^ \
UfM)^ Objectives j ^. ) i.
assess the advancement in agriculture and to analyse the I contribution of different techno-institutional factors i.e. number of electric pumps per thousand hectares, number of threshers, number of seed drillers, number of diesel pumps, number of ploughs, number of tractors per thosuand hectare, different soruces of irrigation and size of land holdings.
2. To identify the interdistrict variations in agricultural development and trend of diffusion of innovations, j
3. To establish relationship between area and yield and area and production. )
4. To identify the factors cause variations in yield in different districts. 26
including specific technological inputs irrigation, fertilizers, HYV and use of implements.]
5. To trace out the association of various crops i.e. crop combination regions and inter district variations in crop combination.
6. To represent the rank of various crops. \
7. To identify the factors of diffusion of innovations i.e. size of holding,
tenure status, income and economic status, availability of irrigation,
commercial orientation, caste status, socio-economic status and mass
media. ]
8. To identify different productivity region based on per hectare
productivity in terms of Rs. per hectare.]
9. To establish relationship between irrigation facilities, consumption of
fertilizers, use of implements and level of diffusion of innovations, j 27
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109. Singh, B.N. and Jha, P.N., Utilization of Sources of Information in Relation to Adoption of Improved Agricultural Practices, Indian Journal of Extension Education, 1965, vol. 1, pp. 32-42.
110. Mathur, P.N., K.N. Singh and Lokhande, M.R., Sources Utilization and Rate of Spread of Information on High Yielding Varieties of wheat in a Farming Community, Indian Journal of Extension Education, 1974, vol. 10, pp. 23- 29.
111. Rahudkar, W.B., Communication of Farm Information in Indian Community, Indian Journal of Social Work, 1962, vol. 23, pp. 99-103.
112. Bose, A.B., and Saxena, P.C, Opinion Leaders in a Village in western Rajasthan, Man in India, 1966, vol. 46, pp. 121-130.
113. Deb, P.C. and Sharma, M.L., Informal Leaders and Technological Change in Aghcuhure, Sociological Bulletin, 1968, vol. 17, pp. 133-140.
114. Dubey, V.K., Socio-cultural characteristics - influencing farm. Decision, Society and Culture, 1972, vol. 3, pp. 85-88.
115. Raju, K., Neeladan, Adoption of Selected Agricultural Practices: A Study of Leaders and Non-Leaders. Behavioural Sciences and Community Development, 1969, vol. 3, pp. 114-125.
116. Bose, A.B., Relative importance of Some Socio-economic Factors in the Adoption of Innovations. Indian Journal of Social Research, 1966, vol. 7, pp. 8-13.
117. Shankar, R., Literacy and Adoption of Improved Agricultural Practices, Indian Journal of Adult Education, 1979, vol. 40, pp. 31-38.
118. Hagerstrand, T., Geography : A Modern Synthesis, Harper and Row, New York, 1975, p. 296.
119. Mohammad, N., Technological Change and its Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations, The Geographer, Vol. 23(1), 1976, pp. 4-14.
120. Bhalla, S., Agricultural growth - Role of Institution and Infra-Structure Factors, Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 12, No. 45, 1977, p. 1898.
121. Shafi, M., Increasing our Agricultural Production, The Geographer, vol. 28, No. 1, 1981, p. 1-8. 36
122. Mohammad, N., Technological change and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations, Perspectives in Agricultural Geography, New Delhi, Vol. 5, 1981, pp. 317- 318. 123. Sharma, A.N., Economic Structure of Indian Agriculture, Bombay, 1984. 124. Arshad, M., Has Green Revolution made any Impact, Yojana, vol. 30, No. 23, 1986, p. 11. 125. Vasant, N.S., Development of Irrigation and Power in India, Yojana, vol. 31, No. 6, April 1987, p. 20. 126. Ghose, B.N., The Theories of Diffusion : Some Empirical Observations on Agricultural Activities in Rural Areas, Indian Journal of Regional Science, vol. 24, No. 4, 1997, pp. 1-18. Chapfer-II
GENERAL PHYSICAL SETTING AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF UTTAR PRADESH
Geographical Background
Agricultural development^layjan important role in the economic
development of the country. India is a vast country, the level of economic
development achieved in the various states will finally determine the
economic development of the country. Keeping in view the magnitude of the
population and vastness of area, the economic development of Uttar Pradesh
has an important role to play in the economic development of India.
The contribution of agriculture and allied sectors in the total
income of the state is populatio^ of the state resid^-^ ?^
in rural areas^and 75% of the total workers are employed in agriculture as
cultivators and agricultural labours. Agriculture in large areas in Uttar
Pradesh suffers from low technology and the production of crops is traditional. The technology used is labour intensive and production is dependent upon the amount of labour that the cultivator is able to put in.lKe farmers lack knowledge about soil and water conservation, and land management practices are inefficient. Low yield results in lack of capital which leads to poor investment in infrastructure and poor investment results in low return. Poor irrigation(faiclitiesNabsence of farm building, agricultural machinary and equipment, warehouses and market-yards, all affect adversely the source of the farmer's income.
Uttar Pradesh is one of the largest and most compact st^te^nd situated in the northern part of India between 23°52' N and 30°10' N and 38
77°10' E and 84°39' E. It is land locked state and known till January 1950 as the United Provinces. It is bounded by Tibet, Nepal and Uttranchal on the north, by Haryana on the west, by the Rajasthan on the southwest, by Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh on the south and by Jharkhand on the southeast and by Bihar on the east.
The state of Uttar Pradesh sprawls over 247321 square kilometers except Uttranchal covering about 9 percent of the country's area. The state had a total pcipualjtion of 139.1 millions in 1991 consisting 16.5 percent of the country population. Now Uttar Pradesh covers only 240928 square kilometers of total area of the country because this is divided into two states as U.P. and Uttranchal in the year 2000. According to the Census of India
2001, Uttar Pradesh had a total population of 166,054859 constituting
16.16% of the country population. Infact, if U.P. was an independent political entitym^ould have ranked., fifth/in the population size in thewoda (Table
2.1). Before division of Uttranchal, Uttar Pradesh had 83 districts for administrative purposes, but now it is divided into 70 districts. In this present work, we will analyse the agricultural data of Uttar Pradesh since 1980's and the data of newly formed districts are included in old district from which its formed (Fig. 2.1).
Agricultural Productivity is the function of number of factors \ including physical (relief, altitude, climate, soil) socio-economic (size of holding, tenancy system, occupational structure of population, literacy/i level) and technical organizations, crop rotation, irrigation use of chemical 1 fertilizer and mechanisation. All these factors are highly variables andi' dynamic both in space and time leading to spatio-temporal variations in 39
UTTAR PRADESH ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS 2001
LOCATION o71 ^UTTAR PRADESH IN INDIA
JHARKHAND
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES CHHATISGARH STATE BOUNDARIES. DISTRICT BOUNDARIES 20 0 20 40 60 80 23" STATE CAPITAL o DISTRICT HEADQUARTERS Km.
78° 79° 80" 81° 32" 83° 84" I I I Source: Based upon Survey of India with the permission of the Surveyor General of India (c) Govt, of India Copyright, 2001
Fig. 2.1 Population of World, leading CounUles In 2000 compared with India and Uttar Pradesh fin OOO'l Males Fomalo5 Sox Ratio "N^TTWO r i d/Coyrij 3.005.616 985 World Jl.275.133 155,702 619.431 China 531j277 495,738 933 139,655 ¥: 143.575 1028 1025 _170,406 84.169 86.238 1135 jU5,491 18,130 ^ 77.361 88134^ 945 _14i.25i J2122 940 J3L439 70158. 66.582 X 64,884 1043 _12L096 12x211 1032 59.415 _29x241 ^ 30.173 78.587 898 T 87.466 source, or^ _^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ 2G01 Census 40
agricultural productivity. Therefore, in order to do rational and scientific
planning for the agricultural development of an area at any level, it is
imperative to assess the agricultural productivity of the region and also
imapct of diffusion of innovation in the study area.
TTj Table 2.1 Population of World, leading countries in 2000 compared with India and Uttar Pradesh (J:.X i. /4 7^fee (in 000)
S.No. World/ Persons Male Females Sex ratio country World 6,056,715 3,051,099 3,005,616 985 1. China 1,275,133 655,702 619,431 945 2. India 1,027,015 531,277 495,738 933 3. USA 283^230 139,655 143,575 1028 4. Brazil r70,406 84,169 86,238 1025 5. U.P. 166,053 87,466 78,587 898 6. Russia 145,491 68,130 77,361 1135 7. Pakistan 141,256 72,622 68,634 945 8. B.Desh 137,439 70,858 66,582 940 9. Japan 127,096 62,212 64,884 1043 10 UK 59,415 29,242 30,173 1032
Source : UN Economic and Populaltion Division, Department of Economics & Social Affairs. ^Provisional Total of 2001 census."
-• • / ''•'u. A The diffusion of agricultural innovation is depending upon the"^ quality of demographic factors. The physical attributes of an area become resource only when the people are able to use them. The relation between population and landuse of reciprocal. Hence, the pressure of population male, female ratio, literacy level, agriculture main workers, agricultural 41
labourers, density of population, scheduled caste and scheduled tribes population have been analysed in the region at the district level. J
Physical Features
Structurally, Uttar Pradesh is a part of Indo-Gangetic plain, which Ij ^'PL ^
lies between peninsular India and the recently built Himalayan chain/The
plain is 400 km wide in its broadest part and about 2400 km long.jThe
geological evolution of the plain remains a matter for discussion.
(Eduard Sucess,/the Australian geologist, suggests that the plain,
constituted ai^Force Deepyin front of the high crest wave checked by the
inflexible solid mass of the peninsula.' The rivers rising from the Himalayas
brought an immense amount of detritus and deposited in this depression. The
deposition of the alluvium continued all through the Pleistocene period up
to the present and has led to the formation of the plain.^
S.G. Burrard, on the basis of the Geological data arrived at a totally different view of the origin of this depresison. He considered that the plain occupies a drift valley with parallel faults on its two sides and with a maximum downthrow of 20 miles.^ This view has few geological facts in its support and is not in confirmity with the goelogical and geogrpahical observations."^
The next and more recent view in this regards this region as a sag -; in the crust formed between the worthwar^rifting Indian subcontinents^n the south and the comparatively soft sediments accumulated in the/Teltyair^s well as in the connected basins on the north the crumpling of the sediments resulted in the formation of a mountain system.^ 42 /" T / On the basis of characteristics Gondawana rocks found on the 1 (> / northern rims of the alluvial beU. Wadia and Auden maintain, that the)'1
peninsular rocks (vizCArchanigenesis) continuous inside the plain. Th^
continued loading of this belt by sedimentation since the first uplift of th^
mountains may have accentuated the sinking of the Archaen floor, but at the
process of sedimentation kept place with that of the depression, there arost
the great plain of India.^y
During the monsoon of/rainfall soil nutrients are washed down to
th/dipppr horizon of the soil, but the process of leaching is intercepted in
dry summer and extensive evaporation exerts a capillary pull on the solution
in the pores of the soil. On reaching the surface, the solution evaporates
leaving behind crystallised salt in the form of white incrustration. Alkaline
formation is characteristically a dominant constituent of the old alluvium.
Clay and sodium clay reacting with kankar nodules, which liberate sodium
carbonate are turned into calcium clay.''
Glennie, introducing a HOP
that since the rocks of the peninsula bordering on the southern edge of r\ /gangetic plains contain mineral capable of causing magnetic effects,
magnetic investigation should yield important results.
The total thickness of alluvium is not known. The deepest bored hole at Lucknow in uttar Pradesh is about 450 meters and has not touched the rock bottom. R.D. Oldham on the basis of geodetic data, considered that the Gangetic through reaches, a depth of 5000 to 7000 metres towards it northern edge and that its floor has a fairly regular upward slope to the southern edge.^ 10 Agricultural Productivity and Regional Imbalances
Tlic Kapii It is another tributary of tiic Ghaghara to join on its left bank. It rises in the lower ranges of Nepal at an elevation of 3,600 m. After traversing a distance of 150 km. within Nepal itenters the Bahraich district of the stale. It then flows in a south-easlcriy direction through the districts of Gonda and Basti, and joins the Ghaghara near Barhaj in the district of Gorakhpur. The Rapti also inundates large territory on both the banks. But flooding is beneficial because of the fine silt left behind, which makes the land fertile and productive.
Phy,sical divisions The state of Uttar Pradesh on the basis of its relief and surface ^ drainage cati be divided into following broad physical (Im^ions: f{\) Montane tract, (II) Sub-montane tract, (111) The Ganga plain, and (IV) The trans-Yamuna tract!)
Montane tract -The montane tract constitutes the extreme northern part of the state (Fig. 1.2, I). This region is separated by the rivers Tons from liiniachal J'radesb in the west and by the Kali from Nepal in the eastJ Rising abruptly from the sub-montane tract in the south, the region extends up to the snow-glad peaks of Himadri, rnaking the Indo-Tibetan boundary./I'his region includes the districts of Utia^ Kashi, Chamoli, Almora, Garhwal, Tehri-Garhwal, Pithofflgarh and parts of Dehra Dun and Nami Tal districts. In respect of area this region stands fourth among the physical divisions of Uttar Pradesh and fifth as re.gard the population. /This region is marked with gradual changes in physical features of climate and vegetation as one moves from the plain towards the hills) On the basis of the physiographic attributes such as absolute and relative reliefs, the region-may be divided into three major sub-divisions: The Greater lUinalayas: It is a zone about 50 km. wide with a mean relief between 4,};00 m. and 6,000 m. The relief culminates ill the peaks of Nanda Devi (7,817 m.) and Kamct (7,756 ni.). This sub-division consists of four groups of snow-clad peaks 43
(/ The nature of deposits is consist of silts and clays with occasional
gravels. The rocks in general are everywhere of alluvialite and subarial •
formations, massive beds of clay, either sandy or calcarious, corresppond to
the silt, mud and sandy of modern rivers.^ Jhe deepest ^rehola, i.e., at
Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh only 1336 feet and this also did not touch the
rock bottom.'*l The Geologist believe that the maximum depth of the
alluvium is near the foot of the Himalayas and becomes shallower towards
the peninsula in the west of Delhi and Rajmahal hill.^M
H.M. Gorioie using the same data adopted even higher figures. In
the opinion of E.A. Glennie, the thickness of alluvium is about 2000 meters.
The figure calculated by Glennie confirms with geodetic data though not
with the geological fact. It cannot be regarded as reliable, and may well be
higher. 0Th e state of Uttar Pradesh on the basis of its relief and surface drainage can be divided into following broad physical divisions: (a) Montane
tract, (b) Submontane tract, (c) The Ganea plain and (d) Trans Yamuna tract.) f (1) Montane Tract : Montane tract constitutes the extreme northern part of
the state. This region is separated by the rivers Tons from Himachal Pradesh
in the west by the Kali from Nepal in the easjjj^This region includes the
districts of Uttranchal|(This region is marked with gradual changes in
physical features of climate and vegetation as one more from plains towards
the hills\\
The Himalayan tract is a part of montane tract. This region is now
in Uttranchal state. This tract is the extreme north comprises the Kumaon 12 Agricultural Productivity and Regional Imbalances
has its source in the Yamunotri glacier lying on the south western slopes of the Bandar-puncb peak. The Lesser Himalayas : It is of an approximate width of 75 km. and is a tangled mass comprising a series of ridges separated from each other by deep valleys. The average relief of the ridges in this zone ranges between 1,500 and 2,700 m. and of valley bottoms between 500 and 1,200 m. This zone is separated from the Siwaliks by the main 'Boundary Thrust'. In the outer fringe of the Lesser Himalayas lies the lake basins confined to a belt of 25 km. long and 4 km. wide in the disirict of Naini Tal. Besides the Naini Tal lake basin, a number of lakes are found in the outer fringe forming low lying open lake basins. But many of these lake basins are very small in their extensions. The Siwaliks : They extend in form of a long chain of ,narrow and low hills stretching from the northwest to southeast direction pa/alid io the n-ir.jor-range<; of the Lesser Himalayas. Thus, the Siwaliks form the outer range of the Himaiayaii system. Lithologically, these ranges are quite different from those of the Lesser Himalayas, and from the viewpoint of relief they have a remarkable even crest between 750 m. and 1,200 m. On the southern slopes they have steep scarps, while on the north they descend gently to the duns. The duns are flat-9onred structural valleys filled with recent gravels derived from the Lesser ]-limalayas up to a height of 350 m. above the plain 5. Dehra i/jw is the largest and most developed among all i:?uni'." It is 35 km. long and 25 km. wide, and rises from 360 m. along the Yamuna and Ganga rivers to 660 m. in the middle and to 900 m^ near the foothills. In the Greater and Lesser Himalayas as well as in the Siwaliks, hill tops, terraced slopes, river valleys and duns have been brought under cultivation. However, limited irrigation facilities lead to the cultivation of inferior crop, such as, mandua (small millet) which is grown normally with a great success.
Sub-Montane tract^ This region forms a rnarro w tract along the foothills stretching from the distr-'cts of Bijnor up to GorakhpurJ(Fig. 1.2.11). This zone is formed of three distinct portions. First, the tract of 44
and part of the Dehradoon district. This region is mountaineous with some
very high peaks (of which Nanda Devi is the highest 7817 mts.). The snow
clad peak give rise the several rivers which carry silt to the plains rendering
the land fertile for the agriculture. These rivers provide the perennial source
of irrigation and the sites for generating hydel power (Fig. 2.2).
f (ii) The Submontane Tract ^This region forms a narrow tract along the
foot hills stretching from the districts of Bijnour up to Gorakhpur^The
submontane tract lies between the Ganga and Sarda rivers has two distinct
portions. Immediately below the hills lies a strip of land called the Bhabar
means porous. A large portion of Bhabar is covered with forest. Below the
Bhabar is a wider strip of land called tarai, a damp and marshy tract covered
for the most part of with thick jungle and tall grasses. ^
/ ' (iii) The Ganga Plain : This region consists vast level expanse of alluvium ^ and includes more than two third of the total area of Uttar Pradesh. This is
economically the most valuable and important part of the state.
Agriculturally the soils of alluvial tract of U.P. are highly productive and
constitute one of the most fertile formations of the country. The soils
respond very well to manuring and have widely adaptable cropping patterns
in their various agro-climatic regions. They have immense potential for
increased production of crops and it is from these soils that the production
level have lately been increased through adopting high yielding varieties
crops and improved practices of cultivation. This tract can further be
subdivided into five regions.
(a) The Ganga-Yamuna Doab : It is very fertile tract and has been enriched ( by the alluvial deposits of both the rivers. Agriculture in this region is Physical Setting ]]
UTTAR PRADESH PHY5(C*L DIVISIONS
tl Ult-HOhlABl IX«C1 01 t>AM6An.JUM
•^•5^1.- r-'--..
i .V /
FIG. 1.2
(ii) Gangotri (6,614 m.), Keciarnath (6,940 m.) and Chaukhaniba (7,138 m.), (iii) Kamet (7,756 m.), and (iv) Nanda Devi (7,817 m.) Dunagiri (7,066 m.), Trisul (7,120 m.), and Nanda Kot (6,816 m.). The four groups of peaks have been separated by transverse gorges of the Badrinath, Alaknanda and the Dhauli Ganga. The sources of the river Ganga and Yamuna lie in the glaciers of this region. The Rhagirathi and the Alaknanda are the (wo iit'ji(hva(cr,s oflhc river (i(ifi;'a vvliicli ori/jinafe.s Hdm the opposite .sides of (he Chaukhaniba peak. Tlic river Yamuna 45
IV
UTTAR PRADESH PHYSICAL DIVISIONS
I -SUB- MONTANE TRACT II -GANGA PLAIN a -Gaiiga-Yaimma Doab b -G-inga-Gomti Iiiterfliive c -Gomti-Glvaghaia Interfluv^ d -Trans- Ghaglura Districts e -RolvUkkaitd Districts III-TRANS-YAMUNA TRACT
Source: Based Upon Map of Survey of India
Fig. 2.2 14 Agricultural Productivity and Regional Imbalances
(a) The Ganga-Yamuna Doab, (b) Ganga-Gomti Inter- fiuve, (c) Gomti-Ghaghara Interfluve, (d) Trans-Ghaghara Tract, and (e) Rohilkhand Txact (Fig. 1.2, III). §''jThe Ganga-Yamuna doab^Ths two rivers, viz., Ganga and Yamuna have enriched the plain with fertile alluvial deposits. The Doab is roughly 832 km. in length and 104 km. in width in the upper part and covers an area of about 58,400 sq. km. (Fig. 1.2, Ilia). It appears like a trough between the Himalayas and the Deccan plateau, and rises above 400 m. above the sea level. The low lying areas along the river banks are called kbadar while the high lying areas are known as bharigar. The soil of khadar is renewable through floods and changes in river courses. The alluvial deposits brought by Himalayan rivers generally consist of sediments, silt and clays with occasional gravel belt. This portion is the most fertile part of the state, possessing the highest agricultural productivity level. "^ f' Ganga-Gomti interfluvejlhe area covered by the Ganga- Gomti Interfluve (Fig 1.2iTlb) is less fertile as compared to that of Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The reason for the 'relatively lower order of fertility of this region is that the major part of the area is under the command of the river Gomti and its tributaries which emanate from a lake. Due to the gentle slope of the plain the river Gomti flowsi n a tortuous course forming numerous small seasonal lakes, which dry up in the summers and get flooded during the rainy season, and cause water-logging, and also inundate large areas. On account of gentle gradient this tract receives less of silt and more of sand during the floods which reduce the fertility status of the soil. > Gomti-Gkaghra intcrfluve\. It lies between the rivers Go:;iti and Ghaghara (Fig. 1.2 lllb). The fertility status of the soil fur ther goes down because of the fact that the Ghaghara brings lot of sand in the plain as it descends from the mountains, so that the command area of this river has a higher percentage of sandy silt. As the agricultural practices largely depend on moij,soon rainfall, significant variations are noticed in agricultural pro duction, due io variations in rainfall and soil types. 46
relatively secure since the Doab districts are well supplied with canal and
tube-well irrigation facilities.
(;., Ga„,. a„. Go.« Doa. : The .ac. ,y=„s b.ween ,He Gan^a and .He
Gomti is less fertile than the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The reason for this is that
most of the area is commanded by the Gomti and its tributaries which rises
from a lake situated in the plains. On account of the very gentle gradient of
the plains the river flows in a tortuous course and the area is dotted with
numerous small lakes which are mostly seasonal. During the hot weather
these lakes dry up but in the wet monsoon months their water overflows
inundates the neighbouring lands resulting in which water logging. The soils
fertility is generally low. As the tract is not well protected from the vagaries
of monsoon as is the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
(.' c) Gomti-Ghaghara Doab : In the Gomti Ghaghara tract the soil
deteriorates still further. The Ghaghara brings large quantities of sand so
that the districts bordering this river have a higher percentage of sandy soil
than that found in the southern districts. Agriculture of the districts in this
tract depends largely on rainfall and the vagaries of monsoon affect the
outturn considerably.
d) Trans-Ghaghara Tract : The northern parts of the Trans-Ghaghara
^ districts include portions of the Tarai where the climate is unhealthy and the
soil during the wet monsoon months remains water logged. The soil
improves in the southern part of the districts, on the whole. The soils in the
Trans-Ghaghara Doab are inferior to those of the Gomti-Ghaghara Tract.
Irrigation facilities in the Trans-Ghaghara Tract are inadequate and Physical Setting ]5
Trans-Ghaghara tract : It constitutes the northeastern part of the Ganga plain and is a disiinct physical unu. ii lies tiei- ween the Himalayas and tarai in the north and the Ganga- Ghaghara interfluve in the south (Fig. 1.2, Hid). The dominant soil groups of the area are that and bhangar with the exception of diwb which is confined along the banks of the rivers. On the whole these soils are comparatively inferior to that of the Gomti-Ghaghara tract. Owing to lack of irrigation facilities farmers generally depend upon monsoon rain for their agricul tural operations. _ Rohijkhand tract_\ The adjoining districts of the montane and the sub-montane tracts namely, Bijnor, Moradabad, Ram- pur, Piiibhit, and Bareiliy form part of Rohilkhand tract (Fig. 1.3 Hie). This region is generally free from floods. The soil is poor in respect of nutrients. The northern part of the region is by and large similar to that of tarai.
A/ Trans-} amuna tract \l) y tlt^» I I I iiwf n Ill I I nr / \ In the south and southwest of the state the tract is considerably different from the main areas of the state. The districts of Jhansi, Jalaun, Hamirpur and Banda form part of the central Indian plateau and is designated as the Bundelkhand region (Fig. 1.2, IV). The general slope of the area is from southwest to northeast. The soil is generally rocky in nature and infertile interspersed with patches of black soil which differs entirely from the alluvial soils of the great plain. The district of Mirzapur shares the southeastern part of the state and resembles the Bundelkhand region. In this part cf the state, the spring level is low and irrigation facilities arc not well developed. The tract either suffers from an excess or a defici ency of rainfall, and as a whole it ranks agriculturally poor, and a relatively backward region of the state.
^J^ Climate The climate of the state on the whole is healthy, except the swampy tract of the tarai. The entire state has tropical monsoon climate, except the Himalayan region, where the climate may be designated as temperate. It is characterised by a rhythm of seasons which is caused by the southwest and northeast mon soons. The pressure reversal takes place regularly twice in the 47
agriculture operations are largely depends on rainfall. Whenever the rainfall
spring wells constitute the main source of the water supply, but there too dry
up and cultivation literally becomes a gamble in the monsoon.
e) Rohilkhand Tract : The districts adjoining the Montane Tract is known
as Rohilkhand and h drive little benefit from the major rivers of the state.
As a result the soil in this region is not enriched by occasional floods. As
far as the cliamte and vegetation of the northern portions of these districts
are concerned, they are similar to those of the Tarai area.
(iv) Bundelkhand Tract or the Portion of Central Indian Plateau :
-^ [The Trans-Yamuna tractlknown as Bundelkhand forms part of the central Indian Plateau, Here the soil is predominantly of black colour and is very retentive of moisture. In seasons of heavy rainfall, it quickly becomes over saturated and its mining nature makes tillage impossible, but when the rainfall is small it becomes too hard to be turned up by the plough. Mirzapur and Sonbhadra districts occupying the southeastern portion of the state also forms part of this plateau. However, some areas in the north of the district consist of alluvial plains and are thus excluded from the plateau.
Geology
An almost imperceptible change in the elevation and uniform surface material are the two worth features in the physiognomy of the region
(Fig. 2.3). Like it counterpart, the middle ganga plain in the east it also forms part of the alluvial field assymetrical indogangetic through with a definite divided formed by the subterranian Delhi Ridge, a protrusion of the peninsular block. The pre-tertiary river borne debris from the peninsula 48
V
UTTAR PRADESH GEOLOGY NDEX
Vindhyan Groups
Granites of Himlayas
Bijawer Group
Bundelkhand Group
Siwalik Group
Alluvium Dun Gravel
20 0 20 40 60 80
Km.
Source: Based Upon Map of Geological Survey of India
Fig. 2.3 49 latter supplemented rather more rigorously by the upper and post tertiary
Himalayan debris, yet to undergo intense compaction, constitute by and large, the alluvial filling. Alluvium is one continuous and conformable series of fluviatile and sub-aerial deposits, mainly composed of unconsoldiated beds of clay sand, gravel and their mixture in varying proportions. The recent findings of the aeromagnettic survey of the Ganga valley have thrown much light on the depth of the alluvium and nature of the trough. It rather replaces the hypothesis of the frontal plain by the downward, through the alluvial fitting on an average is 1300-1400 meters decreasing gradually southward a zone of cover 8000 meters depth runs all along the Himalaya. The extensive pre existing basins, such as Kathgodam Lakhimpur basin and Bahraich basin and similar others such as Gorakhpur and Motihari basins falling in the middle Ganga Plain and connected together with narrow neck, probably between the peninsular proejctions have been indicated within the 8000 meters depth zone. The westward decreases of the depth is well marked lying to the west of the Moradabad-Kathgodam alignment has less than 6000 meters depth of the alluvium. The Doab south of the Bulandshahr has, in general, less than 1500 meter alluvium depth. Thus in the south of the alluvium cover, gradually thin out to a mereveneer finally merging with the irregular edge of the peninsular block. The alluvial depth is, at places less than 300 meters, thick probably on the detached protrusions of the peninsular block as around Shahjahanpur and is less than 1500 meters near
Faizabad and Gonda. Although nearly half of the upper and middle Ganga
Plain lying roughly to the south of the Hapur-Etah-Unnao-Pratapgarh-
Bhadoi-Ghazipur-Jagdishpur-Hazipur and Purnia alignment has less than 50
1500 meter thick alluvial deposits. The subterranian crustal dislocations the probable cause of the earthquakes, have also been identified more or less separating aforesaid basins, notable being Moradabad-Kathgodam, Balamau-
Kheri and Muzaffarpur East of Buxar. The constituents of lithology i.e. the
Khadar-Bhangar and gravels are but the varients of the alluvium corresponding to their location and subsequent process is involved. The silt, clay and sand particles renewed annually occupy the reverian tracts (flood plains), whereas the Bhangar occupy the interfluvial zones above the general flood limits, the constituent experiencing slow and secular changes. The gravels of the Tarai and Bhabar zones are the loosely set sediments ranging from fine siU or clay particles to coarse sands, pebbles and sometimes even boulders and spread haphazardly in the zone of the break in slope at the foot of Siwalik, one distinctive character of the Bhangar is the formation of
Kankar plains in the subsoil zone through capillary action owing to the alternating calcareous sand and clay beds here as also elsewhere in the zone of seasonal rainfall which adds to the soil moisture retention in the subsoil zone.
Soils
In this region of almost uniform topogrpahy and lithology, the soils are by and large, homogeneous. The alluvial soils with the varients, the ushar and Bhur, depending on the drainage conditions, mechanical and chemical constituents and the climatic characteristics are observed in different parts.
The two common types the Khadar and Bhangar with different local names which sometimes stand for minute variations in properties are quite widespread. The Khadar soils relatively rich in plant nutrients occupy the 51
narrow frequent situation tracts in the flood plains of the rivers. They are
neutral to alkaline in reaction (pH 6-8) are deficient in organic material
specially phosphorus and are sandy to loamy in texture. The Ganga Khadar
soils have immature profiles with sand to silty loam texture lack of
concretion, fair proportion of lime and other soluble salts and are alkaline in
reaction (pH 8), with imperfect drainage. The Yamuna Khadar soils have
submature profile with predominance of clay and concentration of lime and
other soluble sati contents under the poor drainage conditions. Even the
Yamunapar khadar also differs having mature neutral reaction (pH 6.8-7.20) under the restricted drainage conditions. Fertility is revived owing to frequent siltation.
Some Regional laboratories have been established by state government with a view to prepare detailed soil maps based on the chemical analysis of the soils. Most of the soil maps concerning the area preparing by different authorities, present a picture of soils. The major paprt of the state is occupied by alluvial soils (Fig. 2.4). On the basis of geological and pedogenic characters, six marked categories have been identified in the state.
The main factors governing the system of classification were texture, colour, availability of water and level of the land.'^ The soi{^ass^f
India prepared from time to time by various authorities give only a general picture of soil and soil fertility.'^ On the surface especially during the summer months when the salt comes up with capillary rise of sub-soil water and its subsequent evaporation.'"^ 28 AgrkuUura] Productivity and Regional Imbalances
The residual soils cover the hilly areas, Bundelkhand and Vindhjan regions in the north and south of the State, whiigjbe alluvial soils are concentrated in the central portions compris ing pnacipally the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, flanked in the west and east by well defined and productive soils. On the basis of geological and pedogenic characters, seven marked categories have bsen identified in the State," but so far no detailed map of the Stale has been completed on these bases. A tentative map of soil distribution prepared by the State Soil Survey Organi sation is seen in Fig. 1. 11. J •
F3G, I,!I Physical Setting 27
Government with a view to prepare detailed soii maps, based on chemical analysis of the soifs, but these laboratories have not been able to prepare relevant soil maps of the State. Most of the soil maps concerning the area prepared by different authorities, present a rough picture of the soils. The Govern ment of Uttar Pradesh has also started sample soil survey schemes based on Stewart's reports, and has prepared a number of maps. A widexange of soils both - of- residual and -alluvial origin are found within the-state. A major part of the state is occupied by the alluvial soils Fig. 1.10.
UTTAR PRADESH 6E0L06V
• .»... 5.. ,.". >€z[Kr E3 s,^" !,.••- tc-nc.-%'Oi.i'Hi z:DU:x:r.T,-:-.'.r.-. ^,•r.-:.:!^—'"•--''• Wi t-~" 1 -^r- !t<"U»1 rrui.,^-,. O.W. U'"(» i*^t»oiac ma,..~~o-~. (Z'.fC i-.3#—-...... -.. SUi.^lfi • .„™,„ „^ ..'t-fcs poc;F*ciOi ZZ} '•••"i :i.vi(i K2 »,....*»-» to.—-1^•»-V, ^ - 00 .
FIG. 1.10 52 V
Source: Based Upon Map of State of Soil Survey Organisation Kanpur
Fig. 2.4 53
In general the soluble salts and lime are low and show neutral to slightly acidic nature except pH 6-7.5 in the low lying areas prone to water logging. Among the variants worth nothing the usar (reh) soil in a sizeable tract in Ganga Ghaghra doab from Sultanpur, Pratapgarh, through Raebareilly,
Lucknow, Hardoi, Shahjahanpur etc. contiguous with the tract of the middle
Ganga Plain, caused by the efflorescence of sodium carbonate and sulphate under the alternating rainy and dry season, high water table and alkaline
composition. Another variants the bhur, the sandy river deposits is highly
localised in Ramganga tract and in the narrow beh along the Ganga.
The submontane soil where two physiographic units the Bhabar and
Tarai are bedded with texturally different soils. The Bhabar soil is sandy to
gravelly, highly porous and aerated and has lower moisture retaining capacity,
while the terai zone is provided with rich clayey soil, with some proportion
of the fine sand, moisture and rich humus. The zones are thickly forested.
The deforestation is the terai is bringing considerable changes in the soil
texture, humus content etc.
Ground Water
The region is potentially quite rich in ground water resources, both
free and confined. The confined aquifer (permanent water table) generally
strikes between 6-90 mts. depth, while the temporary water table (free
aquifer) depth is less than 30 meters with wide spatial and seasonal
variations. The information regarding the general occurrences is quite
inadequate to explain the actual conditions. The free aquifer bears significant
relationship with the relief, geological structure and exisfing water channels 54 as riverain khadar tracts show, in general lower water table which probably owes to seepage, which the heavy clay belts of the Bhangar have higher water table. The canals, however are the exceptions which adds considerably in bringing the water table higher up as also in the Punjab plain. An observation
is done in this field by R.N. Mathur in Meerut district where about 20% of
the observation well show less than 3.3-10 meters, the zones of high water
table are highly localized as most of the canals and those with lower water
table are near the rivers, the Ganga, the Yamuna and the Hindon, seasonal
variation are well marked as also in other parts.
The elevated water table and chemical variations of the ground and
canal waters have been considered, as the main cause of alkaline and reh
formations in the western Uttar Pradesh.'^ The tube-well irrigation is
flexible method on the wells can be drilled in area of productive soil. The
main advantage is that when water for drinking purposes is required by
villagers, it is healthy and free from germs of diseases.'^
Climate
Uttar Pradesh comprises only a small part of the subcontinent of
India. Its climate can be understood better in context of wind circulating
systems prevalent in India and adjacent areas. Broadly, India lies in the
regimes of two great aircurrent systems of summer and winter monsoons or
southwest and northeast monsoons respectively, when these wind reach the
land masses the above mention direction can be noted, but when these winds
reach to Uttar Pradesh, the directions become south easterly and
northwesterly respectively. The summer monsoon enters Uttar Pradesh >I^«* ^ )f B 55 usually towards the end of June, UttarT.i;ki6^>^©^r^5J^f its rainfall in summer, whereas the winter months bring a few showers from the northwesterly monsoon.
While studying the climate of Uttar Pradesh, temperature kept in
sight as a factor since climate the sum total of a series of weather conditions
which include temperature besides pressure and other factors. The mean
annual temperature in plain varies from 25°C to 26.6°C. In the foothills and
hills of Uttar Pradesh the mean annual temperature is about 13.3°C to the
north of the isotherm 25°C which passes through Aligarh, Bahraich and
Gorakhpur and temperature decreases as the altitude increases till we reach
Dehradoon in Uttranchal, which register the lowest mean annual temperature
in the plains.
The mean annual minimum temperature in the plain varies from
15.5°C to 20.5°C. The record for the hilly area is 10°C, whereas to the north
of I8.3"C. The mean annual maximum temperature in the plains varies from
30.5 to 32.7°C with 17.2°C in the hills. To the north of 31.1°C isotherm the
phenomena of decreases in temperature and increase in the latitude is
repeated till we reach Dehradoon in Uttranchal. There does not appear to be
any appreciable change in the temperature in southern Uttar Pradesh.
Rainfall
From the annual average rainfall of Uttar Pradesh it is evident that
it is varies from 839 mm to 889 mm. The isohytes trend from northwest to
the southeast is an angular formation. From a detailed study of the directions
of the isohytes, the following conclusion emerge : 56
(i) The area of the lowest rainfall is bounded by a triangle formed by joining Delhi, Mainpuri and Agra in the west of Uttar Pradesh.
(ii) The areas of heavy rainfall are the hilly regions with rainfall above 110
cm and southern border of the state with rainfall exceeding 100 cm.
(iii) The highest gradient of rainfall variation is found to occur in western
Uttar Pradesh and the lowest gradients lies in the belt around Bahraich
Gonda and Gorakhpur.
(iv) The "two baggy" areas of Uttar Pradesh i.e. Jhansi including Lalitpur
and Mirzapur including Sonbhadra districts receive nearly the same
amount of rainfall.
Drainage
Rivers with their tributary system are the main channels of drainage
of the land surface, they are at the same time also cheif agents of land
erosion and sculpture and man's lives for transport of waste of the land to
the sea. Also drainage has to accomodate to the topography of the place.
In the extra-peninsular area the drianage system owing to the
mountain building movement of the late tertiary age, is are much more recent
development. The rivers here are not only eroding and transporting against
but are also depositing agents during their journey across the plain to the
sea. The fact is that the drainage is not in a large measure consequent upon
the physical features or the relief. In other words many of the Great
Himalayan rivers are older than the mountains they traverse. The long deep
precipitous gorge of the Himalayas, cutting right through the line of the
highest elevation are most characteristics features of the geography and are 57
at one the best marked results, as they are the dearest proofs of the
inconsequent drainage of this region. From this the Himalayan drainage is
called antecedent drainage.
In the north and the northeast of the state is drained by the rivers
Ganga and yamuna and their tributaries (Fig. 2.5). River Yamuna itself the major tributaries to river Ganga. Other tributaries to the Ganga are the
Ghaghra, Sarda, Rapti, the Gomati and Ramganga, all of them emerging from the Himalayas. The rivers Gomti and Ghaghra are often in floods during the rainy seasons and cause serious damage to human life livestock and property.
Ganga-Yamuna and Ghaghra are used for navigation for long distance mainly for local traffic. In the southwest the drianage is through the river Chambal,
Sindh, Betwa, Ken and Son all of which join the Ganga or its tributaries. The
Himalayan rivers are more active than those coming from Vindhyan range in filling the great plain with silt and they also provide more important source of irrigation and power since they have perenial supplies of water from monsoon rainfall supplemented by snow melts.
The Ganga basin with a drainage area of nearly 861400 sq.km. in
India covers slightly more than l/4th of its total geogrpahical area and is the biggest river basin in the country, stretching from Uttarkashi district of
Uttranchal. It covers whole of Uttar Pradesh. The fertility of Ganga plain has been mainly due to the fine alluvium deposited by the rivers. The main rainy season of the basin is from June to Sept. on account for 80-85% of the annual rainfall. The other basin is so vast that the flood problem can be deaU with under various subbasins as follows : A Avricullural i'luiliiciiviiy unil Regional Inihaliuircx
GL.igiiara and Ramganga have their sources in the snowy caps of Himalayas.
UTTAR PRADESH DRAINAGE 'IfI
^ U ^'^'}} ( y
FIG. 1.1
HApart IVoni the main rivers, there are many important tribu'.ciries which play a significant role in the agricultural open tions, and their dKScharge varies from nothing to thou sands of cubic centimetres in the rainy season./It will be use ful to study the nature of the principal rivers in detail. 58
v:
UTTAR PRADESH DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Source: Based Upon Map of Survey of India
Fig. 2.5 59
The Yamuna basin extends over an area of 226755 square km. It
also covers large area of Uttar Pradesh besides other states. The shape of
the basin is irregular. The important from situation the banks of the river are
Delhi, Mathura, Agra, Etawah and Allahabad. The flood problem in the basin
is not severe but still it submerges areas in Uttar Pradesh. The districts
affected by the flood in Uttar Pradesh are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
Meerut, Bulandshahr, Banda and Allahabad.
The Ramganga basin extends over an area of 32493 sq.km. The
basin receives most of its rainfall during southwest monsoon season from
June to Sept. The Ramganga has the shifting and uncertain coarse in the
plains. During floods, the river over flow its banks opening cut new channels
and destroys the fertility of the land by depositing coarse sand on it. The affected districts are Bijnor, Moradabad, Bareilly, Badaun, Shahjahanpur,
Hardoi and Farrukhabad.
The Gomati basin covers an area of 30433 sq.km. and lies entirely in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It is roughly rectangular in shape. The basin is flat with gradual slope from northwest to southeast. The important towns situated on the banks of river Gomti are Lucknow, Sultanpur and Jaunpur.
The Ghaghra basin has a total catchment area of 127950 sq.km. of which the area lying in India is 57647 sq.km. the rest being in Nepal. The river brings large quantities of silt during floods and deposited the same in its beds due to the poor bed slope and this result in the tendency to meander and consequent incidation of vast areas. The entire area on the right of the
Ghaghra in the Azamgarh and Ballia districts in liable to inundation from floods. 60
Physical Resource Base
The total physical reosurce base in the region is confined to its rich alluvial soil and abundance of water resources in its long perennial rivers. The two together can serve as the best ingradients for better development of agriculture, relatively lesser instances of floods as compared to its counterpart, the middle Ganga plain and more assured water supply even at present through the canals accounts for its agricultural prosperity. It may be strengthened through further laying of more canal distributries and providing irrigation facilities to so far unirrigated lands. The hydel pwoer generate from the water of the rivers will go a long way in furthering the rural electrification and will provide subsidary occupations to the villages by way of the development of agrobased cottage industries.
Further the forest resources of the Terai and the Bhangar can be used to develop forestybest/industries on a large as well as small scale.
There are no mineral resources other than glass and and lime concretions. In addition the region has ample ground water resource which awate survey and investigation. The oil and the natural gas commission is investigating oil resource in Terai. The Upper Ganga plain is relatively more develop still it is having its new problems, within there region there is much disparity in respect to economic development. The Upper Doab being the most developed and Avadh Terai being the least.
There have been misuse of land resources like over grazing and deforestation in most areas and this has led to soil erosion and ravine formation and also has accentuated flooding and water logging leading to imbalance in the eco-systems. 61
Importance of Agriculture in the State Economy
The economy of the state is predominently agricuhural and that it has not been keeping pace in the economic development of the country.
Uttar Pradesh is a classic case of a backward economic region with low income and productivity levels, predominance of agricultural sector, low degree of urbanization, inadequately developed infrastructure, widespread illiteracy, high birth rates and death rate and low level of investment. The per capita income of the state at Rs. 6733 in 1996-97 is only two thirds of the national per capita income of Rs. 10771 and only two-fifth of the per capita income of Punjab. There is endemic poverty in the state. According to the
Expert Group of Planning Commission on estimation of proportion and number of poor 42.3% of rural population and 35.4% of urban population were living below poverty line in U.P. in 1993-94. Poverty levels in all probability increased during the early nineties.
The preponderance of agriculture in the state's economy is discernible from the fact that the contribution of agriculture and allied sectors comprising cultivation, animal husbandry and the fishery in the total income of the state is 60% as against only 50% in the country as a whole.
Nearly 80% of the state's population lives in rural areas.
Agriculture and allied activities employ 73%) of the work force and contribute about 40% of the state income. Hardly 9% of workers are employed in the secondary sector and 18% in the tertiary sector. Their share in state income is around 21% and 39% respectively. 62
Demographic Characteristics
The demographic scenario in Uttar Pradesh presents a worrisome picture. The heavy and rapidly increasing popualtion pressure constitutes a major obstacle to the state's development. Total population of the state increased from 139.1 million in 1991 to 166.05 million in 2001. The decadal growth rate of population increased from 25.55% in 1981-91 to
25.88% in 1991-2001. Generally growth rates were higher in the already populated eastern region. Hill districts registered lower population growth due to high out migration, Ghaziabad, Gautambudhnagar, Lucknow,
Chitrakoot, Sitapur have shown an increase of over 30% population during the decade 1991-2001. Low couple protection rate combine with high fertility rate and high proportion of young population indicate a potentially explosive demographic situation in Uttar Pradesh. The density of population has risen sharply from 548 per sq.km. in 1991 to 689 per sq.km. in 2001.
The literacy rate of U.P. continue to be abysmally low as hardly 57.6 percent of the above 7 years of age are literate in U.P. against the national average of
52.5 per cent. The demographic attributes clearly reveals the general picture of popualtion growth in the given Table 2.2
The literacy rate is also important in the process of development of a region/Education infact, the aggregate of all the process by means of • ^- which a person developability, attitude other forms of behaviour of positive values in the society in which he liveaTSeveral studied concluded in Indial ^ and abroad regarding technological change and diffusion of agricultural , I innovations have proved the closed positive relationship between the rate of ^ adoption and literacy indexj The educated farmers not only adopt agricultural M f^ 00 (N r- rao (N /fN| > rsi 00 NO t^ in (N in (^ rl /3 '^l- NO (N ro =01 'ro •'^ ecu vD 00 OJ ON toN • vO in rsi t^ O (N r^ t-~ in (N '-^ NO Ni; NO in in rNj NO 00 (N 00 o o ^- m 'S' — ro — "cd o M H 3 NO 00 rn NO 00 00 (N if-i r«-i r^ r^ ON t~-^ ON OO ON rNi f- in NO t-^ ' oo t^ t^ t^ t~- NO •a- C^ o t~- t^ •* r- ^'o i^ l-~ t^ v-l m (^ in ON 00 00 c« 00 r-- in ND in \ OO ON o 00 t^ rn in m »—1 L. ^ f^ o NO '•"^ ^ r-; ON CNI ON NO f^ ; "^ "- [^ m (N ON in ^-" in 00 >^ o (N ON in 00 d in in (in ( O^ d ON m (N NO ^•) ND 00 o U c (N NO NO >ri •rr r^ m NO CX^ 'NO NO in NO O ^NO NO in ND foS J3 o ^ (^ U r-^ V a. o m l~~ r^ NO ro NO o ^ rj in 00 o •n O^ ^ ON -M in r<-i ON — o NO m ON ^ ^ ND o CTs OO m m (N NO ON ON ri d d in rj ^ 'ifflj •* NO Tf od NO o d J -'*t 't m rj m^ in U ^in 'a- Ti- T)- "a- in ^rN'j •s.^ '^ X2/ ;s ^ ^ •* •B Si e _ rs^. ^ NO (N NO o CO fOC\ ON NO 00 _ , , r^ NO r^ o •a- t« •—1 « o oo ^ •* ON m /r^l r-1 OO ON NO CNI ON ND (M 00 ON d" o 00 o i^ 00 ON r- t^ NO 00 00 NO in in O •- ^ ^ (iQ (^ ©\y „ 3 £7't2 ON o m m 00 ON fNl /TJN rJ ro -* n- ON r^ ON in r~ •a- ON in 00 OO N* i^ OH S o "' CN ^N O m ON I'S- •* o r^ ON I^ m'^ 0—0 NO •* ,^ t^^ NO NO NO •* NO in Tf -a- a- g VC/ ^ V € c© -a 00 rNi NO m rN in , , 00 foDv (N , , , , <£6. , , , , r- in , , 3 .2 NO r-- ON 00 00 oo r~- •* 00 NO u^ •* in •q- in •q- o"" • 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 O•O* 00 00 oo 00 ^ 00 00 00 00 2 a. 1 rA NO in oo (N NO o /S\ o o 00 (N in r^ •a- o o £C6, ON ;r NO ON •^^i q 9 : (N q m ON CNI -a- CNl in 1 2 Ov ^ r-^ in in Kj CO <> ^ 00 e O es u Q^ u (N NO O S m NO 00 O o CO CNI 00 ^_ r- o in in H 00 M ON 00 ON [~~ t/0 m r~, 't 00 r^ o rr, r~ r~ 'a- !2 OO in NO 't NO r«^ in % CNI r^ m in r-1 r- fNl 00 a ofl ofi C3 c/) l-_ M c o to r^ to OB _U x: 1— C3 T3 ;_ 3 D TD 3 "a a. 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T3 Si 00 >N cd X o ;- •a 3 a Q 3 o cd 12 •a Z cd 3 cd E X c a o "3 3 & Xi on cd cd 3 O cd >N 3 3 Urn Id O. a cd X '5 c c O D. x> D. a 3 C D- 3 T3 x: C/D X '5 3 V "a a J: cd cd cd a C C cd c E cd 1) 3 _cd I- c o ;— u c cd n a '5 CO cd cd cd cd cd N c ni 3 cd "3 CD 00 !/5 X 3 < < '3 2 U o in NO 00 ON o en ^ m NO oo ON o IN en in NO t^ M CNI (N (N (N rNi tN en en ri-i (N m m en en 'd- -d- -d- in 00 in 00 Tf NO (N ON in ON (N ON NO 00 CO (^ in 00 ON 00 o ^ en 00 (N [^ in (N rn o ND •* 00 in 00 ON in en in r^ OO '^ (^ rsi (Nl in 00 NO 00 ON NO 00 't NO en ON 00 00 o o CNl in r^ ro c^ o in (N ON o r^ (N •* OO in NO 00 en en (N o 00 en NO en -* 0—0 NO in NO CN r^ o o m o6 NO d m m (N K ri od (N ^ ^ ^ •* (N rN| (N (N CNl •&rj (N (N ^ rN (N ~ en (N _^ m 'O CN r~ 00 ON m 00 in o O o o t-- in NO in in 00 ON ON f^ ON in (N Ov 00 rn rNi (N ON NO 00 Tf r- rn in ON •* in NO ^ ON U-N ^ OO in _ (N OO Tf O •* t^ 00 o en ON r^ rNi in ON 00 NO C3N ON CO ui •* I^ (N 00 00 m ON t-~ r^ OO (N NO O O NO 00 (^ -* o in NO -r~* NO ON t^ -^ ON O ON o ON ON ON -N*O ON Tf •* —(N NO [^ t^ o o OO 00 Tt 00 ON 00 m m _ en •a- ON NO NO ON ON r^ 00 00 OO 00 ON rN| rN N£> ON 00 in ON 00 C-l r- NO •* in ON ON 00 rM NO in •* •.c in m 00 '3- •^f in in r~ in ON r~ OO r- 0-*0 t^ r- •—r~ T f in — en in „„ t^ o iri ON NO ON NO 00 00 ro ON tn in -a- fNl ,_^Tt - rj 00 00 r- NO OO r^ 00 ND in ON ON •* J— r- m in NO o M 00 in CNl t^ (N O ON ON ON ON ON 00 00 OO 00 ON ON ON ON ON ON o o ON ON o ON ON ON O•—N" 00 00 00 m m tn rn 00 1^ M 00 00 0^ ^ o in r-~ •* NO ^ r- t^ O in en (N NO en n-i NO r-- o rj O fN 't ON o t^ ON in o ON ON OO NO r- ^ON ON -C*O 00 00 00 O^N« ON ON ON ON ON ON o ON ^ON ON ON ON CO 00 00 OO OO in en OO NO 00 ON Tf r- •* r- m en r- r~ 00 en r^ rJ en o m (N in o q t^ NO NO rNj q CNl ON 00 NO NO in rt; 00 00 Tt ON K r-i in•*i NO (N m o^ m•* 0^0- mi OO r^ N—O ob ini in i~^ N—O mi <^N 'n CNl ON in (N IN m NO OO o in 00 i~~ r~ (N r-~ en in OO o OO in •* m i^ in NO NO •* in NO o t-^ en (N ON (N en 00 'a; in iri *n i—n m in 00 m rn^ 00 in ON 'm^i 00 (N NO K d —o- d o—d in (N rN| rNi t>\ OJ (N (N CA (N (N •*(N ' M ^(N (N rN] rNi (N ^CN'l (N en en en^ en (N _ o sD in 00 Tf in _ (N 00 r-1 (N ON O m __ 00 o OJ •* o r- (N 00 00 NO NO 00 o CNl r- _ r^ in in in NO t-~ t^ (N o in 00 in M •* in r- ON en o o —t^ ' ON (N Tf in in ON O 00 r~ 00 (N 00 00 in o 00 00 en 00 (N 00 ^NO r^ ON o o w« m ON (N ON in ^•* en o ^in^ NO G^ —' r-- m in in 1^ rj rN| m -r*- 00 TJ- en o en in in o-* t^ NO N—O^ (N NC 00 Tj- o^ o i^ O •* en r-~ ON ^ ON i^n 00 NO r- r-~ 00 m vC ON 00 r- rt- m (N o _« o m in »o 'J (N in r-- t-~ r^ 00 (N 00 <3N r^ (N r^ (N NO in in rNi o •* 5 i~ O 00 cd L-_ VI x: Z OSl c 3 c/^ 1- CO 5 a CO CO 3 c c x: 0Indi a is basically a social country, where the religious and social norms, values, traditions and custom play important role in all walks of life. Agricultural productivity is no exception to this ruloSli has been generally- observed that the respondents of high social status are more liberal, open minded and receptive to agricultural innovations. Therefore in the present study it has also been hypothesised that there is positive relationship between the social status of the respondent and agricultural productivity. General observation is that there is inverse relationship in between the size of family and agricultural productivity. 67 References f^, ^"> . £ ^ 1. Suees, E., The Earth, vol. IV, p. 619. J 2. Krishnan, M.S., Geology of India and Burma, Madras, 1956, p. 529. J 3. Burrard, S.G., The origin of Himalayan Mountain, Geological Survey of India, Professional Paper No. 12, Calcutta, 1912, p. 11. ) 4. Wadia, D.N. and Anden, Geology and Structure of Northern Jndia, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 73, Delhi 1939, p. 134. 5. Wadia, D.N. and Anden, op.cit., p. 133. j 6. Ibid., p. 128. > 7. Anden, J.B. and Roy, P.C, Reports on Sodium Salts in Reh Soil in the Uttar Pradesh, Records of the Geological Survey of India, Professional Paper No. 1, Calcutta 1942, p. 3. 8. Cowle, H.M., A Criticism of R.D. Oldham's paper on the Structure of the Himalayas and the Gangetic Plain as elucidated by Geodetic observations in India, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Professional Paper No. J, 18, Dehradun 1921,p. 6. 9. Wadia, D.N., Geology of India, London, 1919, p. 249. ) 10. Oldham, R.D., The dean boaring at Lucknow, Records of the Geological ^ Survey of India, vol. 23, p. 263. J 11. Hayden, H.H., Burrard, S.G. and Heron, A.M., A Sketch of Geography and / Geology of Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, part III, Delhi 1934, p. 170. i 12. Roy, S.P. Choudhary and S.K. Mukherjee, Present Position of Soil, Survey in / India, J.S.I.R. 6(10), 1947, p. 406. j 14. The first soil map of India was prepared by Z.J.J. Schokalsky for the ^ International Society of Soil Science. J 13. The Government of Uttar Pradesh initiated a Sample Soil Survey Scheme in 1950 based on A.B. Stewart's Report: Soil Fertility, Investigation in India with Special reference to manuring. 15. Agrawal, R.R., Soil Survey and Soil Work in Uttar Pradesh, vol. 3, Allahabad > 1952, p. 6.N 16. Anden, J.B/, Report on the Sodium Salt in the Reh Soil in the United Provinces with Note on their Occurrence in other parts of India, Professional Paper No. 17. Vendenburg, E., Recent Artisan Experiments in India, Memoirs of Geological ^ Survey of India, vol. 32, Pt. I, Calcutta 1904, p. 19. ) Chapter-Ill AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Agricultural development is a multi-dimensional concept which mainly includes development in aerial strength of cropped land, improvement in farming practices, improved farm implements irrigation system and irrigated area, highly yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides, intensity of cropping and specialisation and commercialisation of agriculture. The development of all these parameters is reflected agricultural productivity which itself is very complex and controversial concept (Noor Mohd, 1981). Agricultural development, in a true sense, denotes the quality of agricultural system of a region in terms of productivity, diversification and commercialization consistent with a desired state of agrarian relations and ecological balance. The level and rate of agricultural development may be distinguished as the former represents a picture prevailing in a particular point in time, while the latter stands for the progress achieved over a given period. Recent researches on technological change and diffusion of agricultural innovations have revealed that there is only selective adoption of a system of transfer techniques and practices. But very little is known so far about how farmers integrate new and old technique and practices into intelligble farming system and even less about how modern scientific ideas interact with traditional system of agricultural knowledge. No doubt the technological change in agriculture during the last three and four decades has brought tremendous development in almost all parameters of agriculture which ultimately results in high agricultural productivity. 69 Agricultural development is unquestionably a multi-dimensional concept of which crop productivity is one of the vital aspects. Crop productivity is to be judged not merely from quantity of production but also from the variety and quality of the produce. The simplest and the crudest measure of crop productivity is the yield per hectare of various crops. A desirable sophistication is introduced by finding out the value of crop produce per hectare of net sown area/cropped area or per cultivator/ agricultural worker. Produce per hectare of net sown area or cropped area is an expression of the output per unit of agricultural land, and produced per agricultural worker or cultivator reflects the income level of agricultural population. The variety of agricultural produce can be noted from the crop diversification index. Diversification of cropping as an element of agricultural development is being supported not on economic grounds but on considerations of self reliance in agricultural production and maintenance of soil fertility. Diversification of agriculture must be constructed as the second vital aspects of agricultural development. It stands for promotion of dairying, cattle rearing, poultry farming, pig raising, bee-keeping and fishing. These activities not only significantly contributed to the basket of agricultural products, but also generate additional employment for the surplus agricultural populations, especially in crowded agricultural countries like India. Suitable indicators for measurements of diversification of agricultural can be adopted. Commercialisation of agriculture is still another dimension of agricultural development. The degree to which market forces have penetrated an area and the scale upon which they operate will be the factors in almost every question of agricultural development (Hunter, 1969). 70 A composite index of agricultural development based on three factors growth rate of agricultural output, use of modern inputs in agriculture and productivity per hectare was constructed by Nath (1962), to compare the level of agricultural developoment. Techno-Institutional Development in Agriculture A Spatio-Temporal Analysis After Green Revolution, adoption of new agricultural devices in agriculture started in Uttar Pradeshf M seems to appear in 1960's, as most ofj f^ the big land holders became more conscious towards adopting new mechanization in agriculture, specially the adoption of machine chemical fertilizer, HYV seeds etc. The marginal and small landholders adopted the new technology to lesser extent as compared to large landholders. Due to , lack of economy small landholders could not used improved varieties of seeds and new technique. Such adoptions are visible at all level even in the farming community of traditional society, despite socio-cultural and i s economic constraints. The technological change and spatial diffusion of \ agricultural innovations mainly depend upon economic condition, size of farms, irrigation facilities and literacy.) -•^ / * \ [ Hence, an attempt has been made to assess the regional variations) f> ,, I \. \ I and level of growth of technological adoption during 1980 to 1995jfln order ; "v)^- ! to make the data comparable the numerical information have been arranged ,' j in tabulated form with the help of statistical computatioiiJfrom secondary ) data.fAn emphasis has been made on the analysis of growth and pattern of irrigation computation of fertilizer consumption, implements pesticides etc. 71 ^Irrigation has played crucial role directly and indirectly in promoting agricultural sector in general and raising yield of crops in particular. The practices adopted have been examined in terms of quantitative analysis per unit of gross cropped area, i I Patterns of Modern agricultural Inputs^ ' " Modern agricultural inputs such that tractors, pumping sets \>i' (electrical and oil engine), threshers, fertilizers HYV and other improved tools, which helps to bring radical changes in agricultural practices (Table 3.1)., Farm Machinary [(Plough Iron and wooden) Pumping sets and Tractors] Tractor play an important role in agriculture.Ht has been seen through experience that in India, about one million farmers have own tractors and other about three million farmers depends on hiring facilities. Tractors, and other farming machinary such as pumping sets, plough (iron and wooden) have helped them, to raise agricultural production through timeless of farm operation, performance of farm operations as per crop husbandary practices, increase in productivity thereby enhancing their returns, and savings. It strengthens rural transport of agricultural inputs and more importantly agricultural produce to markets for timely sale. It also a source of power in operating other machines like irrigation pumps, winnowers, threshers, sprayers etcJrFhe important of farm mechanization in general and utility of^ tractors in particular was felt by Indian farmers as early as 1920's. But the real development took place during early sixties where first tractor plant was set up in 1961 .| 72 UTTAR PRADESH USE OF TRACTORS /OOO HECTARES 1995 20 0 20 40 80 80 Km. Fig. 3.1 73 The employment of tractors at districts level has been shown in Figure 3. If The highest number of tractors per thousand hectare of land is / g.^ available in the district of Saharnapur, MuzaffarnagarJMeerut, Ghaziabad, ; Bijnour, Moradabad and Aligarh. It is evident that the highest level of concentration of tractors is in Western Uttar Pradesh and lowest is the Bundelkhand hilly region and some districts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Irrigation Machinary Irrigation machinary is also not spread uniformly throughout the state. There is only two areas of high concentration of pumping sets, i.e. Western Uttar Pradesh comprising the districts of Saharanpur, Buiandshahr, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad and Aligarh, and Eastern Uttar Pradesh comprising the districts of Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Azamgarh and Mau. But due to the less availability of fertilziers and HYV seeds in eastern Uttar Pradesh level of productivity is low, while in the Western Uttar Pradesh, those are available in sufficient amount to explain the present level of productivity in Figure 3.2. It is evident from this figure that more than thirty districts are covered by very low concentration of this means of irrigation and other districts are come from medium to high level of concentration of pumping sets. The present level of mechanisation indicates that still there is a vast scope to increase the numbers of pumping sets to irrigate more area through the mechanised means. Similarly, the availability of oil engines is not uniform throughout the state. It is very thinly distributed in Bundelkhand and hilly region. The high concentration is found in Western Uttar Pradesh comprising the 74 UTTAR PRADESH USE OF ELECTRIC ENGINES/DOO HECTARES 1995 High Medium 28 to 54 20 0 20 40 60 80 Low Km. Fig. 3.2 75 >- 2 ON 00 o ON ON in O ON ON 00 (N 00 o ^ o in in in in (N ON ON 00 ON ON ON 00 .y ^ .2 '^j- 00 ON o ON 00 r- O CN (N ON 1^ in 00 (N (n ^ (N IT) S .2 o ^ as (N O (N CN ON o m ON in o o ^ ON O .b ^ ON 00 (N o & u ON t^ 00 (N in ON in in m (^ 'O JS in ^ (N o o o t+^ TD ~^ "5 '3 •73 U o s m m ^ 1 (N (N CN (N I o in 1^ <« 7, ~B s s a JS u o o a^ o (J o ^ in (N m CNl (N 1 1 1 in 1 o • o ^o 5 O o O 00 O X! T—H >0 O ON in O ON in (N (N ON CN _o in o o oo in 00 00 o in 00 o (N 00 CNl o 03 G X! -0 in a X) c3 c3 CI -D G O 173 03 N G O N 'C N P3 C 2 O (Zl (L) O S x: 03 Q 00 CQ m < < 0 d o r—H (N m •^ (N n ^ in ^ r~- 00 ON 76 1 »n o in in MO en MD ON 1^ ON in CM in o ON o ON 00 in d ON (N ON O ON lO ON d in O ON ON in ON 00 cn cn 1 00 , -^ MD r^ in o ON ^ LT) CN (N ^ ON in fNl in 1 (N 1 r\i (N ^ 00 O o 00 CNI t^ M3 00 ON O l> o ON o ON O m r^ r- ^ ON 00 00 cn I cn 00 ^ o 00 r- (N ,^ Tl- o ON ON (N ON ON in o cn (N ON ON CM 00 1 in ON o O cn (^ m CNI (N <:> 00 00 r<-i T—^ in 00 00 1 1 in (N o 1 1 i 1 1 1 I 1 'vO T—< m O O CN! in o ON (N in o o m 00 o o o o O m 00 in (N CN) rNj r<-) fNl rNi m cn 1 ON 00 m in in cn cn in m o o OO OO ON ON ON ON m ON o cn ON to o cn 13 03 03 03 03 X) -a 03 Q Z 3 03 o 3 OX) X) "o o 3 3 03 a O ~a xi a T3 03 C o d 's X! c 03 03 u 03 1 C 03 03 03 ffl GO GO X, D a; PQ PH < in l^ 00 ON O fNl in 00 ON o in r-J CNj m cn cn cn CI cn ^ ^ cn 77 <;:; ' C- r-^ ^n >vO r-- o 00 00 in 00 o (N oo 'O in .—1 .—1 r- o in r- (N ON r- 00 r-) m o m ^ o 00 o ^ ^ ^ ^ n 1 1 in NO ^^ 1 \D in NO in CNl 1 •s^ rvi en r\| 1^ m 00 I^ o t^ rn 1^ 00 (N o •O m CN m r^ (•^ r—1 ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^ ON ^ ^-' ^ ON 1 "^ '-^ •^ 1 ^^ I/) ""^ ^" l^ 1 ^ NO NO '*• I/O rvj rg r- ^ rn rNj \o 00 ON •^ 00 \o O o in o 1 1 1 CNl ON '- '-^ (N (N ^ -^ (N '-* ^ •^ '"' ^^ ""^ '^ ^^ (N to ':t- r- o U-) o in vo in rg •^ ri o m ro r<-i rn 00 r^ 1 1 00 (N (N 1 (N ^ '"" (N in 1 t^ in •* in 00 r~- 00 ^ 00 r^ t^ iri 1 1 r<-) (N 1 00 1 f<0 00 ^^ •" <-<-) m m ^" ^ ""• •^ ^ ON (N (N ^ ^ '^ '^f 00 00 r^ ^ t^ 00 in >o m 00 r^ ON r^ in in 00 ON. (N t^ r^ (N CM rN) (N •N^ (N 1 CNl (N •" ^^ "^ •-" -^ (N '~ (N 1 (N ^ ^ ^~ ^ 1 ^^ "—' •—' o rN ro ^ 00 ON ^ 00 m o r<-i O 00 o r- rn t-H ^H 00 00 o o 1—1 o in o o '^ in r^ r<-i 1—1 o M^ in >o ^ ^ t^ 1 'sO in in '^ ' ^ in i> ^ ^ 1 m in in ^ DC Ki n 03 '^ U 03 03 •73 OO 03 u 03 o 03 03 X) 03 x: c us 03 X! c 03 .2 'S X! 03 "u s 03 'N N X) c N 3 03 ;-! 03 O 03 o c3 03 o 03 N D 03 d 03 03 o CQ < CQ 0 0. Q < CQ CQ > O O 00 ON O (N rn ^ in VO r-- 00 ON O rxl r<-i ^ in NO r^ 00 m r<-) ^ '^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Tf ^ ^ in in in in in in in in in 78 UTTAR PRADESH USE OF OIL ENGINES/ DOO HECTARES 1995 Fig. 3.3 79 districts namely Saharanpur, Moradabad, Rampur, Bareilly, Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur and Farrukhabad and in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Gonda, Barabanki and Maharajganj. It is evident from Figure 3.3 that there are more than fourteen districts below the moderate level and about thirty one districts above the lowest level and below the highest level. Fertilizer Consumption ( The fertilizer consumption in Uttar Pradesh is below the standard requirementfThe key to growth in agricultural productivity during a short period lies in intensive use of chemical fertilizer and provided all the factors* are cosntanjT Recent studies have shown that great potentialities for a sustained increase in crop production can be attained through greater and more efficient use of fertilizers and manures. FAO's study have been shown that the use of fertilizers is more instrumental of agricultural development because whenever efforts are made to increase agricultural productivity and efficiency to meet the demand of rising population more fertilizers and manures have been invariably used. Table 3.1 show the consumption of fertilizer in kg/hect. district wise in uttar Pradesh. The highest user of fertilizers are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bijnour, Moradabad, Agra, Budaun, Pilibhit, Kanpur Nagar, Faizabad , Ambedkar Nagar, Gorakhpur, Deoria+Kushinagar, Jaunpur, Varanasi+St. Ravidas Nagar (Bhadoi) and Ghazipur i.e. more than 121 kg/hect. Figure 3.5 shows the lowest is recorded in the districts of Bundelkhand plateau and other districts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western Uttar Pradesh. There is positive correlation between the amount of fertilizer consumption and per hectare yield in the district of Western Uttar Pradesh, while in Eastern Uttar Pradesh 80 UTTAR PRADESH CONSUMPTION OF FERTILIZERS (in kg/ha.) 1995 INDEX ^^ Medium 64 to 121 20 0 20 40 60 80 Lov'/ >64 Km. Fig. 3.4 81 the correlation is positive but insignificant due to combined effect of other factors in enhancing the agricultural productivity. Wooden Plough : Wooden plough i.e. traditional implements which is used in highest number in Unnao, Raebareilly, Allahabad, Gonda, Barabanki, Faizabad, Sultanpur, Azamgarh, Jaunpur and Sonbhadra. Moderate user of wooden plough in the district of Uttar Pradesh, namely Moradabad, Etah, Mainpuri, Badaun, Sitapur, Hardoi, Lucknow, Farrukhabad, Etawah, Kanpur Dehat, Lalitpur, Banda, Fatehpur, Pratapgarh, Bahraich, Maharajganj, Basti, Gorakhpur, Deoria, Mau, Ballia, Varanasi, Ghazipur and Mirzapur. The numbers of users of traditional implements is low in western Uttar Pradesh in comparison of eastern uttar Pradesh and central Uttar Pradesh because western Uttar Pradesh is more developed in technology (Fig. 3.5). Iron Plough : Iron plough are used rapidly in almost thirty five districts of Uttar Pradesh. Modern implement are more used in both western and eastern region of Uttar Pradesh. The high to moderate users are found in the district of Farrukhabad, Mau, Azamgarh, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bijnour, Etawah, Mainpuri, Banda, Bareilly, Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur, Kheri, Hardoi, Unnao, Lucknow, Raebareilly, Etawah, Kanpur Nagar and Kanpur Dehat, Fatehpur, Bahraich, Gonda, Barabanki, Faizabad, Sultanpur, Maharajganj, Basti, Gonda, Deoria and Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 3.6). Pattern of Irrigation : The spread of new technology particularly the HYV\ (high yielding varieties of seeds) and use of fertilizers is conditioned by the, availaiblity of monsoon. In monsoon land, where the rainfall and its distribution show wide fluctuations, irrigation facilities are must for 82 UTTAR PRADESH USE OF WOODEN PLOUGH/'ODD HECTARES 1995 NDEX High futedum 279 - 535 20 0 20 40 60 80 Uu) > 279 Km. Fig. 3.5 83 UTTAR PRADESH USE OF IRON PLOUGH/DOO HECTARES INDEX 20 0 20 40 60 80 tiytedum 161.33-319.6 Km. IJ3U) > 161.33 Fig. 3.6 84 achieving assured and high level of agricultural productionMtionMn areas where rainfall is plentiful and well distributed over the area, there is no problem of i^t) water. But some area experienced very eratic and uncertain of rainfall! Therefore, in this area artificial irrigation is absolutely essential J ' The study area has vast reservoir of surface and groundwater, fertile soil and good climatic conditions. The region is drained by perennial rivers of Ganga-Yamuna and Gomti system which have their source in the Himalaya. The vast plain and gentle slope offers conducive environment for the construction and development of canal for irrigation^ f The irrigation sources of the study area fall into five traditional types, canals, tubewell, well, tanks, lakes and ponds and other sources. The first two sources accounts 89.4 per cent and 93.8 per cent of net irrigated area iiml980-81 and 1998-99 respectively. Table 3.2 shows that rapid growth Table 3.2 Net irrigated area by different sources in Uttar Pradesh (in 000 hectares) Sources of Irrigation 1980-81 1998-99 %age change Canals 3331 (32.8) 3106 (24.5) -8.30 Tubewell (Pvt.+Govt.) 5740 (56.6) 8797 (69.3) + 12.70 Wells 627 (6.2) 458 (3.6) -2.60 Tanks, Lakes and Ponds 137 (1.4) 95 (0.7) -0.70 Other sources 319 (3.1) 233 (1.9) -1.20 Total 10154 (100) 12691 (100) Source : Directorate of Agriculture, Uttar Pradesh, 1998. ^Figures are in bracket is the percentage of net irrigated area by different sources. 85 of irrigated area under tubewell irrigation i.e. 12.70 percent increase in comparison to 1980-81 canal irrigation comes next which accounts 32.80 per cent to 24.50 per cent in 1980-81 and 1998-99. Wells, tanks and other sources have declined trend which acocunts 6.2 percent in 1998-99 and 10.7 per cent in 1980-81. CLandus' e Pattern f The landuse pattern is the cause of human settlement and development representing the interaction of physical, historical, social and economic factorsJfThe land has become a major commodity presenting a! complex problem of supply and demandf Since, the region as a whole is one'. A J. of the densely populated state of our country, the farmers hold an important position in explaining the use of various categories of land utilization of Uttar Pradesh. The land use is an important aspect of geographical studies and the progress of an area can be measured to the certain degree by the way in which its land is used and maintained.] / > The Table 3.3 showathe percentage of area under forest is very I low, it means intensive use of land for cultivatioji'! The area covered under forest is decreasing trend which is 7.89 per cent in 1980-81 to 7.05 per cent in 1995-96Vf TheMbarror t and uncultivable area has also declined from 3.34 per cent in 1980-81 to 2.78 per cent in 1995-96 of the region, while the land put to non agricultural uses including area under roads, railways and settlement has increased from 6.71 per cent to 7.31 percent in 1980-81 to 1995-96 respectivelyl|rhe cultivable wasteland has also declined from 3.5 per cent to 2.57 per cent in 1980-81 to 1995-96lrespectively.permanent j 86 Table 3.3 Land Utilization in Uttar Pradesh 1980-81 1995-96 %age change 1. Reporting Area for Land Utilisation 24422889 24431713 -.- 2. Forest 1682264 1721475 (7.89)* (7.05)* (-0.84)* 3. Landput to non Agriculturable 2023894 1786321 (6.71)* (7.31)* (1.39)* 4. Barron and Agriculturable land 875629 680085 (3.34)* (2.78)* (-0.56)* 5. Permanent Pasture and other 81981 68286 graze land (0.34)* (0.28)* (-0.06)* 6. Land Under Miscellaneous Trees, 479619 294799 Crops etc. (1.96)* (1.21)* (-0.75)* 7. Cultivable waste land 868379 627377 (3.56)* (2.57)* (-0.99)* 8. Fallow land 626536 768164 (2.57)* (3.14)* (0.57)* 9. Current Fallow Land 1393889 1059109 (5.71)* (4.33)* (-1.38)* 10. Net Sown Area 16290698 1681106 (66.71)* (68.81)* (2.11)* 11. Area Sown More than Once 6213284 8240541 (25.54)* (33.73)* (8.28)* 12. Gross Cropped Area 22503982 25052067 (92.14)* (102.54)* (10.41)* 13. Cropping Intensity 138.14% 149.01% 10.87% Note : Figures in brackets for item no. 2 to 12 are percentages to the reporting area of the district of the origin. Source : Estimated data taken from Uttar Pradesh Statistical Bulletin, Directorate of Economic and Statistics, Lucknow. pasture and other grazing land also indicate the declining trend in the state >\v of Uttar Pradeslf i.e. 0.34 per cent to 0.28 per cent in 1980-81 to 1995-96 87 respectively.rrhe land and miscellaneous uses and current fallow land also! declined i.e. 1.96 per cent in 1980-81 to 1.21 per cent in 1995-96 and 5.71i per cent in 1980-81 to 4.33 per cent in 1995-96 respectivelyTThe net sown . area of the region has increased from 66.71 per cent to 68.81 per cent ir^ ''•^ i 1980-81 to 1995-96. The gross cropped area and area sown more than once has also increased i.e. 8.28 per cent and 2.11 per cent in 1995-96 from! 1980-81 respectively J Cropping Pattern Review of changes of cropping pattern gauges the shifts in areas under different crops over a period of time. The heterogeneity and possibility of crop substitution are the two important characteristics of agricultural land which deserve special mention in studies pertaining to cropping pattern changes, heterogeneity arises from agro-climatic differences existing within the various regions of the state and divisions of the state. Investigations pertaining to study of changes in cropping pattern assume special improtance in taking cognizance of soil climate factors and the crops that could be grown within a particular environment. Impact of changes in technological, economic and institutional factors can be felt only when the existing corpping pattern undergoes a change. Generally, the farmers have a tendency to stick to a stable cropping pattern under any given agro-climatic region and they do not shift from this position except to the extent dictated by price factors in adjusting acrage allocations. Breakthrough is farm technology makes a room for new production opportunities which do change the cropping pattern but with some time lag. Newer production opportunities become possible by the new technology such as use of high ^ o o ON in o (N m in O) 88 ^ 00 O o tN d d d o d ^ J 1 1 1 1 d 1 T 1 + T + + ON 00 O oo in o (N in 00 in in (N q o q in -a o in d d c o ON) d a ON (N 3 CO 00 o 00 O 00 m (N 00 o 1 in 00 00 r<-i CN] O 00 (N 00 ^ d d d ON o 00 o in O ON o O m in in o 00 O en O o ^_ d d d d d d in d + o 1 1 1 1 1 + + 1 + P. ON ON o ON in in o 00 00 r<-i 00 t^ CO \D ON o d 00 d d d + ON d ON o 00 CNI 00 ON 00 O ON 00 00 o 00 1 (N ON 00 o q rn o d d iri d d d d (N d 00 ON m o in ON o t^ o o 00 00 in (N (N (N d d d d d d dCNJ 4^ 1 t 1 + 1 1 + + + + ON o o o ONI in ON ON c 1 q o O in o in ^ o ON 00 d d d d d d (N d ON N =s 00 o in in (N ON ON q o 00 IN O 00 in in d d o m d iri d 00 d d ON d d ON fN) O q in ON o re r-i d d d d d d d d + 1 1 + i 1 1 + + 1 o ON 04 CN in 00 00 1 00 q O (N ON q o in in r^ o ON d d d d d d ON d (N T—H 00 o ON o ON 0^ in q CN (N o VI -o (D OH (U O 3 o O o c3 o i-H S 1/) "tH 3 3 OS OJ •J? -*—' +-> o 03 o o O 5 m CQ H H 00 •xl- r-1 ON in in (N in 89 rn CNJ d d d o 1 1 1 -a 1 + + + + + X) + ON N ON ON O 00 00 ^ 00 in O 00 m 00 rn CNI in ON O d CNj d d + ON < 00 00 in in 1 IT) CNI ON in ON o rNj d in \0 d d 00 o o ON. 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NO 1 00 q ON IT) in q o d d d 00 ON C/) -a fU a 3 C/3 (J o 0 OH o o u 1) N s en 13 o u o +-o1 +-o• 1—1 0 H PH ON 00 ON ON (N vo o o vq q 00 92 ^ o in d d d r^ + 1 1 + 1 1 + + + Q(U + O o ON oo CN vo m S-l ON 00 03 1 o o rn ON -^ CNJ DO d ON mi 00 z ON 00 00 00 o 00 00 o o in 00 vo o 1 q 00 in ON in 00 d q in o in in m 00 CN ON o O 00 o CNI q q 00 ON VD vq q 00 (N in r-i in d in o d d 1 1 1 + 1 + + 1 + '3 ON in ON CN) 00 ON ;-( CNJ T—< in ON 00 < 1^ vq + ON in 00 o in in ON 00 d ON m 03 tq 00 00 o o CNI VO O ON in 1 O 00 00 ON o vq vq in vd o o^ in 00 o ON in ON CNI vo vo DO r- o r^ in ON CNJ 00 q vq vo in d d CNl' ^-5 1 r 1 + + 1 + + 1 + 1^ ON o o O ON + 1 00 (N q in ON vq -a vo in in r-H in 00 a ON 1—t a ON oo 00 00 en o in o 1 ON in vq o vo o •ri 00 vd ON 00 d ON 1- C3 ON 00 in in in 00 fN q rn O en (N CNI 03 in rn d d q d in d + 1 + 1 d -ll 1 + + + —1 a, ON ON ^ 00 O (N rn (N 00 o in 00 1 q ^ ON rn O o ON in iri o d d vd q o ON d d + 00 00 o 00 ON in 00 a 1 o o in 00 o in 00 o in d d (N a CNl d d 00 ON T3 c/} (U C/3 (U (U a C/5 (U o u cu o o 03 03 03 o N (U 03 o a C/5 03 ••-t O o o O CO CQ OH 5 H C/0 O ON ON ON NO ON fNj o ON o 93 O q en q d o d d d I 1 1 1 1 1 1 d 1 + + 1 (N ON m ON O CN) ON ON "in 1 >n p en 00 ON in O o o rn d d en 00 d OS d in d ON o^ 00 ON 00 ON ON in NO I 00 ON p in (N (N o o r- o in d en in d d 00 m d 5^ in o NO NO O in q o o en d q d 00 d d + + 1 + 1 1 1 + + d 1 ON in (^ ON ON ON in ON o o 1 o 00 ON r~; ON ON NO q ON d oi d ON d K3 00 ON ON (N in ^ ON 1 o in in NO O 00 en 00 ON in d iri en ON m d 1) ON en o 00 in in NO q O 00 en o d d rn d iri d o d a + + 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 + d + 03 (-] + (/} ON 00 (N in 00 CNI 00 ON 00 1 03 ^ o o '^ en ON 00 en + ON 'O 00 en d ON d m X0)3 03 (-• 00 in 00 NO CNI en in o IT) (N o en 00 < 00 00 d d in 00 ON (N en d ON in ON o in o ON in o rn CNI in d d en rNi" d 1 d 1 1 d + 1 + d + + + ON o 00 en in en 1 o m 00 q ON 00 00 ON ^ (N d ri ON in ON CNI en T—-f 00 ON o o 00 00 00 in (N 00 00 O I in o O 00 q ON 00 rn d ON d q CNJ d ON CN] •73 (U (U U o 3 C u OH o o 03 N 03 u o U on 03 o 03 03 XI 1 03 O 03 (U o o •*-O» 5 oq 0 OH H OH 1) 1^ 00 o q ON ON in o 00 O 1 q d d •*-l 1 d 1 o 1 1 + + T 1 o + ;-. ON 00 in o in 00 o in 1 o en (N 00 o o ON 00 d d d d u ON + -a 00 00 o ^ ON NO NO 00 00 G o WO o •^ fO o NO o CQ 00 d ro d NO d d ON (N d in in in NO q ^ 1 (N o d iri d NO d d 00 1 1 1 03 o 1 + + -O + + + O f^ 03 ON o o 00 ON ON o CNl 00 o q q ON 00 \D NO o t ON 00 O 00 d d d 1—1 00 d ON d & 'g 03 00 1^ 1^ o in 00 r-1 1 in ro O X o o CNl q 00 q 00 d d NO d d 00 d d \6 NO d ON d in ON '^ in (N 00 ON 00 ON m rn 00 in 1 o d CNI' d d ON d d 1 1 d 1 + i + + + 1 ON ON o 00 NO O 00 00 ON 00 q ON rn 00 00 \D 00 in o ON d d d d d ON in '—1 00 o ON ON 00 (N NO o r- o o 00 VO in 00 r- d d d in d d ON (N in 1—1 o in ON 00 00 00 o q in ON ON q d d d d in (N d d 1 + + + 1 + + 1 + 1 + + ON 00 1-H o ON in rn 00 ON ON ON O q NO o 4—» in o ON CN! 00 d d ON d CN) ON 00 (N ON o in o 00 ON o o 00 o in in o •^ OS o 00 r- in d in '^ d d ON d rNi 1/2 C/3 OJ (U u [/) o 3 o U 03 o N OH ;-! C/2 13 03 o GO •J? 1 03 •I-' -^^ o 0 o O CQ CQ 0 H C/3 00 tDX) r^ ON o NO NO o o 95 a ON i^ o o d d d d d d d 1 1 1 -a + 1 + + + + 1 + + IT) 00 in 00 NO O ON CM (N NO CN] 1 00 en 00 q in in in \D ON q en 00 in in ON d d + ON zi sx a N NO m 00 o NO NO ON rM i- 1 00 00 ON in o ON o en o d in d d CN) NO ON ON ON in en in OO OC c ON o ON 00 NO en ON d d in d d d 1 1 1 + 1 + 1 + + 1 ON O r"-! CNI o o in in 00 1 ON 00 q NO en cn c ON ON d CN) d en ON CNI 5^ 00 ON ON CN! ON en en 00 in en 00 ON ON NO ON o in NO 00 ON iri in en ON d ON (N en OO m ON in t^ en O 00 (N r-H en o 00 ON (N NO d d in ^ d d + 1 1 1 1 1 d + 1 + + + ON ON en in in (N NO ON ON 00 o en in q 00 en en CNJ ON in ON ON d d 00 ON d ON en O 00 CN) 00 ON in en t (N ON (N •NO O o~. O en 00 00 00 ON d en en d en d ON en CN) O o en O in 00 i 00 00 00 in en O o 00 d d d NO 1—( en d en d d 1 1 1 1 1 d + 1 + + + + ON ON r^ o 00 o 00 in 00 ON in 1 -a •st; q >o en \D 00 00 G ON d d (N U ON + in 00 IT) 00 en in in NO r^ t ON a o 00 00 ON en q ^ 00 00 d CNI d en ON 1/1 (U C/2 (U (/) Ci o 03 U 1) O CJ O S3 03 03 00 S3 t3 u 03 03 •4—t o o •*->o CQ o H GO H 00 ON in in NO 00 ON O ** p 00 ON in O 96 o d d d d o 1 d 1 1 d o 1 + + 1 + + + C ON o o NO NO 1 OO O (N (N in 00 NO O ON o d d d d + ON a o in r—1 CNI o in o O o q o O d d d d d d d d T—H 1 + + r 1 1 + + |l + + 03 ON o 00 in in o in in ON 1 (~n o o 5 q o d NO ON d d d d d d + ON a Oj 00 O in 00 r^ in CNl 00 o in rNi 1^ 00 O O O q o O d d NO r-i 00 00 d O ON d rn o 00 o 00 CNl ON O 00 q 00 in d d d in d o 1 1 1 + + + + 1 + ON 00 ON o CNI in CNI in in r o ^ 00 in 00 \D O q ON (N d d ^ d ON d ON CQ 00 in ON o NO in NO 1 00 in q ON o O 00 d d d ON in 00 00 ON ON o o (N o o O o d d d d d + 1 1 + 1 1 1 + 1 + :2 a + ON rn o ^ o rn 00 00 00 ^ 1 o m ON ON o 03 ON ON O d d in d in g ON d 03 N < 00 00 r—( ON 00 o (N 1 00 O in in o 00 q 00 ON d d ON d NO ON m T3 lU 1/) (U a en c/3 o 03 3 u >-< 0) o o u 03 03 ;-! N C/3 03 o 03 -(—• -4-* "3 a ^1 o (U o o o 1—J CQ CQ 0 OH H C/5 H «> 3j ^ ^ m oo O o m r-- -* o 00 ^ en ON 97 (N O r n-. <" m 00 1—1 oo ON ^ Tl- O en en ^ in 00 m iri ON r~; m ^ (N m Oi in in •* O ^ d r-^ in ri rn d ^ d d d ^^ 1 1 ' 1 t 1 1 o + + + + + ON rn in m ^ in ^ r-- ^ ^ m NO o 1 r^ (N in fN o .—( ^ NO r^ IT) en in m ON c ON ~ (N d o^ ^ ^ d in d ^ c ON (N 't p 00 O ON ^ in in ON 00 t^ ON m ON 1—1 o1 ^ ON o 1—1 (N r- q 00 •o r-- 00 q ON 00 '~^ O ^ T—1 t^' 00 iri 't d d ^' ^ d ON (N r^ ^o O in '^ ON ^ en m NO 00 NO CNI (N ^ in ^ ON ^ 00 ^ in 00 O o r^ 00 ^ ON o 1 ^ q q r- o ON o 00 (N in >—' (N r^ ON '—^ in r^ d (N t^ d ^ r-i ON (N d ri o ON (N CO 3 t—^ HJ 1 00 1—1 ON (N in ON ON r^ r-~ ON o o ^^ o m 00 ^ ro c^ O r~- in ON 00 in NO m rn ro r-^ r-^ r^ 00 ^~* r-i K ^ d ^ ^ d ON (N m 00 (N 00 ON CNI in ^ 00 (N (N r^ O in 00 ON ^ (N r^ in O + I 1^ d d d d r—1 d ~ 1 d t t 1 1 1^o + + + 1 + 03 r^ ON ^ O -NT ^ (N 'd- r- o 1—( m ^ o i 1 1 ON O o q 1—I (N in 1—I O ^ 00 q ON tn d d '-' d T—H (N K ^ en -" ON ^ • ^H r—( 03 + •*-* 00 (N 00 (N CN (N (N 1/1 1 O (mN o '^ (^N CNmJ en l> o O q q vo ^ ^ r-- q 00 in d 1—H (^ ri 0\ o NO m ON d " 72 C/5 (U D 03 —1 3 o J >. OH o o 03 •4—* (U S-4 _« s IZl 13 'c3 03 o TT" 'S JS M rt 03 -»-» +-• &0 •4—* 03 o o 3 o 5 ° S ^ a H t/3 so O ON en r<-5 o 00 so o 98 O d d d d CNI d d d ON ^ + t 1 1 1 1 + + T + T3 00 00 fn IT) ON o in CNI r~- CM o o 00 CN) CNl in (N OS 00 OS d d < d CO + ON _D 00 ON in in O in 00 ON C3 1 O m o p in ON SO OO q q !>; N r-) o d so d d d in '3 00 ON ON 1^ so ON o 1> DO o in SO o O ON O d (N d d 00 d 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 +' + ON O in CNJ 1 ON O 00 in ON ON o d r~' d d d in in so d ON (N OO o in 00 (N ON 1 00 SO CNI 00 so q q O CNJ o 00 d d OS d 00 so 00 d ON (N ON o in SO 00 (N in in ON o 00 q SO q iri d (N d d d d 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + 1 ON 00 00 •n 00 o O so so 00 in o "o 1 ON 00 ON en 00 ON ON •o so ON d 00 d 00 ON 00 ON 00 o in 00 SO 00 00 in in 1 in fn o ON ON o CNl fN) 00 1—( so d so d d ON in Ti CN) ON SO so in in o so so 00 ON q d d d in d ll 1 T 1 + 1 1 1 t 1 + + ON CNI 00 o so in t^ o o o 00 1 ON in 00 o (N 00 in CM ON ON o O ON o ON 00 in •n in so 00 o1 00 00 in so 00 d in d in 00 d ON C/3 t/5 1/5 (U en O O o o u N t5 a C/2 13 t3 o +-> o o o o 5 CQ 0 H «. IJ l/^ 0 ^ •* -o m (N -^ 0 Tf r-i (N ^ -a ^ 0 0 0 r^ '^ 00 00 (N \o r^ ON in 00 3 ON 0 ON 0 ^ in ^o (N \o ON 00 (N r^ 1 00 ^ (N r-i ^ ^ .—1 (N VO in 00 rn '^ ON m r-n ^' d r-,' d d d 00 rj rn r-i ON m m I 5 a '—' m ^ T03 3 O 00 in r-- ro rn (N 00 in ^ 00 >o 1—1 0 J2 o1 r- •* vq in \o_ ^ ON Tt; Tf Ti- (N ON m X! -t/^) m 0 r-H in r-^ aj 00 d —I ^' d d d rn (N 13 ON m r^ O 03 SH OH -t-» ^ (N in rn in CNI in in 0 CNI ^ •^ 73 •4—» ll >o '—; ON r-n 0 q in r- •—< ^ 00 CNI q m ro d d d r-^ -^ d ^ d d ^ 2 o ^v o 4:31 1 r 1 H1 1 1 0 + + + + + + o >- c ^ v< C 3 t^ D, ON \o ^^ (N 'O 1—' in in fN in 00 m ^H 1 00 •—1 00 in r— c in (N rn in m q rn ro •*-' C3 ON m in (N d r-I ^ d (N oi d ^ yielding crop varieties along with chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and increase in irrigated area/f rTh e croppin• g pattern almost differ' ^ from districts to district and divisions to divisions in space and time due to ;' |i interplay of physio-cultural and the technological factor^sM'able 3.4 presents are under some important crops as percentage to the gross cropped area, it . reveals that wheat predominates over all other crops and the magnitude of area of wheat has declinedj^n 1980-81 it covered 35.57 per cent while in 1995-96 it registered about 35.45 per cent. The area under rice and%' sugarcane also increased in 1995-96, but the area under jowar, bajra and maize declined land shift from cereals to cash crops such as sugarcane and potato has been felt. These result apply suggest that cropping pattern is f ) changing in region. These variations have been their genesis in the human choice to grow cash crops for monetary gains and facilities easily available to the farmers Jrhe percentage of area under rice cultivation is decreasing"'^ trend 2.12 per cent and 2.10 per cent respectively from 1980-81 to 1995-96 \p in Farrukhabad, Gonda and Bundelkhand region fThe area under wheat in all districts occupied highest percentage ranging from 36 to 40 percentj / '' J (Intensity of Cropping : The intensity of cropping refer to the number of" crops grown in a field during an agricultural year. The rapid growth of ' population has been exerting pressure on land. Land area being inextensible, , P in intensification of cultivated area is the only alternative measures for increasing production/] The intensification depends on many physical, technological and institutional factorsj/'The gross cropped area has percentage of net sown area gives a measure of landuse efficiency, which in other words may be said to be the intensity of cropping jThe table of land 101 utilization present the intensity of cropping of different districts of Uttar Pradesh from 1980-81 to 1995-96.|The intensity of cropping varies from 'p district to district in Uttar Pradesh|The highest intensity level is found inj in 'X i Bulandshahr and Etah./fhese districts have acquired percentage growth from| 1.29 per cent to 14.76 per cent during 1980-81 to 1995-96 respectively. The table 3.3 shows the cropping intensity of Uttar Pradesh has increased from 138.14 per cent in 1980-81 to 149.01 per cent in 1995-96. Crop Combination The study of crop combination regions constitute an important aspect of agricultural geography as it provides a good ideas/basis for agricultural regionalization. The crops are generally grown in combinations and it is rarely that a particular crop occupies a position of total isolation other crops in a given area at a given time.In recent years the concept of crop combination has engaged the attention of geographers and agricultural landuse planners. The studies made so far in this field range in approach from topical to regional and vary in extent from small areas of minor political units to the entire country as well as in the region. / M The present study focuses upon the analysis of crop combination | 0 ^ ^ Hi" in Uttar Pradesh with keeping in the mind of some objectives : First to find out the set of those crops which are dominating in economy of each district of the Uttar Pradesh, secondly, to explore into the patterns and changes in' crop combinations and lastly, to make sure whether agriculture in Uttar Pradesh is becoming market oriented j There are various methods for finding the crop combination/ Some geographers and social scientists have adopted the Weaver's Minimum 102 Deviation method, while others have opted Rafiullah's method for outline f 2a'' the crop combination/i3n/ln the present study, Weaver's techniques regarding the calculation of crop combination region has been used JWeaver calculated / deviation of the real percentages of crops (occupying over 1 per cent of the cropped area) for all the possible combinations in the component areal units ' against theoretical standardsfrhe theoretical curve for the standard measurement was given as : ) y /[Monoculture = 100 per cent of the total harvested land income)crop 2 crop combination = 50 per cent in each crop of two crops 3-crop combination = 33.3 per cent in each of three crops. 4-crop combination= 25 per cent in each of four crops. 5-crop combination = 20 percent in each of five crops ^^ /') !>^ 10-crop combination = 10 percent in each often crops. For finding the minimum deviation the Standard deviation method was used : Id2 SD= N where d is the difference between the actual crop percentages in a given aerial unit and the appropriate percentage in the theoretical curve and n is the number of crops in a given combinations. As Weaver pointed out the relative values and not absolute values being significant square roots were not extracted. So that the actual formula was used as follows : ^ d = — I 103 Crop Combination Regions 7 •^^••^ On the basis of Weaver's Minimum Deviation Method, crop combination region of Uttar Pradesh has worked out for the year 1995-96 and is plotted in Fig. 3.7. It may be concluded that there are two, three, four, five, six, seven and eight crop combination in Uttar Pradesh. Wheat, rice, pulses, oilseeds, maize, jowar, bajra, gram and sugarcane involved in all crops combination regions. Two crop combination regions are distributed in Azamgarh+Mau, Ballia, Gorakhpur+Maharanganj, Basti, Siddharthnagar and in Faizabad+ Ambedkar Nagar districts of Uttar Pradesh. The constituents crops however vary from place to place due to variation in temperature moisture conditions. Wheat and rice are the major crops of two crop combination region. Three crop combination regions are distributed in seventeen districts out of fifty four districts of Uttar Pradesh, namely Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut+Baghpat, Bijnour, Pilibhit, Rampur, Pratapgarh, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Hamirpur+Mahoba, Varanasi+Chandauli, Ghazipur, Deoria+ Kushi Nagar, Raebareilly Kheri, Sultanpur and Gonda+Balrampur. The main crops involved in combinations are wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds and gram, wheat, rice and sugarcane are the major association of crops in Saharanpur, Meerut+Bagpat, Muzaffarnagar, Pilibhit, Bijnour, Rampur. Pulses, wheat and oilseeds are major association in Jhansi, Lalitpur and Hamirpur, other associations wheat, rice. Pulses and sugarcane are found in Gonda, Sultanpur and Deoria. UTTAR PRADESH CROP COMBINATION REGIONS 1995-96 TJTHPOGMBJV_ W - Wlteat P - Pulses R - Rice 0 - Oilseeds M - Mdize 17 i " Jonai B - Bdira 20 0 20 40 60 80 G -- (rTam S -- Sngarcame Km. Fig. 3.7 105 Four crop combinations regions are distributed in Ghaziabad, Agra, Firozabad, Bareilly, Moradabad, Fatehpur, Jaunpur and Bahraich districts of Uttar Pradesh. Wheat, sugarcane, Pulses, rice are major crops of these crop combination region and is found in Ghaziabad, Bareilly, Fatehpur and Jaunpur. Other combination includes wheat, rice, maize, pulse and bajra and these found in Agra, Moradabad and Bahraich. Fifth crop combination regions are found in ninth districts of Uttar Pradesh. The major association crops of wheat, rice, sugarcane, pulses, gram, bajra found in Bulandshahr, Shahjahanpur, Allahabad, Kaushambi, Jalaun, Banda + Chitrakoot, Lucknow, Unnao, Sitapur and Barabanki. Sixth crop combination regions are found in the five districts of Uttar Pradesh namely, Aligarh, Mainpuri, Etah, Farrukhabad+Kannauj. The major crops of these regions are, wheat, oilseeds, pulses, rice, maize, bajra and sugarcane, Bajra is found in Aligarh and Etah while sugarcane is found in Mathura and Farrukhabad district. Seven and eight crops combination regions are found in few districts and such as three and two districts respectively. Seven crop combination regions are distributed in Badaun, Etah and Hardoi, while eight crop combination are found only two districts such as Kanpur Nagar and Kanpur Dehat districts are included in one district, and Mirzapur and Sonbhadra are included one district. The major crops of seven crop combination regions are wheat, rice, bajra, oilseeds, maize, pulses sugarcane and Jowar while the major crops of eight crop combination are rice, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, gram, maize, bajra and jowar. The western region is having well developed infrastructure and farmers are emphasizing on namely wheat, rice and sugarcane crop cultivation. The irrigation is 106 provided by canals, tubewells and other sources of irrigation in the region for the increase in the production of wheat rice and sugarcane. The million farmers of Uttar Pradesh under prevailing physico-social condition prefer to devote their arable lands to several crops. The high diversification of crops is based on the assumption of perfect certainity. Ranking of Crops Ranking of crops gives an insight in the geographical reality of cropping structure. The percentage of gross cropped area of the land or areal strength of a particular crops reveals the agricultural operations involved, period of peak labour demand and the opportunities of the employment to the farmer's family as well as to the labour dependent on him^Ranking of the / crops also indicates the nature of economy i.e. whether the farmers of a p particular aerial unit are traditional subsistent farmers commercial, market \ <,, oriented or partly subsistent and partly market orientedjISuch indicators can - be helpful for the agricultural development of a meso or micro areal unit.fit addition to it ranking of the crops also indicates that, which crop is competing with each other to gain more hectage under their cultivation., y /After assessing the relative strength of different crops in a geographical unit, the process of planning can be more rationally indicated for the optimal use of the available land for cultivatioi^v^ judicious use of land in fact cani help in raising the agricultural production of even the less fertile areas and; thus can be useful in reducing the inter-regional agricultural income; disparities in the agricultural sector of economy/i The cropping structure, cropping strength and crop concentration in a particular aerial unit even at the field level is determined by the fertility 107 of soil, soil texture and structure and by the temperature and moisture components of climateYThe socio-economic variables like landholding, j ^' ' I P irrigation facilities, distance from the market, storage facilities and availability of modern inputs also have a close bearing on the cropping ; mosaid'^Nevertheless, in the developing countries like ours the physical environment of a place play the dominating role in the decision-making )1^ about crops to be sown the farmers'/The development of infrastructural / facilities like irrigation and power have, however, enabled the farmers to \ overcome the problems of deficient rainfall winter seasoiMcrop rotation !p along with suitable crop combination can enhance the productivity to many ]^' folds irrespective of unfavourable agro-climatic setting. With suitable crop combination and crop rotations deterioration in soil fertility and soil depletion may also be avoided.^ Unless the major crops of geogrpahical personality are studied in (" their ranking order and the areal strength of each crop determined ,^ appropriate associations of soils enriching crops for each situation can be assertained. JPor this purpose a comparison of areal strength of various crops in each of the areal units seems to be essential, j /( The first three leading crops in the study area have been ranked for the period of 1993-95 and result has been plotted in figure 3.8.1 i '-»^ f First Ranking crops \ Wheat sprawling over thirty eight districts out of fifty four districts of Uttar Pradesh occupied first position among the first ranking crops, which reveals that wheat ranks first in Saharanpur, Bulandshahr, Ghaziabad, Aligarh, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Mainpuri, 108 UTTAR PRADESH F >E l^'j^'l. FIRST RANKING; Fig. 3.8 109 Etawah, Etah, Bareilly, Badaun, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Moradabad, Rampur, Farrukhabad, Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur Dehat, Fatehpur, Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Azamgarh, Mau, Ballia, Deoria, Lucknow, Unano, Raebareilly, Sitapur, Hardoi, Kheri, Sultanpur, gonda and Bahraich. Rice is also the major cereal crops got first rank in several districts of Uttar Pradesh. The district in which rank it ranked first are Gorakhpur, Maharajganj, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Basti, Siddharthnagar, Faizabad and Barabankif For efficient cultivation of wheat and rice, the temperature should / ^ be/uniformly high between ^^10°C to 15°C during sowing and harvesting! ^ period and for wheat it should be 30°C to 35°CJPijflses and sugarcane, both: ^ are also came in rank first in Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur and Banda I while sugarcane is rank first in Muzaffarnagar, Meerut and Bijnour district T ^ of Uttar Pradesh because of all favourable condition which are required for I's the cultivation of pulse is found in these districts of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 3.8). Second Ranking Crops •) Rice is the second ranking crop found in the Mainpuri, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Rampur, Etawah, Fatehpur, K, ^ Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Azamgarh, Mau, Ballia, >^ Deoria, Lucknow, Unnao, Raebareilly, Sitapur, Hardoi, Kheri, Sultanpur, Gonda and Bahraich/The crop needs 100 cm to 150 cm of rainfall and temperature between 30°C to 35°C /Wheat is also the secondCrnakin^ crop which is found in Muzaffar Nagar, Meerut, Bijnour, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Hamirpur, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Gorakhpur, Maharajganj, Basti, Siddharthnagar, Faizabad, and Barabanki, Sugarcane is also second ranking crop which is found in Saharanpur, Ghaziabad, Moradabad and Bajra comes 10 UTTAR PRADESH RANKING OF THE CROPS (SECOND RANKING) 1993-95 20 0 20 40 60 80 Pulses Km. Fig. 3.9 Ill to second rank in Agra, Etah, Budaun and Faizabad. Oilseeds, grams, maize and pulses are come in second rank in Aligarh, Mathura, Hamirpur, Banda, Bulandshahr, Farrukhabad, Kanpur Nagar and kanpur Dehat (Fig. 3.9). Third Ranking Crops j Pulses comes to third ranking crops in Ghaziabad, Aligarh, Mathura, Fatehpur, Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Lucknow, Unnao, Raebareilly, Hardoi, Sultanpur, Barabanki, Gonda, Bahraich, Azamgarh, Mau, Ballia, Gorakhpur, Maharajganj, Basti, Siddharthnagar and Faizabad. Sugarcane also come in third ranking in Bulandshahr, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Rampur, Deoria, Sitapur and Kheri. Rice is also third ranking in Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bijnour, Moradabad, Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur Dehat and Banda district of Uttar Pradesh. Oilseeds also comes in third ranking in Agra, Firzoabad, Badaun, Farrukhabad, Jhansi and Jalaun district of Uttar Pradesh. Maize, Gram and Bajra are come in third ranking in Mainpuri, Etah, Jaunpur, Lalitpur, Hamirpur and Etawah (Fig. 3.10). In Uttar Pradesh, the cultivation of crops is the dominant economic activity. Of the total reporting area of about 30 million hectares, name 18 million hectares represent the net sown area i.e. about 60% as compared to 47% for the whole of India. In order to area covered, the most important crops are wheat, rice, pulses, sugarcane, oilseeds, gram, bajra and maize. These crops occupy about 91.8% of net cropped area of the net cropped area but because of double cropping their total area actually represents about 80% of the gross cropped area. The leading crops in each districts of Uttar Pradesh have been ranked for the period of 1993-95 and the reuslt have been plotted in figure 3.10. 112 UTTAR PRADESH RANKING OF THE CROPS (THIRD RANKING) 1993-95 Fig. 3.10 113 Agricultural Productivity : The measurement of production and inputs required for the production of that output is known as agricultural productivity. In other words, it is an input-output ratio. In traditional measurement of agricultural productivity geographers and economists used to take into account the inputs like labour and capital and see them as costs which are incurred in the production of agricultural produce. The traditional approach of measurement of agricultural productivity, however, does not tlake into account of social and environmental costs which are also incurred in the production of crops and raising livestock. At present, in the measurement of agricultural productivity, the question of sustainability of soil, health of ecosystem and social acceptability have become increasingly important. V Agricultural productivity may be defined as a function of interplay/ of the physical and cultural variables and it manifests itself through Rs. per ' hectare and total volume of production. Some economists suggested that productivity could be measured in terms of per unit of labour and different regions compared on that basisFAfter a long discussion it was generally agreed that Rs. per hectare may be considered to represent the agricultural productivity in a particular region, and that other factors of production be considered as the possible cause for the variation while comparing it with Other regions.y A gricultural productivity of a micro or macro region is closely •o (' influenced by a number of physical (physiography, climate, soil, water), socio-economic (size of operational holding, occupational holding, demographic situation, type of farming and land tenancy systemlpolitical. 114 institutional and organizational factors. Thus agricultural productivity is a function of interplay of physical and cultural variables and it manifests itself through per hectare productivity and the total production. Agricultural productivity also depends on attitudes of the farmers towards work and their aspirations for better standard of living. ^Researchers from different disciplines such as economics,) geography and agricultural sciences have long been engaged in determining the agricultural productivity in different parts of the world and have devised various methods to measure it. Almost all the measures suffer from one or other defect. Thomson (1926)' while measuring the relative productivity of British and Danish farming emphasized and expressed it in terms of gross output of crops and livestock. Buch (1937)^ in his study of Chinese Pj^ agricultural increased agricultural efficiency by output expressed in terms of grain equivalent for various crops in relation to stable food. Ganguly (1938)^ in study of Ganga valley to find out agricultural productivity prepared an index of agricultural efficiency by multiplying the percentage of crop share with percentage of crops yield in an aerial unit and later averaging them into one. Kendall (1939)'* used for coefficients namely productivity coefficient, ranking coefficient, money value coefficient and starch equivalent or energy coefficient. Hirsch (1943)^ used 'Crop Yield Index' as the basis for productivity measurement. Zobel (1958)^ used to determine the labour productivity as ratio of the total output to productivity. Stamp (1952)'' applied Kendall's ranking coefficient to find out agricultural productivity. Stamp (1958)^ used another method to convert total agricultural production in calories. Khusro (1965)^ has assessed the productivity with * the output per unit of single input and output per unit of cost of all inputs in ) 115 the agricultural production. Shafi (1965)'*^ has assessed the productivity on / the basis of workers engaged in agriculture. Shafi (1970)" attempted to^ l^"^ compute the index of productivity on the formula initiated by Eneyedi for each district of India with regard to 12 food crops^ In connection of agricultural productivity Majid Hussain (1976) attempts to fmd out agricultural, cultural productivity by involving the area production and price of each cultivated crop in each of the constituent areal units of the region and then relating the output in terms of money of the unit to the corresponding productivity of the region. Jasbir Singh (1985)'^ used the net income in rupees per hectare of cropped area for finding out the agricultural productivity. However, in the present study the volume of the production of all the crops were converted into value in terms of rupees/hectare based on current price index to make the compatability of all the crops in one unit to examine the productivity of the crops/hectare for regionalization on that basis the region is categorized under the following heads. The analysis is based on the yield given in Statistical agricultural book of 1985 and 1995. High Agricultural Productivity f High productivity districts are found mostly in the western Uttar Pradesh due to^^avourable geological conditions especially the rich and well drained soils, adequate water supply relatively high amount of fertilizer consumption and progressive nature of farmersj The high agricultural productivity districts in 1985 was comprises the districts of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr, Ghaziabad, Aligarh, Agra, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Etawah, Kanpur Nagar and Dehat. Where in 1995 it comprises the 116 UTTAR PRADESH AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (Rs./Hect.) 1985 Fig. 3.11 117 districts of Saharnapur, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, Bulandshahr, Ghaziabad, Aligarh, Agra, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Farrukhabad, Etawah, Kanpur Nagar and Dehat (Fig. 3.11). Medium Agricultural Productivity ij This region comprises the districts in 1985 was Mathura, Etah, Bareilly, Piiibhit, Bijnour, Moradabad, Rampur, Farrukhabad, Fatehpur, Pratapgarh, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Ballia, Maharazganj, Gorakhpur, Deoria, Kashinagar, azamgarh, Mau, Lucknow and Barabanki. When in 1995 it comprises often districts of Uttar Pradesh namely Etah, Bareilly, Badaun, Shahjahanpur, Piiibhit, Bijnour, Moradabad, Rampur, Varanasi and Jaunpur. There are physical constrast like inundation, poverty of soils and poor drainage, which are hampering in the enhancement of agricultural productivity in this region. Low Agricultural Productivity : This region includes the remaining districts in 1985 was comprises the districts of Budaun, Hamirpur, Banda, Sonbhadra, Unnao, Raebareilly, Sitapur, Hardoi, Kheri, Gonda, Bahraich and Sultnapur when it comprises in 1995 about twenty nine districts of Uttar Pradesh, namely, Fatehpur, Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Banda, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Ghazipur, Ballia, Gorakhpur, Maharazganj, Deoria, Azamgarh, Mau, Lucknow, Unnao, Raebareilly, Sitapur, Kheri, Hardoi, Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, Sultanpur and Barabanki districts of Uttar Pradesh. This regions have low productivity reigon due to inadequate controlled irrigaiton infertile soil and low consumption of fertilizer is not possible. The economically backwardness of farmers which have reduced that risk taking capacity for adoption of new agricultural innovation (Fig. 3.12). 18 UTTAR PRADESH AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (Rs./Hect.) 1995 20 0 20 40 60 80 Fig. 3.12 / 119 /^. Z ' 1. References 1. Thompson, R.J., The Productivity of British and Danish Farming, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 89 (Part II), 1926, p. 218. 2. J.L. Buch, la^ci f///7/zan'o« m C/2/«(3, University of Nanking, 1937. s 3. Ganguli, B.N., Trends of Agriculture and Population in the Ganges Valley, London, 1938, p. 93. 4. Kandall, M.G., The Geographical Distribution of Crop Productivity in England, Journal of Royal Statistical Society, 102, 1939, pp. 21-48. 5. Hirsch, H.G., Crop Yield Index, Journal of Farm Economics, 25(3), 1943, p. 583.N 6. Zobel, S.P., In the measurement of Productivity of Labour, Journal of American Statistical Society, 45, 1950, p. 218. 7. Stamp, L.D., The Measurement of Agricultural Efficiency with Special Reference to India, Silver Jubilee Souvenir, volume, Indian Geographical Society, 1952, pp. 177-178. 8. Stamp, L.D., The Measurernent of and Resources, The Geographical Review, 48(1), 1958, pp. 110-116. ) / 9. Khusro, A.M., Measurement of Productivity at Macro and Micro Level, Journal of Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics, 1965, pp. 278-283. 10. Shaft, M., Approaches to the Measurement of Agricultural Efficiency, Unpublished, Proceedings of the Summer School in Geography held at //(sm/to/. Department of Geogrpahy, Aligarh Muslim University, 1965, p. 4. , 11. Shaif, M., Measurement of Food Crop productivity in Indian Presidential Address, Indian Council of Geographers, Indian Sciences Congress, 1970.^ 12. Singh, J., A New Technique for Measuring Agricultural Efficiency in Haryana, India, ibid., pp. 14-27. Chapter-IV LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS : A SPATIO- TEMPORAL ANALYSIS Level of Diffusion of Innovation Innovation refers to new idea, method, or technology, and diffusion means the spreading of the innovation and new information in the region and their adoptionflhe process by which an innovation spreads within a social t • I. system is called the means of 'diffusion'. An innovation however diffuses within a social system through it 'adoption' by individual and groups. Diffusion and adoption are their closely interrelated even though they are conceptually distinct Diffusion of agricultural innovation refers to the spread and adoption of new and improved means and techniques agricultural practices over the existing one by the farmers pertaining to the use of HYVs chemical fertilizers, irrigation, implements, pesticides and insecticides to control the number of pests and diseases and new farming practices. Diffusion of agricultural innovation has a very strong bearing upon th agricultural efficiency and productivity in any ecological setting of the region. It varies from place to place persons to person, community to community and society to society because of existing diverse physico-cultural, socio-economic conditions and cognitive behaviour of the environmental people as well. The same information would have different meaning to the people living in the same environment. It has been proved beyond doubt that the technology of even the late of 19th century would not have been able to provide to the bare sustenance to the large section of the population. But the diffusion of 121 innovation in the present scenario has brought a radical transformation in the levels of agricultural development through improving the efficiency of agricultural practices and productivity of the crops per unit area by adopting the mechanisation, HYV of seeds, modern means of irrigation, crop protective measure, crop diversification etc/The objective of the present 1 study is to exmaine the level of diffusion of innovation taking into ' P2 '-< consideration of the three major agricultural variables, which are as follows: (i)"" fertilizers consumption, A (ii) -^ different soruces of irrigation' ^ (iii)-' modern agricultural implements./J However, the HYV of seeds are very important regarding the diffusion of innovation. In present study HYV of seeds have been considered almost hundred per cent adoption. Therefore, it does not make any significance in the study of spatial diffusion of innovations. For the analysis of level of diffusion of innovation Z score statistical techniques has been used. X-X SD / y \ The Z score of each variable has been calculated separately and""! then it has been made composite Z score based on the year of 1985, 1990 ^^ and 1995. The following discussion of each variable are in a sequent manner. [, h I Fertilizer : / The key to growth of agricultural productivity for short period lies • in intensive use of chemical fertilizer. In the new strategy, fertilizer has J 122 played significant in hosting the agricultural productivity when soil fertility ^ is low, better germplasm fail to show postulated yield differentials. The continuous deteriorating soil fertility on account of regular cultivation can also be replenished to a great extent by resupplying N2 in the soil through the use of fertilizers and plant yields can be stepped up by the use of adequate nutrition in the form of fertilizers.) \, Researchers have revealed the great potentialities for sustained increase in crop production can be attained through greater and more efficient use of fertilizers and manures. The annual report of FAO states the use of fertilizers as a "spearhead of agricultural development" because P wherever efforts are made to raise agricultural productivity for fast increasing population, more fertilizers and manures have invariably needed. Perhaps, even more important to any soils they make possible good yields of valuable crops that would not grow at all without them, or would grow , N"^ ^ ] more poorly, j fertilizers also improve the 'biological quality' and make good'' the losses of essential nutrients continuously taking place due to changing cropping pattern, leading to soil erosion. In fact even if all the available organic matter is applied back to the soils, there will still be scope for applications of fertilizers for maintaining a high level of productivity from year to year.^ Even during abnormally low rainfall years fertilized crops given higher yields than unfertilized crops. 1 f ' It may also be emphasized here that the continuous use of chemical ^ fertilizers reduces the humus of the soil. In the absence of humus, the ;' physical structure of soil undergoes vast changes, and characteristics of soil, 123 and its water holding and absorbing capacity is lost. Substitution by organic | manures, therefore, it is imperative which may replace the desirable physical , and biological properties to the soil.^Che country like India where the] population is growing at alarming rate and there is little hope to extend the p. , cultivated land but to improve their productivity is an alternative to feed our trillions through the use of high doses of fertilizers per hectare, HYV of seeds and irrigation. >. / /[The study area is manifested with varying physico-cultural and socio-economic conditions, thus it is obvious to have varying degree of consumption of fertilizer. Table 4.1 clearly reveals that there is steadily increase in the consumption of fertilizer^he consumption of fertilizers in spatial context is also not uniform^it subject to vary from district to district due to existing distinct physico-cultural conditions. In order to analyse the variation in the use of fertilizers consumption in spatial context/lt has been grouped into three categories such as high, medium and low level of consumption of fertilizers, i High level of consumption of fertilizers f The high level of consumption of fertilizers with indices above +0.5 score value, comprises of/mostly the districts of western Uttar Pradesh such as Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Bijnour, Pilibhit, Rampur and Farrukhabad including some of the district of eastern Uttar Pradesh such as Varanasi, Jaunpur, Gorakhpur+ Deoria, Maharajganj, Kashinagar and Faizabad (Fig. 4.1A,B,C). 124 Table 4.1 Fertilizer Consumption in Uttar Pradesh S.No. Districts 1985 (Z score) 1990 (Z score) 1995 (Z score) 1. Saharanpur +1.00 +1.19 +1.03 2. Muzaffarnagar +1.12 +1.54 +1.67 J. Meerut +1.25 +1.02 +1.12 4. Bulandshahr +0.50 -0.02 -0.003 5. Ghaziabad +1.14 +0.73 +2.00 6. Aligarh -0.54 -0.29 -0.26 7. Mathura -0.10 -0.36 -0.07 8. Agra -0.57 -0.27 +0.69 9. Firozabad -0.33 -0.24 -0.07 10. Mainpuri +0,27 +0.02 -0.16 11. Etah -0.36 +0.44 -0.0009 12. Bareilly +0.60 +1.49 +1.28 13. Badaun +0.04 +0.20 +0.07 14. Shahjahanpur +0.73 +0.63 +0.39 15. Pilibhit +1.75 +1.93 +1.59 16. Bijnour +1.23 +1.07 +1.32 17. Moradabad +0.27 +0.86 +1.65 18. Rampur +1.37 +1.10 +0.99 19. Farrukhabad +1.33 + 1.40 +0.59 20. Etawah 0.01 +0.02 -0.47 21. Kanpur Nagar +1.25 +1.71 +1.46 22. Kanpur Dehat -0.35 -0.33 -0.32 23. Fatehpur -0.57 -1.04 -0.36 24. Allahabad +0.19 +0.33 +0.63 25. Pratapgarh +0.50 -0.49 +0.14 26. Jhansi -1.96 -1.77 -1.59 27. Lalitpur -1.88 -1.78 -1.41 28. Jalaun -1.68 -1.60 -1.11 29. Hamirpur + Mahoba -2.34 -2.06 -1.96 125 30. Banda+Chitrakoot -2.10 -1.88 -1.79 31. Varanasi+SRN ^ +2.10 -1.15 + 1.23 32. Mirzapur -1.18 -1.07 -0.81 33. Sonbhadra -1.21 -2.00 -1.70 34. Jaunpur +1.24 +0.75 -0.15 35. Ghazipur +0.96 +0.36 +1.18 36. Ballia +0.53 +0.55 +0.41 37. Maharajganj -0.85 -0.63 -0.13 38. Gorakhpur +0.69 +0.58 +0.62 39. Deoria+Kushinagar +1.00 +1.39 +0.76 40. Basti -0.57 -0.08 -0.31 41. Siddharthnagar -0.69 -0.93 -1.03 42. Azamgarh -0.10 -0.20 -0.50 43. Mau -0.01 -0.05 +0.33 44. Lucknow +0.87 +1.28 +0.08 45. Unnao -0.29 -0.94 -0.95 46. Raebareilly -0.17 -0.40 -0.51 47. Sitapur -0.83 -0.52 -0.57 48. Hardoi -0.68 -1.01 -1.28 49. Kheri -0.59 +0.41 -0.13 50. Faizabad +0.45 +0.99 +1.74 51. Gonda -1.45 -1.23 -0.98 52. Bahraich -1.09 -l.jj -1.44 53. Sultanpur -0.37 -0.52 -0.40 54. Barabanki +0.09 -0.09 +0.19 126 UTTAR PRADESH LEVELS OF DIFFUSION OF FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION 1985 20 0 20 40 60 80 Km. Fig. 4.1(A) 127 UTTAR PRADESH LEVELS OF DIFFUSION OF FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION 1990 Fig. 4.1(B) 128 UTTAR PRADESH LEVELS OF DIFFUSION OF FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION 1995 20 0 20 40 60 80 Km. Fig. 4.1(C) 129 / / Medium level of consumption of Fertilizers j V \\ . , The medium level of consumption of fertilizers with the indices ranging from +0.5 to -0.5 score value consisting of eighteen districts in 1985 such as Bulandshahr, Mathura, Mainpuri, Etah, Badaun, Moradabad,' Etawah, Kanpur Dehat, Pratapgarh, Azamgarh, Mau, Unnao, Raebareilly, Fiazabad, Sultanpur and Barabanki. The average consumption of fertilizers is more than 80 kg per hectare in 1985, the average consumption of fertilizers has increased to more than 90 kg per hectare in 1995, comprises the twenty two districts such as Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Mathura, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Etah, Badaun, Shahjahanpur, Etawah, Kanpur Dehat, Fatehpur, Jaunpur, Ballia, Maharajganj, Azamgarh, Mau, Lucknow, Kheri, Sultanpur and Barabanki. , Low level of consumption of Fertilizers / I The low level of consumption of fertilizers with the indices below -0.5 score value, which comprises ofjeighteen districts in 1985, such as Agra, Firzoabad, Fatehpur, Allahabad, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Mahoba, Banda, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Basti, Siddharthnagar, Sitapur, Hardoi, Kheri, Gonda and Bahraich. The average consumption of fertilizers is nearly 50 kg per hectare in 1985 but it increased to more than 55 kg per hectare in 1995. In 1995 it comprises only fourteen districts in this category such as Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Mahoba, Banda, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Siddharthnagar, Unnao, Sitapur, Gonda and Bahraich. (^ Irrigation j Irrigation play an important role in agriculture.[Agricultural ^^ productivity greatly depends on the availability of water, its proper use and ] 130 management. Among the quick yielding input responsible for the . accelerating agricultural productivity during the short period, assured irrigation "facilities" not only help in increasing productivity but their availability is a pre-condition for application of other inputs. Due to this reason, is the re-vitalised agricultural production programme, the use of '• "^ • high yielding varieties of seed, together with the high doses of fertilizer has been inextricably linked with assured water resoruces either through reliable natural rain water or through artificial irrigation.^ Experiments conducted at various research centres for appraisal of the joint requirements of crucial input for attaining optimum crop yields, irrigation factors has been identified to be one of the most important factors."^ Irrigation can thus be the key input, offering the possibility of the greatest increase in the value of production.^ Indian agriculture is the gamble of monsoon, which is characterised by erratic and uncertainty of rainfall, besides high variability of rainfall is a common phenomenon.^ Therefore, adequate and assured irrigation is very necessary for higher agricultural productivity together with other inputs.^ • f The Uttar Pradesmhas a vast reservoir of surface water and ground r^ water, fertile soil and better climatic condition. The perennial river of the Ganga Yamuna, Gomti and Ghaghara river drains this region. The vast level plain and gentle slope provides easy base for the construction of canal^he j Uttar Pradesh received between 65 to 75 cm of rainfall and more than 90 per cent of the rainfall takes place during rainy season, which spans over more than two to three months and rest of the year remains dry. Irrigations, thus, is very necessary for the development of agriculture.fThe region is divided into three categories based on Z score analysis i.e. high, medium and i low irrigation which are as 131 High level of Irrigation : J The high level of irrigation consists of fourteen districts, namely f ^ ,- Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Shahjahanpur, Moradabad, Maharajganj, Gorakhpur, Deoria+Kashinagar, Basti, Siddharthnagar, Azamgarh and Man in 1985 which acocunts 90 per cent area under irrigation having an indices varying from +0.5 to -0.5 of Z scores. In 1990 some districts which came in this category which are Mathura, Etah, Bareilly, Badaun, Allahabad and varanasi. The high level of irrigation increased to sixteen districts which acocunts to 95 per cent area under irrigation/Besides the changing position of different from medium to high and vice versa the magnitude of irrigation has also changed (Table 4.2; Fig. \ 4.2A,B,C). Medium level of Irrigation \ ) !> • ,, ~ ,».- '/The medium level of irrigation in 1985 comprises ofitwenty three districts namely Ghaziabad, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Etah, , Bareilly, Badaun, Pilibhit, Bijnour, Rampur, Farrukhabad, Fatehpur, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Unnao, Raebareilly, Hardoi, Kheri, Faizabad, Gonda and Barbanki, which accounts 85 per cent of area under irrigationmhereas in 1990 the percentage of irrigated area has reduced to twenty two from twenty three and further reduced to twenty in 1995Jwhich experiences 90 per cent of area j under irrigation.^ Low level of Irrigation \) "^^ • I The low level of irrigation comprises of eighteen districts out of fifty four districts of Uttar Pradesh in 1985, namely Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur 132 Table 4.2 Irrigated area by different sources of Irrigation S.No. Districts 1985 (Z score) 1990 (Z score) 1995 (Z score) 1. Saharanpur +1.52 +0.70 +0.55 2. Muzaffamagar +1.65 + 1.65 +1.38 J. Meerut +2.04 +1.91 +1.57 4. Bulandshahr +2.50 +2.74 +2.23 5. Ghaziabad +0.24 +0.26 -0.08 6. Aligarh +2.15 +2.28 +1.99 7. Mathura +0.35 +0.60 +0.39 8. Agra -0.08 -0.27 -0.48 9. Firozabad -0.55 -0.67 -0.82 10. Mainpuri +0.32 -0.11 -0.22 11. Etah +0.39 +0.89 +0.79 12. Bareilly +0.20 +0.81 +0.87 13. Badaun -0.006 +0.71 +1.02 14. Shahjahanpur +0.67 +1.24 +1.39 15. Pilibhit +0.0099 +0.29 +0.29 16. Bijnour +0.14 +0.34 +0.30 17. Moradabad +2.16 +2.66 +2.74 18. Rampur -0.44 +0.07 +0.001 19. Farrukhabad -0.27 +0.20 +0.13 20. Etawah +0.03 +0.31 +0.21 21. Kanpur Nagar -1.85 -1.65 -1.92 22. Kanpur Dehat -0.09 +0.08 +0.009 23. Fatehpur -0.67 -0.34 -0.50 24. Allahabad +0.37 + 1.13 +0.89 25. Pratapgarh -0.86 -0.58 -0.50 26. Jhansi -1.48 -1.20 -1.11 27. Lalitpur -1.49 -1.22 -1.21 28. Jalaun -1.56 -1.22 -1.12 29. Hamirpur+Mahoba -1.43 -1.05 -0.97 133 30. Banda+Chitrakoot -0.92 -0.71 -0.83 31. Varanasi+SRN +0.41 +0.80 +0.56 32. Mirzapur -0.71 -0.78 -0.93 33. Sonbhadra -1.22 -1.70 -1.94 34. Jaunpur -0.18 +0.26 +0.10 35. Ghazipur -0.44 +0.06 -0.04 36. Ballia -0.86 -0.76 -0.69 37. Maharajganj -0.62 -0.90 -1.07 38. Gorakhpur +0.58 -0.47 -0.78 39. Deoria+Kushinagar +0.63 +0.69 +0.59 40. Basti+SKN +0.84 -0.10 -0.37 41. Siddharthnagar -0.75 -0.93 -1.25 42. Azamgarh +0.78 +0.16 +0.16 43. Mau -0.95 -1.10 -1.31 44. Lucknow -1.20 -0.84 -1.07 45. Unnao -0.20 +0.23 +0.12 46. Raebareilly +0.16 +0.60 +0.34 47. Sitapur -0.60 -0.40 +0.005 48. Hardoi +0.07 +0.56 +0.78 49. Kheri -0.21 +0.25 +0.79 50. Faizabad -0.04 +0.25 +0.82 51. Gonda -0.37 -0.30 -0.51 52. Bahraich -1.37 -1.04 -1.27 53. Sultanpur -0.76 -0.42 -0.25 54. Barabanki -0.09 +0.46 +0.51 134 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF IRRIGATION 1985 Fig. 4.2(A) 135 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF IRRIGATION 1990 20 0 20 40 60 80 Km. Fig. 4.2(B) 136 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF IRRIGATION 1995 Fig. 4.2(C) 137 Dehat, Pratapgarh, Jhansi, Lalitpur, jalaun, Hamirpur+Mahoba, Banda, Etawah, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Ballia, Lucknow, Bahraich, Sitapur, Barabanki and Sultanpur accounts 80 per cent of irrigated area. The number of districts were reduced to sixteen from eighteen in 1990 and same number in 1995. With the passage of time the extension of means of transportation and communication and other infrastructure and facilities helped the adoption of innovation, subsequently new area are brought under irrigation (jhus in 1995 '•• the area under irrigation has gone upto^85 per cenfcomprises of'sixteen districts, namely Kanpur Nagar, Pratapgarh, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Banda, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Ballia, Maharajganj, Gorakhpur, ^ Siddharthnagar, Mau, Lucknow and Bahraich. /Implements r ', The primary effect of improved mechanical technique is to save 2A labour but at the same time they do contribute in changing per hectare yield by introducing new technology. Mechanization of agriculture has resulted in increased agricultural productivity and reduction of cost. By mechanisation we mean the replacement of animal and human power by machinary where ever it is possible, ploughing is to be done by tractor, sowing and putting fertilizers by drill, keeping and threshing by combined harvesters, threshers and so on. Machines work faster and accurately than many by himself produces very little, but with the help of machine one can produce much more. / ^^ ^ ^^Mechanisation is affected by size of landholding, economic- '^^ position, social status, literacy and exposure of mass media and social- • J 138 ' awareness etc. Size of land holding is one of the important factors, whic• h, " • ^-^^ determines the use of technology to greater extent. It is evident that there is a positive correlation between the use of agricultural innovations and size of ^ land holding. i The use of implements in study area is not uniform but subject to c vary in time and space because of diverse ecological setting. Broadly the region has been divided into three major categories based on level of use of implements such as high, medium and low, which are as follow : f High levle of use of Implements j The region using high level of implements having indices above +0.5 Z score value comprising often districts in 1985 namely Saharanpur, - Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr, Ghaziabad, Aligarh, Mathura, Bijnour, Moradabad and Jalaun. In 1995 some districts which takes the number/ position in this category such as Agra, Firozabad and Pilibhit and in the same year the number of districts increased to twelve from ten due to this some of districtSihave got from high to medium and low to medium and high(The [ changing nature of position of districts may be attributed to the improvement ' of socio-economics conditions of the farmers. ^Medium elvel of use of Implements (The ranging having medium use of implements with the indices ^ ranging from +0.5 to -0.5 Z score value, comprising of twenty three districts , in 1985 namely Agra, Firozabad, Bareilly, Badaun, Pilibhit, Rampur, Farrukhabad, Kanpur Nagar and Dehat, Allahabad, Hamipur+Mahoba, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Jaunpur, Gorakhpur, Maharajganj, Deoria+Kushinagar, 139 Azamgarh, Mau, Kheri, Faizabad and Barabanki. In 1995, one more district also included in this category and thus the number has increased upto twenty four. The position of some districts have changed such as Bahraich has included but Faizabad excluded from medium to high category. [ Low level of use of Implements / ,**• ^ The region having low use of implements with the indices below ^ -0.5 Z score value which accounts twenty districts, namely, Mainpuri, Etah, ^ Badaun, Etawah, Fatehpur, Pratapgarh, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Banda, Ghazipur, ' Ballia, Lucknow, Unnao, Raebareilly, Sitapur, Hardoi, Gonda, Bahraich and Sultanpur. But in 1995 the number has declined to seventeen from twenty due to use of mechanisation and adoption of new technology in agriculture in this region (Table 4.3; Fig. 4.3A,B,C). p 1 After foregoing discussion regarding the level of diffusion of innovation, such as diffusion of irrigation, consumption of fertilizers and use of implements at district level in Uttar Pradesh in spatio-temporal context, it may be concluded that the area under irrigation, consumption of fertilizer kg per hectare and use of implements has increased.y^he two variables such as irrigation and consumption of fertilizer are interdependent and co-terminus, meaning thereby the high doses consumption of fertilizer requires, assured irrigation for high productivity. Besides HYV of seeds, chemical fertilizer and assured irrigation to maximise the agricultural \ product! vityJFhe high level of diffusion of innovation is due to the improved f> socio-economic condition, literacy rate, exposure to mass media, social awareness, size of family, socio-economic status, size of lar^ hnlf^inp^^ ; 140 Table 4.3 Implements S.No. Districts 1985 (Z score) 1990(Z-score) 1995 (Z score) 1. Saharanpur +2.50 +2.85 +3.31 2. Muzaffarnagar +4.20 +3.18 +1.81 3. Meerut +2.70 +2.50 +2.47 4. Bulandshahr +0.71 + 1.21 +2.56 5. Ghaziabad +0.73 +0.62 +0.59 6. Aligarh +0.55 +0.82 +1.53 7. Mathura +0.54 +1.55 +2.09 8. Agra +0.08 +0.32 +0.51 9. Firozabad -0.18 -0.25 -0.42 10. Mainpuri -0.72 -0.60 -0.72 11. Etah -0.78 -0.75 -0.62 12. Bareilly -0.05 +0.01 +0.03 13. Badaun -0.61 -0.75 -0.81 14. Shahjahanpur +0.10 +0.12 +0.21 15. Pilibhit +0.28 +0.38 +0.78 16. Bijnour +0.82 +0.54 +0.03 17. Moradabad + 1.53 +1.02 +0.78 18. Rampur -0.24 +0.02 +0.21 19. Farrukhabad -0.54 -0.33 -0.06 20. Etawah -0.79 -0.85 -1.00 21. Kanpur Nagar -0.37 -0.32 -0.06 22. Kanpur Dehat -0.93 -0.51 -0.71 23. Fatehpur -0.83 -0.92 -1.00 24. Allahabad -0.23 -0.42 -0.62 25. Pratapgarh -0.94 -0.91 -0.90 26. Jhansi -0.68 -0.45 -0.06 27. LaJitpur -1.17 -1.11 -1.09 28. Jalaun +0.67 +0.73 +0.87 29. Hamirpur + Mahoba -0.37 -0.40 -0.43 14] 30. Banda+Chitrakoot -0.88 -0.95 -1.37 31. Varanasi+SRN -0.07 +0.01 +0.03 32. Mirzapur -0.05 +0.01 +0.03 33. Sonbhadra -0.05 -0.85 -1.00 34. Jaunpur -0.49 -0.29 -0.34 35. Ghazipur -0.58 -0.40 -0.34 36. Ballia -0.94 -0.94 -0.90 37. Maharajganj -0.25 -0.22 -0.15 38. Gorakhpur +0.43 +0.20 +0.21 39. Deoria + Kushinagar +0.11 +0.12 -0.43 40. Basti+SKN +0.42 +0.11 +0.03 41. Siddharthnagar +0.42 +0.11 +0.03 42. Azamgarh -0.01 -0.09 -0.15 43. Mau -0.45 -0.48 -0.53 44. Lucknow -0.98 -0.55 -0.43 45. Unnao -0.79 -0.80 -0.81 46. Raebareilly -0.80 -0.82 -0.90 47. Sitapur -0.63 -0.65 -0.71 48. Hardoi -0.68 -0.82 -1.00 49. Kheri -0.40 -0.32 -0.24 50. Faizabad -0.45 +0.20 +0.68 51. Gonda -0.55 -0.62 -0.71 52. Bahraich -0.95 -0.80 -0.43 53. Sultanpur -0.93 -0.75 -0.62 54. Barabanki -0.40 +0.11 +0.21 142 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF IMPLEMENTS 1985 20 0 20 40 60 80 Fig. 4.3(A) 143 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF IMPLEMENTS 1990 NDEX High ms&m <+ 0.5 Medium -0.5 to+0,5 20 0 20 40 60 80 >-0.5 Km. Fig. 4.3(B) 144 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF IMPLEMENTS 1995 Fig. 4,3(0 145 (| Among all factors irrigation has played dominant role in the increasing trend -^"" <^ of consumption of fertilizers.I' / Composite Scores of Level of Diffusion of Innovations The spatio-temporal diffusion of innovations at district level in Uttar Pradesh has been examined based on composite index of irrigation, consumption of fertilizers, use of implements, which has been discussed above separately. The composite index ranges from +0.5 to -0.5 has been grouped under high, medium and low category and each category has its district indices which are discussed in sequent manner. ) , High level of Diffusion of Innovations (1985) I The high level of diffusion of innovations comprises of/sixteen ^"^ districts namely, Saharanpur, Mzuaffarnagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr, Ghaziabad, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Bijnour, Moradabad, Rampur, Varanasi, Maharajganj, Deoria+Kashinagar, Basti and Siddharthnagar/The high level of adoption of ) ^ ( agricultural innovations are due to the availability of adequate irrigation, ; social awareness, high density of population, high literacy rate and size of land holding. The level of diffusion of innovations has a direct impact on agricultural productivity. This can be ascertained that most of the district which come under high level of productivity corresponds the high level of diffusion of innovations. ./ Medium level of Diffusion of Innovation ^ (The indices ranging of medium level from +0.5 to -0.5 Z score ! ^y . I values, coverjtwenty districts, namely Aligarh, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, j 146 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS 1985 20 0 20 40 60 80 Fig. 4.4 147 Mainpuri, Etah, Bareilly, Badaun, Farrukhabad, Etawah, Kanpur Nagar, Allahabad, Pratapgarh, jaunpur, Ghazipur, Ballia, Azamgarh, Mau, Lucknow, Raebareilly, Kheri, Faizabad+Ambedkarnagar, and Barabankirihe irrigation ^ ^ i facilities, consumption of fertilizers and adoption of implements is lower i than that of high level of diffusion. The productivity of this area is also lower than that of the area which comes under high productivity region!) Low level of Diffusion of Innovations ) \ [This region with indices having less than -0.5 Z score values, ' consist of four/ districts such as Kanpur Dehat, Fatehpur, Jhansi, Lalitpur, •• Jalaun, Hamirpur+Mahoba, Banda+Chitrakoot, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Unnao, Sitapur, Hardoi, Gonda + Balrampur, Bahraich+Srawasti and Sultanpur. The irrigation facilities, consumption of fertilizers and use of implements is very low in this region.(There is positive correlation between high literacy ; index, size of land holding, social awareness, economic status, fertility of the region and diffusion of innovations (Fig. 4.4). High level of Diffusion of Innovations (1990) , ^The high level of diffusion of innovations having indices more than ,' +0.5 values which accounts^ eighteen districts, namely Saharanpur,- Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Bijnour, Moradabad, Rampur, Farrukhabad, Kanpur Nagar, Varanasi, Jaunpur, Deoria including Kushinagar, Lucknow and Faizabad including Ambedkarnagar/These districts have high level of adoption of agricuUural innovations. This is possible due to the fact that these area are characterised by uniform level plain, fertile soil, better irrigation facilities and better socio-economic conditions. 148 UTTAR PRADESH LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS 1990 Fig. 4.5 149 r Medium level of Diffusion of Innovaitons 'J Mn this level of diffusion of innovations consists oyninteen J districts namely, Aligarh, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Etah, Badaun, Etawah, Kanpur Dehat, Fatehpur, Ghazipur, Ballia, Gorakhpur, Basti, Azamgarh, Mau, Raebareilly, Kheri and Barabankif The medium levels of diffusion of innovation are caused by relatively slow rate of adoption of new ; p technology. These area are manifested with low literacy rate and small size f ' of land holding and other factors are far from satisfactory. 1 — Low level of Diffusion of Innovations [ The low level of diffusion of innovations accountslseventeen I districts of Uttar Pradesh, which are Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Banda, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Maharajganj, Siddarthnagar, Unnao, Sitapur, Hardoi, Gonda, Bahraich and Sultanpur./^These districts have low adoption of agricultural innovations as compare to other regions of the study area. This is due to the fact that these area are determined poor socio economic conditions of the region, which has direct bearing on the level of acceptance of new technology and economic transformation (Fig. 4.5).,| High level of diffusion of Innovations (1995); f The high level of diffusion of innovations in 1995 comprises of eighteen districts of study area namely, Saharanpur, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, p ^^ ^ Bulandshahr, Ghaziabad, Aligarh, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit, Bijnour, Moradabad, Rampur, Etawah, Kanpur Nagar, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Deoria and Faizabad^The indices of score are more than +0.5 value) The high level of ] adoption of innovations are due to the availability of adequate and assured 150 UTTAR PRADESH LEVELS OF DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS 1995 Fig. 4.6 151 irrigation, social awareness, high density of population high literacy rate and size of land holding. Medium level of diffusion Innovations The medium level of diffusion of innovations in 1995 consists of y twenty one districts namely Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Etah, Badaun, Farrukhabad, Kanpur Dehat, Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur, Ballia, Maharajganj, Gorakhpur, Basti, Azamgarh, Mau, Lucknow, Kheri, Sultanpur and BarabankifThe social awareness of these area is relatively low and size j of land holding is also low. Besides the above factors the level of irrigation and the economic status of the people is also not better. ) (LOW level of diffusion of innovations) P x 'f 7 The low level of diffusion of innovations comprises ofvfifteen districts namely, Fatehpur, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Banda, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra, Siddharthnagar, Unnao, Raebareilly, Sitapur, Hardoi, Gonda and Bahraich-frhe low level of diffusion of innovations is due to • \ ! inadequate availability of irrigation, poor soils, small size of land holdingy , and poor economic status (Fig. 4.6). ^ , ^ From the above analysis, it may be concluded that the variations of level of diffusion of innovations are characterised by the variations is physico-cultural and socio-economic condition of the region, because it has direct bearing on the diffusion of agricultural innovation. The region which have adopted high level of diffusion of innovations, is characterised by high irrigation, better size of land holding, high literacy, exposure to mass media, social awareness. It is suggested that medium and low level of diffusion 152 region may be brought to level of high diffusion of innovations provided the high level of irrigation, high literacy, exposure to mass media, availability of better marketing facilities, communication and transportation be made available to the respective region of the study area J - Correlation between Agricultural Productivity and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations ) r ^ 7 ^, /The relationship between Agricultural productivity and diffusion of innovations is shown in the form of scatter diagram. In Figure 5.1 A and 5.1 A, agricultural productivity] and level of diffusion are shown on the x-axis -. and y-axis respectively. This figure reveals that the agricultural productivity ranges from [ 3000 to 7000 Rs. per hectare and the scattering dots lies betwen these two limits.;The rate of innovation ranges from -2 to +3. The relationship between agricultural productivity and diffusion of innovation is positive but it is also confirmed by the coefficient of correlation (r = 0.501). At 0.01 level of significance the calculation value is greater that the table value at that particular levelof significance, further confirms high level of significance between productivity Rs. per hectare and diffusion of innovation. There is also shown the lienar growth between agricultural productivity and diffusion of innovation in Figure 5.1A|. Figure 5.IB and 5.IB, show the relationship betwen agricultural productivity and diffusion of innovation. The range of agricultural productivity varies from 7000 to 15000 Rs. per hectare and scattering the dotes lies between 8000 to 14000 Rs. per hectare. The ranges of rate of 153 innovations varies from -2 to +3. The relationship is positive and the maximum concentraiton fo dots around 9000 Rs. per hectare to 11000 Rs. per hectare clearly shows the positive correlation between them. This is also confirmed from the coefficient of correlation (r = 0.573). The test of significance at 0.1 level of significance further confirm the high level of significance betwen agricultural productivity and diffusion of innovation. There is positive linear growth between agricultural productivity and level of diffusion of innovation. In the next diagram i.e. Fig. 5.1C and 5.1C, of the relationship ! between agricultural productivity and diffusion of innovation is shown in i scatter form) In this diagramnhe productivity ranges between 12000 to •^'• 22000 Rs. per hectare and the scattering dots lies between these two limits.) - /Th/ e ranges of innovations varies from -3 to +2.1 There is also positive correlation and lienar growth also, Fig. 5.1Cj but it encompasses wider width and this is also confirmed by the coefficient of correlation (r = 0.602).'The _ test of significance at 0.01 levefthe calculated value is greater than of table value at that particular level, further confirms high level of significance. / ! This analysis regarding the relationship between agricultural productivity in Rs. per hectare and diffusion of innovations in Uttar Pradesh 1 based on agricultural data of 1985, 1990 and 1995, clearly show the positive , correlation! and linear growth also./The reason behind the high rate of / diffusion is the impact of social awareness regarding the acceptance of modern technology in agriculture (Table 4.4). 154 Table: 4.4 CORRELATION BETWEEN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY (Rs./Hect.) AND LEVEL OF DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS IN UTTAR PRADESH Districts 1985 1990 1995 X Y X Y X Y Saharanpur 5765.53 2.07 13842.28 1.14 21077.21 1.46 Muzaffarnagar 6380.55 2.08 13916.57 1.71 20941.38 1.85 Merrut 6533.14 2.24 14283.31 1.35 20924.21 1.61 Bulandshahar 6507.31 1.09 13731.24 0.75 21114.54 0.93 Ghaziabad 5976.54 0.97 14081.25 0.61 21382.34 1.53 Aligarh 6422.71 0.35 12622.65 0.41 20019.39 0.59 Mathura 5201.09 0.09 12503.94 -0.14 20691.84 0.38 Agra 5813.61 -0.34 12516.21 -0.32 20046.81 0.44 Firozabad 5813.61 -0.11 11254.95 -0.41 21526.91 -0.43 Mainpuri 5537.01 -0.48 11849.73 -0.03 20177.01 -0.31 Etah 5419.58 0.35 11285.21 -0.12 17990.63 -0.003 Bareilly 5262.35 -0.26 10636.19 1.41 16912.81 1.11 Budaun 4391.41 0.59 11004.71 0.35 16895.81 0.07 Shahjahanpur 4885.52 1.11 10289.62 0.85 16060.27 0.59 Pilibhit 4657.15 1.06 10531.37 1.62 16395.09 1.34 Bijnour 4994.43 1.23 10496.14 0.95 17842.09 1.01 Moradabad 5226.35 0.77 11349.06 1.43 18290.63 1.95 Rampur 5149.27 0.47 9808.26 0.88 17795.36 0.72 Farrukhabad 5080.88 -0.33 13178.44 1.17 19842.27 0.41 Etawa 6253.66 0.14 10920.55 0.09 21720.72 1.25 Kanpur Nagar 5710.14 -0.79 13701.38 0.89 18654.45 0.58 Kanpur Dehat 5617.94 -0.84 12983.54 -0.26 19409.36 -0.44 Fatehpur 4896.44 -0.07 11924.91 -0.21 16446.72 -0.65 Allahabad 4826.89 -0.84 10744.72 -0.58 15311.91 0.49 Pratapgarh 4961.31 0.07 9010.99 -0.59 15167.01 -0.25 Jhansi 4745.91 -0.29 9801.72 -1.81 13892.36 -1.51 Lalitpur 4531.67 -1.92 9316.16 -1.81 13905.27 -1.62 Jalaun 4747.02 -1.03 9632.84 -1.81 14185.09 -0.99 Hamirpur+Mahoba 4485.55 -1.83 9696.11 -1.98 13587.27 -1.83 Banda+Chitrakoot 4494.11 -1.81 9649.97 -1.74 13805.36 -1.85 Varansi+SRK 4990.13 1.24 9732.89 1.13 19181.72 0.97 Mirzapur 3452.22 -0.87 7453.91 -1.11 17538.18 -0.88 Sonbhadra 3452.22 -0.18 7575.18 -2.12 .15757.72 -1.98 Jaunpur 5122.59 0.45 10754.75 0.66 16496.63 -0.22 Ghazipur 5409.28 0.19 11279.61 0.29 15702.18 0.73 Ballia 4749.74 -0.29 9953.47 0.21 14821.01 -0.19 Maharajganj 4678.41 0.38 10212.73 -0.79 14969.18 -0.43 Gorakhpur 4678.41 0.68 10559.69 0.32 15312.09 0.26 1 155 Deoria 4739.53 0.78 10490.22 1.29 14893.05 0.64 Basti+SKN 4346.43 0.51 10039.59 -0.12 15639.01 -0.37 Siddharthnagar 4346.43 0.22 8299.19 -1.04 15639.01 -1.47 Azamgarh 4741.01 0.08 10492.59 -0.14 16426.63 -0.43 Mau 4855.27 -0.05 10340.64 -0.38 14463.91 -0.21 Lucknow 4958.75 -0.18 10429.47 0.77 13185.09 -0.32 Unnao 4482.39 -0.55 9116.17 -0.71 13388.54 -0.91 Raebareilly 3644.62 -0.42 7928.96 -0.17 15880.18 -0.51 Sitapur 4466.53 -0.89 10386.23 -0.56 13932.63 -0.62 Hardoi 4019.84 -0.68 9496.77 -0.67 13847.01 -1.04 Kheri 4180.17 -0.11 9542.47 0.39 13750.63 -0.03 Faizabad+AmbedkarN. 4699.51 0.04 11588.95 0.85 15045.92 1.56 Gonda+Balrampur 4334.23 -1.16 9205.05 -1.11 15292.72 -1.09 Bahraich+Srawasti 4008.75 -1.34 10181.31 -1.41 14571.81 -1.51 Sultanpur 4121.63 -0.78 9169.99 -0.57 13890.63 -0.49 Barabanki 4575.25 -0.15 10115.18 0.05 14248.27 0.24 X-—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCDTIVITY (Rs./Ht.) Y-—-DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS (Z-SCORE) 156 Correlation between Agricultural Productivity and Level of Diffusion of Innovations in Uttar Pradesh (1985) > o c c o T3 O 7000 Agricultural Productivity in Rs./hect (1985) Fig. 5.1(A) Regression line between Agricultural Productivity and Level of Diffusion of Innovations in Uttar Pradesh (1985) LDI85 c o > o c c c o •o o 1>3 Observed Linear 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Agricultural Productivity in Rs./hect (1985) Fig.5.1(A,) 157 Correlation between Agricultural Productivity and Level of Diffusion of Innovations in Uttar Pradesh (1990) c o > o > 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 Agricultural Productivity in Rs./hect (1990) Fig. 5.1(B) Regression line between Agricultural Productivity and Level of Diffusion of Innovations in Uttar Pradesh (1990) LDI90 c o •o o >1) 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 Agricultural Productivity in Rs./hect (1990) Fig.5.1(B,) 158 Correlation between Agricultural Productivity and Level of Diffusion of Innovations in Uttar Pradesh (1995) c o TO> o c c •^ o c o -2- > 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 22000 Agricultural Productivity in Rs./liect (1995) Fig. 5.1(C) Regression line between Agricultural Productivity and Level of Diffusion of Innovations in Uttar Pradesh (1995) LDI95 c .2 TO > o c c c o > 1) -J 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 22000 Agricultural Productivity in Rs./hect (1995) Fig.5,l(C,) 159 References r f . 1. Vladmir Ignatieff and Harold J. Page (Eds) : Efficient use of Fertilizers (FAO), Rome 1966, p. 2.") 2. S.P. Roy Chowdhri, The Role of Fertilizer in Agriculture in the Industrial Times (Special Number on Chemical Fertilizers and Insecticides), vol. Vl(9), p. 29. j ' 3.Q Fourth Five Year Plan - A Draft Outline, Planning Commission 1966, p. 125 4. o B.K. Mukherji and S.S. Chatterjee, Review of work done on water requirements of crops in India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 1967, pp. 31-47. 5. A Recent study Indicates that "More than the suitaiblity of soil and the I topography, the facility for irrigation influences the decision of farmers in allocating their land for different crop". See Meenakshi Malya : Factors affecting cropping pattern, Agricultural Economic Research Centre, Madras, 1962, p. 20. / / K 6. For the New Strategy in lAAP areas, also see fourth five year plan, op.cit., pp. 175-176. J 7. H. David Davis : Chapter on Introduction in, The Development of Agriculture V in Spain, IBRD and FAO, Washington, 1966, p. 3.) 8. C.P. Mathur and P.S. Thomas, Application of Fertilizer under water scarcity conditions; in Cleavings (Agriculture Information), Department of Agriculture, Govt, of Rajasthan, vol. (6), Year 4, pp. 15-16. j CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Social scientists in India, specially rural sociologist and specialists in agricultural extention have adopted their attention to the study of the processes by which agricultural technological innovations are adopted by individual farmers and diffuse within rural social systems. A major assumption of the programme for agricultural development in India since the early 1960's has been that the increasing use by the farmers of the improved methods and inputs of agriculture developed by scientists in research laboratories and experimental farms will contribute to the rise of their productivity and overall their agricultural production. The rapid diffusions of agricultural technological innovations among farmers is thus considered essential to modernized agriculture and increase its output. While the economic profitability of agricultural technological innovation is an obvious incentives to adopt them, the decision to adopt or reject an agricultural technological innovation by individual farmers is not always based on rational economic considerations. The economic profitability of an innovation is a matter of individual perception which is influence by the personal, social and cultural contexts in which the decision to adopt an innovation is made. In a traditional society such as in India, where the socio- cultural imbedded-ness of economic activities is highly pronounced, the adoption behaviors of farmers can not take place in purely economic terms, its isolated and cultural factors often overrides that of economic factor and acts as a barrier to the rapid diffusion of agricultural innovations. The major goal of diffusion of agricultural innovation has been to identify the factors which influence the diffusion and adoption of agricultural innvotions, and the 161 knowledge of which will help extension agents to take appropriate actions to minimize the time lag between the introduction of an innovation into social system and its adoption by its forming members. In the first place in this work the general environmental conditions have been examined in the state of Uttar Pradesh followed by the land use patterns and mechanization. Further an attempt is made to examined the area, production and levels of productivity under the twelve crops.|The qualitative j p and quantitative techniques have been used for the present analysis of the study , areaHhat isftCendall's ranking method has been used to analyzed the various i crops under different scale of performance over a period of time. For j determination of productivity the value is represented by converting the volume - of produce all the crops per unit of area in rupees at current price indexnFurther the technique of composite z- score has been employed to determine the levels of diffusion of technological innovations, and the correlation between the ; I agricultural productivity in terms of rupees per hectare and levels of diffusion of agricultural innovationsJ/For the determination of crop-combination region, p 'II- the Weaver's minimum deviation method has been used. ^^ The Western Uttar Pradesh is agriculturally developed region in compare of Eastern Uttar Pradesh because of this region has been the seat of green revolution. (Cultivation of crops has been the main occupation of the i-^^^ people of Uttar Pradesh. An analysis of the agricultural development on the ^ i basis of techno-institutional development, cropping pattern of the various f crops, regionalisation of agricultural productivity, crop combination and the ranking of the crops reveals that there has been rise in area, production and yieldXThis is the main components of post-green revolution-periodyihere has '""' 162 been a shift of area from coarse cereals to wheat, rice and sugarcane.] This j result of increase in all agricultural fields due to the use and implement of new agricultural technology. ^ The analysis of the production variability may be concluded that the [ infrastructure development of irrigation facilities is responsible for the adoption \ of new package programmerTrrhe percentage of gross cropped area increased from 92.14 to 102 percent in 1980-81 to 1995-96 respectively."^bout half of the area is shared by wheat followed by rice and sugarcaneYlrrigation is necessary not only for the extension of the cultivated area but it also give rises in the percentage in the share of area under double croppingiThe means of irrigation have also change tremendously from] 1980-81 to 1998-99.(The area under canal irrigation has declined from 32.8 percent to 24.5 percent in 1980- 81 to 1998-99 respectively.('^While the irrigated area under tube-wells (private and government) accounts 56.6 percent in 1980-81 to 69.3 percent in 1998-99. ; The share of canals, wells, tanks lakes and pond and other sources of irrigation has declined to 8.31, 2.60, 0.70 and 1.20 percent. In 1998-99 tube-well emerged to be the primary source of irrigation contributing about 70 percent of irrigate area. The large scale introduction of electric pumps and oil engines are responsible for the increasing use of tubewells as a primary source of irrigation. This has consequently gave rise to the consumption of fertilizer during the same period. Average fertilizer consumption in Uttar Pradesh has increased about 121 kg per hectare in 1980-81 to 131 kg per hectare in 1995-96. The agricultural implement has also increased in terms of number in the study area. It is quite obvious that from the study the process of diffusion of p , JIC agricultural innovation was slow in the study area! But with passes of time it 163 has broken down and the rate of adoption increased slowly^llt is cleared that • subsistence traditional agriculture of the region is in the process of being transformed in to market oriented semi- commercialized agriculture. Cultivators are not growing crops for family requirements of this region but they have grown for the optimisation of their agricultural income. In fact increased agricultural income have improved and raised the standard of the f'-,, > living of the farmers, but at the same time money of the traditional institutions like that of mutual co-operations are being vanished. Consequently large-size farmers have become more selfish and have increased their agricultural assets to significant extent. This trend has widened the gap of income in rural area and had created many socio-economic problems. -^ '^ The study of level of diffusion of agricultural technological innovations . on the basis of level of diffusion of irrigation, fertilizer and implements, composite z score of the level of diffusion of innovations and correlation between agricultural productivity and diffusion of innovations reveals that the , area under irrigation, consumption of fertilizer in kg per hectare and use of implements has steadily increased. Ifhe two variables such as irrigation and 3-^ "f consumption of fertilizer are interdependent and co-terminus, meaning thereby the doses of consumption of fertilizer requires is assured irrigation for high productivity besides the high yielding variety of seeds, chemical fertilizer and assured irrigation to maximize the agricultural productivit;^The high level of -;, y diffusion of innovation is due to the improved socio-economic conditions, literacy rate , exposure to mass-media, social awareness, size of family and size of land holding. Among all the factors irrigation has played dominant role in the increasing trend of consumption of fertilizers.)/The variation of level of 32o diffusion of innovation is characterized by variations in physico-cultural and . 164 socio-economic condition of the region, because it has direct bearing on the diffusion of agricultural technological innovations|The/which has adopted high y<^ level of diffusion is characterized by high irrigation, bigger size of land! holding, high Hteracy, exposure to mass-media and social awareness.; 'The relationships between agricultural productivity rupees per hectare/ V j and diffusion of innovations in Uttar Pradesh at district leveljon the base year j of 1985,1990 and 1995, clearly shows the positive correlation, through high -- '-* rate of productivity and diffusion of innovation is observed Jdue to the impact of social awareness regarding the acceptance of innovations. In this period /farmers not only paying their attention towards the production of food grains but also towards the cash crops which are more remuneratiyeMNeedless to say ' a w 'i I that if the farmers are assured of increased production and better gains, they will respond in large number to all the agricultural innovations. ^ Suggestions /in the light of the above summary some suggestions have been made for / the improvement of diffusion of agricultural technological innovations for the future studies in the study area of investigation.Vn order to increased the level ;| of the diffusion of innovations, it is suggested that medium and low level of diffusion region may be brought to the level of high diffusion of innovation provided high level of irrigation, high literacy, exposure to mass, media availability of better marketing facilities communication and transportation be made available to the respective region of study area, j -^ / In order to enhance the impact of techno-institutional and socio- economical factor on diffusion of agricultural technological innovations some. y suggestions are given as following: 165 a. The government should give to priority to develop irrigation facilities in its plans and policies in order revitalized Indian agricultural technology y Farmers should also be educated about the proper and profitable use of water as most of them don't know ideal frequency of irrigation and optimum water requirements of crops. ) " c. The government should encourage on this problems so that farmers could apply irrigation water economically./ Power generation should be accelerated with the increasing demand of power supply for both irrigation and other agricultural purpose^/The supply of diesel and all agricultural purposes should be rationalized and the farmers should be assured of getting it when they need it. > •e. In order to make the agricultural input available in time and in adequate quantity, the government and private sector agencies should open various distribution centers land proper arrangement must be made to give ' adequate and timely credit to the farmers whenever they required for it. ^ All types of incentives should be given to the farmers in the form of subsidies in cash or kind through various government and quasi- government agencies. Proper recommendations be made to the farmers for the use of v biofertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers. h. To prevent water-logging and soil erosion, the concrete embankments should be made along the flow of canals. Planting trees along either side of the canals could also prevent soil erosion. i. In order to develop the least developed districts of the Uttar Pradesh; it is necessary to increase productivity per unit of cultivated land. 166 j. 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