Asia's Colonial Photographies

Home , Kassian Cephas, Yuusuke (musician)

Photography’s Asian Circuits

Accounts of colonial photography in the Dutch East Indies focus on In the Indies, portrait studios mirrored social hierarchies, with European- European photographers and exceptional figures like Kassian Cephas, owned studios typically reserved for the highest levels of colonial society. the first (known) native Javanese photographer.1 Yet photography was The rest of the population who could afford photographs went to the more not simply a ‘European’ technology transplanted from the European modestly appointed and affordable Chi- nese ‘toekang potret’. ‘Toekang’ means metropole to the Asian colony. Decentring European photographers craftsman, signalling that photography was a skilled kind of labour, but labour

from the history of photography in the Indies reveals the more nonetheless. Indeed, most studio por- traitists were recent immigrants of circuitous - and Asian - routes by which photography travelled to and humble origins, a more skilled subset of the massive influx of immigrants within the archipelago. from Southern China that occurred in the last decades of the 19th and first Karen Strassler Canton had established a strong pres- decades of the 20th century. 2 Most pho- ence throughout Java and in other parts tographers emigrated from Canton at a hinese studio photographers rep- of the Dutch colony. These Chinese young age, sometimes apprenticing in Cresent an underappreciated thread photographers often settled in smaller Singapore before arriving in the Indies.

ofAsia’s past. pp. 17-1 of Indonesian photographic history. provincial towns as well as large cities, Cantonese immigrants to the Indies Europeans owned the earliest and most and served a less elite clientele than the were known more generally as crafts- illustrious studios in the Indies (the better-known European studios. My people, recognised especially for their first opened in 1857), and there were oral history research with contemporary expertise in making furniture. Since it also large numbers of Japanese photog- photographers in Java suggests that by was expensive to buy cameras, Canton- raphers in the Indies in the last decades the late 1920s, there were more studios ese photographers often deployed these

Privilegedviews: David Odo’s stunning theme oncolonial photography reveals rareglimpses Headlinesaround the world are dominated byenergy and security issues, but MaaikeHeijmans reminds usthat it’s trade and economic issues that bind East Asia. pp. 2223- Portrait:Simon-Wickham Smith provides anilluminating guide tocontemporary Mongolianpp. poetry.28 31 - NewReview For and Bookmarked pp. 32 33+ of colonial rule. But by the early 20th under Chinese than European, Japa- century immigrant photographers from nese, or other ethnic ownership. continued on page 4 > Contents #45 Building bridges to, from and with Asia Transnational Marriage in Asia 1 & 4 Living apart together: cross-border marriage, Riau Islands style / Lenore Lyons and Michele Ford It goes without saying, networking is crucial for communication. Of course there is a 3 Transnational marriage in Asia / Melody Lu business overtone and some direct motive, but there are strategic considerations too: It 5 Muslim transnational families: Pakistani husbands and Japanese wives / is good for your career, or it adds to your power and influence if you know many people Shuko Takeshita in important positions - if you know the ‘right’ people. In the business world such moti- 6 Remittances and ‘social remittances’: Their impact on cross-cultural vations are understood by everybody and more or less accepted as necessary PR and a marriage and social transformation / Panitee Suksomboon regular component of your work. 7 ‘Daughter-in-law for the second time’: Taiwanese mothers-in-law in the family of cross-border marriage / Hsing-Miao Chi In academia we are catching on fast. Every year academics the world over travel to confer- 9 ‘Arranged love’: marriage in a transnational work envirnoment / ences in far flung places, attend receptions, participate in workshops, sit on learned com- Michiel Baas mittees, returning home with our pockets full with new business cards and contacts. For those of us trying to cut down on our global emissions, the internet and email is making building bridges and crossing borders easier than ever. In focus: Development Discourse 10-11 Making poverty history? Unequal development today/ In this issue of IIAS Newsletter, we look at the consequences of people crossing borders Jomo K. Sundaram (extract from Wertheim Lecture 2007) and making connections with our theme on Transnational Marriage in Asia. The collection 12 - 13 Goals set for the poor, goalposts set by the rich: Millennium Development of articles hopes to offer new insights into marriage and migration, the impact on com- Goals and the dumbing-down of development / Ashwani Saith munities and the difficulties of building trust and genuine relationships in a cross-cultural environment.

Research Building trust and genuine relationships brings us back to networking, of course. Follow- 14 Curating controversy: exhibiting the Second World War in Japan and United ing the recent convention in Kuala Lumpur, ICAS has proved itself to be a prime example States since 1995 / Laura Hein of an Asian Studies network that is successfully building bridges across regions, disci- 15 The ‘Great Game’ continued: Central Eurasia and Caspian region fossil plines and subject areas. I am also pleased to report that IIAS has become an observer fuels / Xuetang Guo and Mehdi P. Amineh to an agreement founding the European Consortium for Asian Field Studies (ECAF). You 16 - 17 Asian New Religious Movements as global cultural systems / can read more about this exciting initiative from the École française d’Extreme-Orient Wendy A. Smith (EFEO) in the Insitutional News pages of this issue. I also suggest you read the article 18 From tin to Ali Baba’s gold: the evolution of Chinese entrepreneurship in ‘Forging Links Between Distant Lands’ (p 41) on the new addition to the Asian Studies

Malaysia / Chin Yee Whah Director’s notefold – ASÍS, The Icelandic Centre for Asian Studies. This surprising setting for the Asian 19 Still standing: the maintenance of a white elite in Mauritius / Tijo Salverda Studies curriculum results from an explosion in trade, tourism and cultural exchanges 20-21 No place like home? : Return and circular migration among elderly between Iceland and Asian countries in recent years. Chinese in the Netherlands / David Engelhard 22 Chinese medicine in East Africa and its effectiveness / Elisabeth Hsu These are just a few examples of the bridges that are being built to, from and with Asia and 23 Taking traditional knowledge to market: looking at Asian medical traditions by carrying on this trend and investing time in each other, I am convinced Asian studies through the lens of medicines and manufacturers / Maarten Bode will reap the rewards. 24-25 Agarwood: the life of a wounded tree / Gerard A. Persoon 26 The unbearable absence of parasols: the formidable weight of a colonial Max Sparreboom Java status symbol / Liesbeth Hesselink director 27 Uncovering hidden treasures: establishing the discipline of Indian manuscriptology / Daniel Stender

Portrait 28 – 29 MuXiYuan: a neighbourhood untouched in a changing Beijing / Jikky Lam

Book Reviews 30 New For Review 31 Bookmarked / New Asia Books update 32 Encapsulate everything, grasp nothing: Russian imperialist discourse in Uzbekistan / Nathan Light Intimate Empire: bodily contacts in an imperial zone / Clare Anderson The International Institute for Asian Studies is a postdoc- 33 Not just nuns and oracles: contemporary Tibetan women / toral research centre based in Leiden and Amsterdam, Sara Shneiderman the Netherlands. Our main objective is to encourage the 34 Chinese voices on abortion / Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner interdisciplinary and comparative study of Asia and to 35 Getting beyond image to realist in Burma (Myanmar) / Donald M. Seekins promote national and international cooperation in the 36 On the independence of civil society: field. The institute focuses on the humanities and social the case of the Philippines / Niels Mulder sciences and their interaction with other sciences. 37- 38 The sophisticated aesthetics of Ehon and Ukiyo-e of a Meiji period Master / Patricia J. Graham IIAS values dynamism and versatility in its research programmes. Post-doctoral research fellows are tem- The return of Dr Strangelove or: should we really stop worrying and learn to porarily employed by or affiliated to IIAS, either within a collaborative research programme or individually. love India’s bomb? / Nadja-Christina Schneider In its aim to disseminate broad, in-depth knowledge of Asia, the institute organizes seminars, workshops and conferences, and publishes the IIAS Newsletter with a circulation of 26,000.

Institutional News IIAS runs a database for Asian Studies with information on researchers and research-related institutes 39-40 Announcements worldwide. As an international mediator and a clearing-house for knowledge and information, IIAS is 41 ASÍS - Forging links between distant lands active in creating international networks and launching international cooperative projects and research 42 ECAF - Leading European institutions launch a consortium programmes. In this way, the institute functions as a window on Europe for non-European scholars and for Asian Field Studies contributes to the cultural rapprochement between Asia and Europe. 43 ICAS update 44 IIAS research IIAS also administers the secretariat of the European Alliance for Asian Studies (Asia Alliance: www. 45 IIAS fellows asia-alliance.org) and the Secretariat General of the International Convention of Asia Scholars (ICAS: 46 - 47 International Conference Agenda www.icassecretariat.org). Updates on the activities of the Asia Alliance and ICAS are published in this newsletter. < www.iias.nl

IIAS NEWSLETTER # 4 5 A U T U M N 2 0 0 7 T H E M E TRANSNATIONAL MARRIAGE IN ASIA

Transnational marriage in Asia

Melody Lu der marriages have to prove to the state that they are of sufficient understudied aspect of transnational marriages in the current litera- Guest Editor means to support their wives and thus will not become a welfare ture - the inter-generational relations. This generation of mothers- burden. On the other hand, the state’s intervention does not seem in-law in Taiwan is ‘caught in-between’, in the sense that when they n today’s rapidly globalising world, marriage as a contract to matter much for the couples in their daily experiences. For them, were young they were expected to fulfil the role of obedient daugh- Ibetween two individuals based on love and commitment to the choice of residency is clearly a lifestyle choice. As well as benefit- ters-in-law; now that they are old they are expected to do domestic each other is increasingly considered a norm. The degree of ing from an immediate improvement in their economic situation, work and care for young grandchildren when their Taiwanese daugh- women’s control over their marital decisions and choice of mate, Indonesian wives also experience class mobility. Their marriage to ters-in-law enter the job market. Previous research shows that one based on individual traits rather than the family’s socio-economic Singaporean men allows them to move into the lower-middle class. of the motivations for Taiwanese parents to choose a foreign wife status, is seen as a measure of whether a society has embraced Equally, the working-class Singaporean husbands who are margin- (mainly from Southeast Asia) for their sons is that Southeast Asian modernity. In reality, marriage involves many actors with complex alised in Singaporean society can enjoy a comfortable middle-class women are considered to have ‘traditional virtue’ of gender roles and decision-making processes and multiple considerations. In many lifestyle in the Riau islands. Lyons and Ford make the point that the to be more obedient. Despite such expectations, Chi’s study shows Asian societies, being and staying married, for both men and wives do not wish to live in Singapore, a place they consider to be that the Taiwanese mothers-in-law of local marriages and those of women, is a social and family obligation and a criterion of social stressful and isolated. cross-border marriages may have the same experiences. Having a standing. Kin members, the state, marriage intermediaries (insti- foreign daughter-in-law does not necessarily increase the power of tutional or individual) and commercial sectors are all involved Like Lyons and Ford’s article, Shuko Takeshita’s essay on transna- the mother-in-law. On the contrary, the unfamiliarity of the language in decision-making. This is particularly the case of cross-border tional families of Pakistani men and Japanese women shows that and cultural practices of their foreign daughters-in-law makes them marriages, with the state deciding and controlling who is allowed aside from the economic motivation (job opportunities or wealth) suspicious of daughters-in-law’s intentions and creates what Chi to marry, whether spouses are allowed to enter or reside in the and cultural practice (patrilocality), there are other factors affecting calls ‘emotional burden’. receiving societies, as well as their naturalisation and assimila- the transnational families’ decisions and choices of residency. In tion process. this case children’s education and the transmission of cultural and A large number of intra-Asia cross-border marriages are interme- religious values. Takeshita studies the importance of religion in chil- diated either by institutions or individual matchmakers within the As well as a rapidly increasing intra-Asian flow of marriage migra- dren’s education and socialisation. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) actors’ kin and social network. These marriages are termed ‘com- tion, there is a continued growth of Asian women marrying and are chosen as the migration destination of Japanese wives and their modified marriages’ and at times equated to trafficking. Michiel migrating to the West and ‘in between’ diaspora communities. For children instead of the couples’ countries of origin. Pakistani men Baas’s article problematises the dichotomy between ‘love’ and the most part, it is women marrying (and ‘marrying up’) and migrat- establish a transnational, kin-based business network trading used ‘arranged’ marriage in the context of India’s IT industry. IT profes- ing to wealthier countries. The dominant view is that women enter vehicles between Japan, UAE and Pakistan. Japanese women favour sionals in Bangalore tend to choose their marriage partners within cross-border marriages for economic gains, and generally in order to a home in the UAE over Pakistan because of the modern lifestyle and the industry, regardless of their caste. On the one hand this is due extracate themselves (and their families) from poverty. less control from their husband’s family, yet they can still enjoy the to the fact that the transnational business practice of the industry social support of some kin members. The transnational kinship net- is based on meritocracy - the IT companies deliberately discourage Scholarship on cross-border marriages in Asia has been vigorous work therefore provides business opportunities, social support and employees from following the cultural practices of the caste system. in recent years. Two terms indicating rather different conceptual helps maintain religious and cultural identities. Japanese women are On the other hand, migration experiences, both internal and inter- emphases are used: cross-border and transnational marriage. These active agents in this multiple migration process by choosing the des- national, uproot IT professionals from their social and kin networks two terms are used interchangeably but often not defined clearly. To tination, forming a support network among themselves, and devel- and place them in an isolated working environment that demands make it more confusing, both terms can be used to refer to cross- oping educational strategies for their children who learn English and long working hours and flexibility. The IT professionals are able to ethnic/cultural or same-cultural marriages. The term cross-border Japanese while being socialised in an Islamic environment. break away from the practices of arranged marriage within the same marriage emphasises geographical, national, racial, class and gen- caste and choose their marriage partners with the families’ permis- der and cultural borders constructed in the hosting societies. These Panitee Suksomboon’s article gives a nuanced picture of Thai sion (what Baas calls ‘arranged love marriage’) due to the economic borders are mainly mediated by the states as well as other social women who marry Dutch men and live in the Netherlands. These benefits and social prestige associated with the industry. However, actors in order to differentiate the ‘we’ and ‘the others’. This stream women actively maintain social ties with their home communities, rather than based on romantic love, their mate choice is a result of of scholarship concerns the impact of marriage migration on the and by doing so, they create a transnational space. This transna- practical considerations such as maintaining the lifestyle the tran- host societies in terms of population pressure and social security, tional space is important for Thai women not only in terms of social snational business practice requires. Theme Introduction the political and social citizenship of marriage migrants and their support, but also because their class mobility only exists in their integration and acculturation. Particular attention is paid to study- home community and not in the host society (as Riau Islands wives Further reading ing how to empower migrant wives in exploitative situations, such in Lyons and Ford’s study). To maintain their new-found social sta- Constable, Nicole ed. 2005 Cross-border marriages: as domestic violence and commodified marriage brokerage. There tus Thai women transfer economic resources to their natal families Gender and Mobility in Transnational Asia. University of is also a growing scholarship on the actors’ strategies of crossing either by economic remittance or via cultural practices such as gift- Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia. these borders. giving or paying for holidays for the whole family. They also disguise their economic and emotional hardships, creating an image of a Lu, Schoonheim and Yang eds. (forthcoming) Cross-border marriage The term transnational marriage emphasises a transnational net- happy life in Europe. This image, together with the socio-economic migration in East and Southeast Asia: socio-demographic patterns work and space created by the actors themselves; as well as the disparity between families with and without women marrying foreign and issues. Amsterdam University Press: Amsterdam. transactions of economic resources, symbols and political and cul- men, fuels the desire of more women to marry abroad, thus trigger- tural practices between the sending and receiving communities (see ing a chained migration. Suksomboon shows the linkage between Palriwala, Rajni and Uberoi, Patricia eds. (forthcoming) Marriage, Panitee Suksomboon’s article ‘remittances and ‘social remittances’: the movement of people, transaction of economic resources as well Migration and Gender. Series of Women and Migration in Asia, no. 5. their impact on cross-cultural marriage and social transformation, p as the cultural ideas and practices flowing in between this transna- Sage: New Delhi. 6); and how these transactions influence local development, social tional space. practices and cultural norms in both sending and receiving soci- Piper, Nicola and Roces, Mina eds. 2003 Wife or workers? Asian eties. The term ‘transnationalism’ by no means suggests the end All three articles give pictures of marriage migrants as active agents women and migration. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. of the nation-state; instead, it focuses on how actors’ opportuni- in the migration process. Their choices challenge the assumption ties and choices are mediated by the state and other transnational that marriage migrants marry either for economic gains, citizenship Willis, Yeoh and Fakhri 2004 Introduction: transnaitonalism as a actors. (Willis et. al, 2004, see list of further reading). The articles and welfare or lifestyle in an affluent society. However, as Lyons and challenge to the nation, in Brenda, S.A. Yeoh and Katie Willis (eds.) in this theme issue follow this framework on transnationalism. They Ford warn us, their choices are limited by the existing gender ideolo- State/Nation/Transnation: Perspectives on Transnationalism in the address diverse aspects of transnational marriages and challenge gies and their dependency on their husbands, which is strengthened Asia-Pacific. Routledge: London and New York. assumptions made by earlier scholarship, particularly the social by the economic disparity between the host and sending countries. actors other than the state. While marriage migrants actively create a transnational space, not all of them can engage their husbands in it. While Singaporean and Lenore Lyons and Michele Ford’s article tells of couples comprised Pakistani men enjoy the advantages of the transnational space, of Singaporean men and Indonesian wives in the Riau Islands. The Dutch men appear to have greater difficulty in appreciating the cul- men choose to live in Singapore, however they do establish a base tural practices of the wives’ community and do not enjoy the social in the Riau Islands and make regular visits to their wives. On the one status and respect that their wives ‘win’ for them. hand, their choice of residency is shaped by the restriction of immigration policies imposed by both the Singaporean and Indonesian Parents in many Asian societies are heavily involved in the mari- governments. The immigration polices of both governments are tied tal decision and mate choice of their children. This is also the case up with labour policy and class status. The husbands of cross-bor- in cross-border marriages. Hsing-Miao Chi’s article addresses an

IIAS NEWSLETTER # 4 5 AUTUMN 2 0 0 7 Asia’s Colonial Photographies continued from page 1 >

woodworking skills to construct their Page from a Chung own cameras, using imported German Hwa catalogue, late lenses. 1930s.

Courtesy Didi

Family Ties Kwartanada and family. Networks of ethnic Chinese photography studios, linked by familial and regional ties, extended throughout the Indies. Cantonese immigrant photographers typically learned the trade from already established Chinese photographers (usually their own relatives). After a period of apprenticeship, a photographer would open his own studio, often with borrowed money and handed-down equipment. Once a photographer was well established, it was his turn to invite a sibling, a cous- in, or someone from the same village in China to join him as an apprentice. This pattern appears to have been a broader Southeast Asia-wide phenomenon. Liu, for example, details the history of the Lee Brothers Studio in Sin- gapore (1910-23), owned by a family that originated in Canton. Members of the Lee family ultimately operated more than a dozen studios in Southeast Asia, including eight in Singapore, one each in Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh, and three in the Indies, in the cities of Batavia, Magelang, and Bandung (Liu 1995).3 Chinese studios were run as family businesses. Wives, children, and other relatives helped run the shop, and children usually took over the studios of their parents. As one elderly photog- (five males, two females) born to a for a short time in a studio there (pos- King’s siblings, though, arrival in the more advanced…all of father’s dreams rapher told me, “Photography in those poor farmer in Canton province, all of sibly owned by a relative who had pre- Indies proved a rude awakening. Lie were lost when he came to Indonesia.” days was still a secret. You didn’t tell whom, with the exception of the eldest ceded him) before opening up his own Yap King, Lie Yie King’s older brother, Nevertheless, Lie Yap King’s Djawa outsiders how you did it. Now every- daughter, would eventually come to the Chung Hwa Studio. had left Canton for Singapore in 1910, Studio, which catered to a cross-sec- thing’s out in the open, but in the past Indies. In 1913, Lie Yie King left home at the age of 14. In 1928, he heeded his tion of the colonial elite - Dutch, Eura- it was kept strictly within the family.” for Singapore, where he found work in a Chung Hwa’s rapid success prompted brother’s call to come to the Indies and sians, Javanese, and Chinese - would studio owned by a Singaporese Chinese. Lie Yie King to invite other siblings left behind his comfortable job at a large also prove highly successful. Elegant Chung Hwa [China] Studio of Sema- In 1920, he set out on his own to Sema- to the Indies as well. Eventually, there Chinese-owned studio in Singapore. portraits of Chinese opera stars and rang, founded in 1922 by Lie Yie King, rang, a bustling commercial port in would be at least eleven studios directly His son recalled, “My father was deeply wealthy Singaporese hung on the walls exemplifies the general pattern I found Central Java, which he believed would connected through family ties to Chung disappointed when he came to Indone- of his studio as testaments to his skill in my research in Java.4 Lie Yie King offer greater opportunities for himself Hwa (five in Semarang and the rest in sia. He didn’t know it was so far behind and cosmopolitanism. (b. 1900) was one of seven children and his siblings at home. He worked other parts of Java).5 For one of Lie Yie Singapore. In Singapore everything was By the late twenties, Chung Hwa had expanded into the business of distribut- ing and importing photographic equipment and supplies; it would become one of the major purveyors of photographic equipment in Java in the late colonial and early postcolonial period. Lie Yie King’s knowledge of English (learned in Singapore) gained him access to British and American publications and allowed him to make direct contact with foreign companies. This enabled him to compete with the five Dutch importers of photographic goods that were based in Semarang at that time. But Lie Yie King also maintained business ties to the Chinese mainland, importing backdrops from Shanghai as well. While the majority of backdrops of the late colonial period placed people in vaguely ‘European’ scenes, some of these Chinese backdrops instead visualised ‘Chinese’ locations. One, painted in the 1930s and still hanging in Chung Hwa’s former studio, shows a large pavilion with carved pillars looking out onto another Chinese-style pagoda. Another from the same era at Djawa Studio shows a garden and a lake with distinctive rock formations, referenc- ing classical Chinese painting motifs. Ethnic Chinese family Such backdrops were probably popular portrait, late 1930s, among the large ethnic Chinese popula- Che Lan Studio, tions of the Indies, many of whom were Yogyakarta. experiencing a renewed sense of their Courtesy Didi Kwartanada ties to the mainland in response to the and family. rise of Chinese nationalism.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Asia’s Colonial Photographies

Postcolonial back- Notes: drop (detail), late 1950s, from City 1 On Colonial photography in the Indies, Photo, Yogyakarta. see Groeneveld, Anneke et al., eds. 1989.

Photograph by Karen Toekang Potret: 100 Years of Photography

Strassler. in the Dutch Indies 1839-1939. Amsterdam and Rotterdam: Fragment Uitgeverij and Museum voor Volkenkunde; Reed, Jane Levy, ed. 1991. Toward Independence: A Century of Indonesia Photographed. San Francisco: The Friends of Photography. On the British studio of Woodbury and Page, see Wachlin, Steven, Marianne Fluitsma, G.J. Knaap. 1994. Woodbury and Page: Photographers Java. Leiden: KITLV Press. On Cephas, see Knaap, Gerrit. 1999. Kas- sian Cephas: Photography in the Service of the Sultan. Leiden: KITLV Press.

2 See Anthony Reid, “Entrepreneurial Minorities, Nationalism, and the State” in Chirot, Daniel and Anthony Reid, Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Cen- tral Europe. Seattle UW press 1997: 53.

3 The Malaysia branch also operated a photography supplies store called Lee and Sons. Another part of the family enterprise was Wah Heng & Co. in Singapore, which in the 1920s was an important supplier of photography equipment throughout Singapore, Malaysia and the Indies. Liu, Gretchen. 1995. From the Family Album: Portraits from the Lee Brothers Studio, Sin- gapore 1910-1925. Singapore: Landmark From Colony to Nation ue functioning in this capacity. Lie Yie Books. Berticevich also notes that “many When the Japanese Occupation (1942- King, meanwhile, survived the Japanese of the photographers of the Southeast 5) and the war of Independence (1945- Occupation by opening a grocery store, Asia region were ethnic Chinese” and 9) forced an exodus of Japanese and and started Chung Hwa again “from many purchased their backdrops from European studio photographers from nothing” in 1946. By the mid-1950s, Hong Kong (in particular from the Leung the Indies, it was left to ethnic Chinese Chung Hwa had regained its former Studio) in the 1950s and 60s. Bertecivich, photographers to bring studio photog- stature and once again supplied studios George C. 1998. Photo Backdrops: The raphy into the Indonesian era. In the throughout Java and in Sumatra, Lom- George C. Bertecivich Collection. (Exhibi- Chinese-style backdrop at Chung Hwa Stu- 1950s and 1960s, the numbers of Chi- bok, Makassar, and East Kalimantan. tion Catalogue), San Francisco: Yerba dio, late 1930s, Semarang. nese-Indonesian owned studios, most Buena Center for the Arts, p. 17. Photograph by Agus Leonardus. tied by direct descent or apprentice- In the late 1970s, the era of the toekang ship to those that had operated before potret - photography as a craft - gave way 4 The following account is based on inter- Independence, increased dramatically. to that of cuci cetak (‘wash and print’). views with Lie Yie King’s son Lukito Translating colonial era conventions Cheap snapshot cameras and automatic Darsono (who ran Chung Hwa after his into new national idioms, ethnic Chi- developing and printing of colour film father’s death in 1967), Sept 1 and 2 1999, nese photographers worked with Java- rendered many of the specific skills Semarang, and Lie Tiong Dang, current nese painters to develop a distinctively passed down through generations of owner of Java Studio (formerly Djawa Indonesian style of portrait backdrop. ethnic Chinese photographers obso- Studio) and son of Lie Yap King, Sept. 2 These backdrops featured such iconic lete. Foreign companies began aggres- 1999. tropical images as volcanoes, beaches, sively pursuing the Indonesian market rice fields and palm trees, often con- by establishing their own exclusive 5 Other studios opened by relatives of Lie joined with modern architecture. Oth- Indonesian partners (Fuji’s Indonesian Yie King were, in Semarang, Oy Lan, King ers evoked a more fantastical modernity partner PT Modern Photo was founded Son (now a department store), King (now realised in material signs like cars and in 1972), bypassing earlier networks for an electric goods store), Mi Fong (now a houses equipped with radios, staircases distribution of supplies and equipment. travel agency) and Foto Varia. In Purwo- and electric lights. Unlike the more sub- Today Chung Hwa has all but shut kerto: Foto Pemuda. In Temanggung: Foto tle, blurred style of European backdrops, down, and Djawa Studio (now called Tjie Sing. In Bandung: Foto Sinar (now these post-colonial backdrops, featuring Java Studio) faces increasing compe- closed). In Surabaya: Foto Varia, and scenes painted in exuberant detail and tition from cheaper, faster, and more Foto Tek Sin (closed). Apparently there vivid colour, more closely approximated “modern” studios. Yet many owners of was also another studio in Cirebon, but the style of contemporary Chinese back- Indonesia’s modern studios are the chil- the name has since been forgotten. drops. dren and grandchildren, nephews and cousins, of colonial-era toekang potret. The fates of Chung Hwa Studio and To this day, studio photography in Indo- Djawa Studio in the transition to Inde- nesia has an ethnic Chinese face. < pendence and the post-colonial period are again exemplary of larger historical Karen Strassler patterns. In 1942, the Japanese shut Queens College-CUNY, Flushing NY down Chung Hwa and confiscated all [email protected] of the business’s cameras, equipment, and supplies, along with two cars, without compensation. While the Japanese shut most studios down across Java, they did allow some to continue operating in order to provide photographic services for the army and the occupation administration. Djawa Studio, often under extremely difficult and abu- Postcolonial Studio Portrait, 1955. Photographer unknown. Courtesy Ibu Soekilah. sive conditions, was allowed to contin-

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Asia’s Colonial Photographies

Fig 1: Advertisement Fig. 2: “Western People’s love of for the Asanuma antiquity”. Woodblock print after Company (Tokyo), a drawing by Wu Youru Shashin shimpo (d. 1893), published in 1908 [Photography News], no. 37 (1906)

Fig. 3: Portrait of Zou Boqi (1819-1869). Lithograph based on his photographic portrait included in Qingdai xuezhe xiangzhuan [Portraits and Biographies of Qing Scholars], part 2, published by Ye Gongzhuo in 1953. Photography in China: a global medium locally appropriated

When photography is discussed as a colonialist imaging practice, two obvious notions of seeing and being seen come into play. Seeing implies empowerment; being seen does not.

Oliver Moore Photography served colonial ambitions tural settings in late-19th century China. that photographers did only what paint- tice. “Beating the time of a picture” of seeing, but the force of Western colo- Important too are the documents of the ers had done and continued to do, both shows how a dichotomy of traditional n China, one long-standing percep- nial adventures should not presuppose period’s rising discourse on photogra- naming their art xiezhen (fig. 4). Signifi- and modern infused a new concept of Ition of unequal empowerment was that colonised and semi-colonised soci- phy. Space precludes considering all cantly too, material evidence shows that image-making. fed by diplomacy. During the hostilities eties were only seen and saw nothing. genres (for example, diaries, poems the photographic idiom was borrowed of the second Opium War (1856-1860) Colonising and colonised constructs and technical treatises), but newspa- for older visual media, such as painting Discourse on photography the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) govern- reveal histories of photography that per advertisements profile extremely and woodblock printing. Figure 3 shows Discourse focused primarily on studios. ment voiced its strong resentment of resisted the technological empow- well the larger discourse to which they a lithographic portrait of Zou Boqi that A rare visual document is a photograph foreign photographers’ engagement on erment of Western vision precisely belonged. This Chinese discourse may merges a photographic image of the of the Lihua Studio on Nanjing East the battlefield. Following the Crimean because native photographers and con- be read not simply as a sign of social sitter’s head with a few sketchy brush Road, Shanghai, made in about 1890 war, China became the latest theatre for sumers of the images indigenised pho- change reflected by photographs from strokes for his body. (fig. 5). This is the smarter kind of estab- practicing a new Western visual practice tography for local priorities of content, China, but as the motivating impulses lishment to which advertisements and of foreign reporting. This was keenly form and patterns of circulation. within the medium itself. Even the current Chinese term paizhao other contemporary documents often felt in East Asia, and a rapidly industri- Photography in the late Qing was part (to photograph) is usually overlooked refer. Advertisement readers - none of alising Japan soon made photography of a visual economy that has been over- A Chinese history of as yet more evidence of a completely whom had heard of Zou Boqi - were an indispensible technique for its impe- looked in accounts of the West’s dis- photography non-Western conception of photo- eagerly convinced that photographic rialist ambitions, envisaging the camera covery of China. This article proposes Despite the medium’s potential for graphic method. Pai, literally “to beat practice was Western, and early adver- as a kind of dreadnought battleship (fig. means to explore a Chinese history of change, the terms in which photography time” is an etymological fossil of the tisements strengthened this prejudice: 1). The foreign exercise of photography photography, and to look more broadly was explained in Chinese documents might even usurp what had been taken at how the social roles of visual images seem curiously un-modern. This is con- for granted as an exclusively Chinese changed during the transition from tra- sonant with the history of many com- “Our business’s photography was instructed by a privilege to indulge its love of the cul- dition to modernity in China. What may modities, when the newness of a prod- Westerner. Our technique is highly skilled. As for tural and material heritage of an ancient be gained is a social history of visual art uct is often accompanied by efforts to civilisation (fig. 2). - within which photography was one make it look old and to search for indig- using chemicals – when adding gold and silver medium - that accommodates similari- enous sources. China’s first-known seri- solutions – we do not stint on production costs. As you But photography has many histories. ties and differences across diverse cul- ous enquirer into photography was Zou Boqi (1819-1869) (fig 3), a mathematician will want to keep the image for ever, we add colours from Guangzhou, who determined that that are bright and that will not fade in the future. the camera worked according to optical principles already recorded in ancient Our prices are fair. If you are interested, please visit: scriptures (dating to 500 BCE!). top of 3rd Street [Hankou Road].

Many terms soon co-existed to name Posted by Su Sanxing.” photography, including “painting the (Shenbao 1873.1.1) verifiable image” (xiezhen), which is still current in Japanese (shashin), but obso- method by which the studio photog- What is striking in this advertisement is lete in China. The word has deep roots rapher measured exposure time by that it assumes a high degree of famili- in Chinese painting theory, and this ety- reciting a set number of words from arity with photographic processes. mology shows how predominantly the the Thousand character essay (a classical Clearly, readers of the new newspaper lexicon of painting techniques featured text that school children memorised), already had acquired - or easily could in photography discourse. The new and, like a story-teller, accompanied acquire - a sound knowledge of photog- medium of photography was addressed each syllable by beating with a piece raphy’s technicalities. The studio’s com- with highly traditional concepts bor- of wood. This fascinating lore sug- mercial success and aesthetic expertise rowed from the manugraphic (hand- gests how the adoption of Western is authorised by Western instruction, drawn) skills of painting. Indeed, the time for telling hours and minutes - so but that authority relies equally on a popularisation of photography was in common in many other walks of life high degree of technical knowledge on Fig. 4: Photographing and painting portraits. Tuhua ribao [Illustrated Daily News], ca. 1910 part due to a highly durable conception - met initial resistance in studio prac- the part of the readers.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Asia’s Colonial Photographies

Within portraits, painted landscape also or too light. The advertiser attempts to enthralled as the presence of a senior clinch the argument that these images art tradition within the photographic are acceptably in tune with Chinese image. An advertisement of 1889 is a preferences because Yaohua had com- first-class witness to both the cultural missioned a redesign of its studio by a and visual importance of landscape German expert in lighting. What was at within the category of portrait-making. stake, then, was not dispelling the cruel A painter Qian Shouzhi, who hails from deceptions of light and dark - since Nanjing, ‘paints’ portraits and ‘land- photography is not an art adapted to scape portraits’ (shanshui xiaozhao). that purpose - but the acceptance of a The portraits cost one dollar, but a fee European technology in illumination on for the landscape background is charged behalf of Chinese aesthetics. separately. Qian also did landscape fans in various dimensions at respectively Conclusions differing prices. Thus, all production in Recent work on photography now chal- this studio is priced, except for the large lenges the primacy of photography’s landscape backgrounds which demand European vision. Its contributors show the most time and effort. These are how to understand the medium of pho- clearly available in a range from which tography as both globally disseminated the client can choose, provided that and locally appropriated. Chinese prac- he accepts that a scale of prices corre- titioners and consumers acknowledged sponds with several standards of work- that they had borrowed a new technol- manship. ogy of vision from the West. However, they added cultural value to visual pro- In its simplest material terms, this is ductions by reference to traditional art not using a new image technology to forms and by indicating clearly the social entirely supplant an old one. Instead, it conditions by which the maker and exemplifies how one particular opera- receiver of an image entered into con- tor deployed photography as the means tract. Photography was a cultural project of reproducing manugraphic visual that could not function without its prop- Fig 5: Lihua Studio, Shanghai, ca. 1890. After Lao zhaopian [Old Photographs], v 32 (2003), p 94 productions in photographic form, at er discourse, of which advertising was the same time as earning various lev- simply one of several expressions. Such els of reproduction fees. The conserva- texts are an essential tool for the histori- This early studio advertisement also 1905, an advertisement on behalf of the the context and material culture of por- tive brand of visual nostalgia that Mr cal and critical contextualisation of vis- shows one fundamentally modern founder of Yaohua Studio, reassured traits. A remarkable documentation Qian presupposes on behalf of his cli- ual images, especially since they orient social activity that had arisen as recently readers that his daughter was manager of supply and demand is the frequent ents may have been a basis for profit the modern reader towards the cultural as two decades earlier: the patron visits of the premises: advertising and even illustration of all only so long as he supplied a crucial priorities of Shanghai society in the late the ’artist’ or photographer at the lat- the essential accoutrements - books, cultural justification: his origins in a nineteenth century. Photography in ter’s address. Previous generations had “If you have daughters, clocks, water pipes, paintings, furni- Nanjing school of image practice. Qian Shanghai - and in China - was a social only to snap their fingers to summon ture, official and theatrical costumes - Shouzhi’s advertisement is a phenom- production that combined new aesthetic a painter into their home. Perhaps this they will be photographed for composing a fashionable portrait. In enon of the highest interest for studying expressions of content and form, and social reversal offered the rationale for by a woman in strict daily practice, no one had to buy all this the tensions between modernity and tra- stimulated new social habits. Advertise- building grandiose studio premises - a stuff, since perusing the advertisements dition. When modern imaging practices ments were not just tell-tale symptoms ‘selling point’ of some Shanghai adver- accordance with was reliable guidance as to whether a and their increasing industrialisation in of social change that had happened; they tisements - which more fittingly accom- the etiquette that studio provided all the latest items on Shanghai already threatened the future were equally reports that set change in modated patrons whose social station the market. The assembly in figure 6 is viability of traditional forms of visuality, motion and visualised it. < might otherwise preclude their custom. separates male and a good visual corroboration that these a practitioner of those forms adopted The studio in figure 5 was certainly well female.” artifacts convinced sitters and viewers the new technology to regain his eco- Further reading: maintained, featured upstairs accom- that a well furnished scene fulfilled the nomic advantage. Moreover he secured - Bajac, Quentin. 2001 L’image révélée: modation and was positioned with eye- (Shibao 1905.3.21) expectations of the new portrait idiom. the social relevance of this strategy by L’invention de la photographie. Paris catching effect on a street corner. But, This image of a planter and his family exploiting the appeal of familiar recent visiting studios delivered new prob- Several scholars have remarked on was taken at their home in southern history and regional cultural standards - Clunas, Craig. 1997 Art in China. Oxford lems. Most obviously disadvantaged the huge enthusiasm that swept Chi- Russia where poignantly they dressed - the location and notion of Nanjing, and New York were women whose casual entry into nese cities and towns for photographic up in the full theatricals of prevailing a byword for elegance and skill in all the morally ambiguous world of female portraits during the late-19th century. - or outdated? - Chinese photographic manner of lyrical and visual creativity. - Croissant, Doris “In Quest of the Real: portraiting was not free of anxiety. In Rather less has been said concerning taste. On the one hand, Qian Shouzhi seems Portrayal and Photography in Japanese to be a classic illustration of Weber’s Painting Theory”, in Ellen P. Conant, ed., maxim that the market declassifies cul- Challenging Past and Present : The Meta- ture, since through his own self presen- morphosis of Nineteenth-Century Japanese tation in the field of image production Art (Honolulu, 2006): 153-76. he deliberately mixed genres and made crossing boundaries the commercial - Moore, Oliver “Zou Boqi (1819-1869), attraction of his art. On the other hand, Map-maker and Photographer”, in Ken- he appears as a subtly attuned mar- neth Hammond ed., The Human Tradi- ket operator who understood which tion in Modern China. Lanham, Maryland socially valued genres confer prestige (forthcoming) upon those who have mastered them, adopting a modern visual technology - Peterson, Nicholas and Christopher Pin- to reclassify his art in a new prevailing ney, eds. 2003. Photography’s Other Histo- culture. ries. Durham, NC,

Studio advertisements reveal how strongly photographic discourse of this period maintained photography and painting as ontologically indistinct. This offered opportunities to prioritise photography with painting aesthetics, more often than not visible in contemporary photographs and in the images with which they might be reconfigured, for example, figure 3. One of the com- monest Chinese prejudices against photographic portraiture was that excessive contrasts of light and shadow disfigured the sitter. In an advertisement that Yao- hua Studio ran twice in 1896 the text defends the studio’s work against criti- Fig. 6: Tea planter and family members., ca. 1900. After Lao zhaopian, v 24 (2002), p 102 cism of photographs that were too dark

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Asia’s Colonial Photographies Moving Pictures: postcards of colonial Korea

They seem like shards of flash-frozen reality compacted into two dimensions, putative proof of having been there and seen that. They move over various forms of distance and time, while carrying with them ephemeral yet precious moments or sights to be appreciated, and then possibly forgotten. Viewing postcards of colonial Korea as visual records, art objects, or propaganda has generated useful insights; at the same time, Hyung Gu Lynn suggests that postcards of colonial Korea encapsulate and embody the multiple notions of mobility that emerged Fig 1: Between 1907 to 1918 Korean postcards had one-third of the back reserved for writing, with the in the early 20th century. remainder left for the address.

Hyung Gu Lynn forms of printing, photography, tourism, destination should look like the image Wakayama); individual photography Governor Saitm Makoto on the left and postal distribution, and consumption. on the postcard. In fuelling anticipation, studios, such as Pusan Kobayashi Pho- Vice Governor Mizuno Rentarm on the icture postcards have been popu- Therefore, instead of seeing postcards expectation, and imagination, postcards tographic Studios; and smaller book- right. Furthermore, changes in specific Plar since the late 19th century, and as strictly art, archive, or propaganda, I were – in a figurative sense – conduits stores and firms. buildings and squares, types of street- many collectors’ associations have exist- propose that they might also be treated for mobility into the future. lights and tramcars, and other notice- ed for decades; however, the academic as concentrated nodes for various myths Despite the array of different producers, able changes in landmarks provide study of postcards has only really begun or fantasies of mobility. The fantasy of The material postcard the vast bulk of the postcards came in specific hints about when the original to grow in earnest since the late 20th travel was inherent in the picture post- In material terms, postcards began to one standard size, which was 14.2 cm photograph was taken. century. Moreover, when postcards have card, which invited the reader to share gain widespread popularity in Japan, x 9.1 cm. There were some variations been treated as the primary subject of the visual record of new forms of physi- as in most of the world, between 1900 on the size, which were limited for The process of dating is complicated study, there have been several notable cal mobility. Development and diffusion and 1905. The government was the sole the most part to specific periods. For somewhat by the practice of using tendencies. The first is to treat postcards of photography propagated the myth that issuer of postcards in Japan from 1870 example, panoramic cards that had two the same photograph in a multitude as straightforward forms of communi- realities and recent pasts could be cap- to 1900, after which the post office or more folds were produced up to the of variations. One of the more com- cation, stationery with visual decora- tured instantly, and transported home allowed private production and use of early-1920s, and stereoscopic postcards, mon changes was to take a black and tion, in effect. Although limited by their via the postal system. Also implicit was postcards. The medium skyrocketed in ideally viewed with three-dimensional white image, and hand-colour the exposure to prying or accidental looks, the sense of mobility through time, popularity during the Russo-Japanese glasses, were made until around 1910. plate. Another method postcard mak- postcards do in fact deliver information. both past and present. The sender of the War (1904-1905). Demand for updates ers used to create variety was to take the The second is to approach postcards as postcard was no longer present at the and images from the war, coupled with Periodising postcards of colonial Korea photographic image and set it against simply a visual record of modern his- site portrayed on the postcard, or wher- developments in photography, printing, in more detail is possible since all the a different background, or juxtapose it tory. Indeed, postcards can be seen as ever they had purchased the card, by and the postal system, resulted in a post- producers followed the regulations with another image on the same card. a medium that captured everyday life, the time it reached the receiver. In this card frenzy, with people lining up and for postcards issued by the Japanese Printing a reversed image, or printing whether posed or natural, or as a visual sense, the postcard allowed for a jour- crowds jostling for the latest prints. Ministry of Communication. From the same image with a different mono- record of images that appealed to con- ney into the afterglow of the recent past. 1900 to 1907, text had to be written chromatic tint, were other methods sumers. The third is to focus on the At the same time, postcards could also The Korean Agriculture and Commerce on the image itself, since no writing employed by postcard producers. aesthetic elements of the image at the provide the basis for expectations of the Department produced the first known was allowed on the back. Thus, post- expense of the larger political, social, future. When or if the recipient of the postcard in Korea in 1900, while the cards with writing on the photographic Although no detailed statistics record and economic contexts surrounding the postcard travelled to the same destina- first Korean picture postcard followed image are from this early period. Post- the total production and sales of post- production, dissemination, and reception, the expectation would be that the in 1901. Most of the early postcards had cards from the second period, from cards in colonial Korea, there are frag- tion of postcards. Recent work in Eng- an address side and a blank side with- 1907 to 1918, had one-third of the back mentary accounts that indicate that lish on the art of the modern Japanese out any images. Although Japanese, reserved for writing, with the remain- postcards were very popular. For exam- postcard, for example, emphasises the French, and other European compa- der left for the address (fig. 1). From 1918 ple, by the mid-1920s, demand was suf- aesthetic of the postcard, a recovery of nies produced photographic postcards on, the space was enlarged to around ficient enough for Keijm Hinode Shmkm the medium for the field of art history. depicting Korea in the 1900s, based on half. After 1933, the “ga” in “Ytbin to operate four printing facilities in Postcards of colonial Korea might also the numbers of extant cards in various hagaki” (Post cards) that was printed Keijm, colonial-era Seoul. According to be seen as examples of photographic art; collections, Japanese firms appear to on the right edge changed from “ka” one 1929 account, an estimated 10,000 some of the cards also used paintings by have dominated the market especially to “ga”, providing another method for cards a day were sold. recognised Korean painters, or photo- after 1905, when the Japanese Protec- dating postcards. graphs from professional photography torate of Korea was established. The majority of the extant postcards studios (fig. 3). The fourth tendency is In addition to dates from postcard reg- of colonial Korea that I have seen are the invocation of context, particularly in During the colonial period (1910-1945), ulations and specific historical events, housed in university libraries and colonial or imperial settings, as the over- postcards of Korea were printed by vari- changes in the urban landscape also research centres, museums, used book- riding explanatory factor that generated ous Japanese organisations that were help to date postcards. For example, the stores, and private collections. The vast the images on the postcards. Notions of grouped into four categories: govern- new Government General of Korea’s majority of these are unposted, which colonial hierarchy and Orientalist repre- ment agencies, such as the Japanese headquarters were completed in 1926 may reflect a bias in collecting. Many sentations certainly infused the photo- Ministry of Communication, the Gov- (fig. 4), sparking a spate of new post- used postcards presumably remain in graphic postcards. ernment General of Korea (in particular, cards that captured it from an array the possession of the recipient, rather the Railway Bureau), and Pusan Munici- of angles. Some cards were issued to than in collections sold to collectors, While these approaches greatly aid our pal Government; private printing firms, commemorate specific anniversaries. museums, and academic institutions. understanding of the meanings and sig- such as Keijm Hinode Shmkm (the larg- For example, the tenth anniversary of However, the preponderance of unused nificance of picture postcards, postcards Fig 2: An envelope for a set of postcards based est producer of postcards), and Taishm Japanese colonisation of Korea in 1920, cards suggests that picture postcards also occupied the intersection of new on the theme ‘Korean customs’. Shashin Kmgeisho (headquartered in seen here (fig. 5), features portraits of were not purchased solely as stationery

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Asia’s Colonial Photographies

Fig 3: painting by leading artist of the colonial period, Yi In-Snng Fig 4: Completion of the Government General of Korea’s headquarters in 1926 sparked a spate of new postcards.

to be used for communication, but also the colony as a place that was desirable purchased as visual tokens, souvenirs because of its distance, its picture post- that could be collected. card exoticism.

The antinomous postcard Images of Korean women doing laundry In addition to the material outlines and (fig. 6) and kisaeng (female entertainers) the visions of mobility briefly discussed (fig. 7), seemed to have held a mesmer- above, picture postcards also helped ising allure for postcard producers and Fig 5: postcard commemorating 10th anniversary of Japanese colonisation of Korea. reinforce a discourse of backwardness consumers alike. Paralleling the Japa- and progress, often juxtaposing ‘quaint’ nese “bijin-ga” or “beauties” postcards, or ‘traditional’ Korean customs with the the postcards of the kisaeng in particu- more modern forms of space and pro- lar catered to the ocular obsessions duction that were introduced, accord- of Japanese male (and to some extent ing to the images, through colonial Korean male) viewers. This of course rule. Through this narrative frame, the is not to suggest that all travellers to implicit movement of Japan into moder- Korea expected the country to be popu- nity was often contrasted with depictions lated with pliant and obliging kisaeng. of the relative stasis of Korean society. Nevertheless, the power of the postcard images to guide future expectations This trope was reflected in the various and transport the viewer into a future types of images mounted on the post- of one’s own imagining should not be cards – modern urban spaces intro- underestimated. duced by the Japanese colonial state, contrasted with rural ’Korean’ villages; Digital photographs sent as attachments the ubiquitous images of ancient his- and web-based photograph albums may torical sites, natural landmarks, and eventually render the postcard obsolete. most commonly, people in ’traditional’ However, in looking at the postcards of settings; and the paucity of ‘modern- colonial Korea, we are reminded that ised’ Koreans in Western-style suits and whether they were wending their way dresses. ‘Korean customs’ was a popu- through the labyrinths of the interna- Fig 6: Postcard depicting Korean women doing laundry. lar genre, usually depicting subjects in tional postal system, eliciting aesthetic ’traditional’ dress, ceremonies, markets, responses in viewers, triggering a cas- and play. For example, figure 2 shows an cade of memories in recipients, or forg- envelope for a set of postcards that is ing a template for future expectations based on this theme . for travellers-to-be, picture postcards were and remain, in many senses of the At the same time, by collapsing the word, moving. < sense of space and reinforcing a myth of mobility, colonial postcards contributed For Further Reading: both to the amplification of distance - Pusan hynndae ynksagwan, ed. 2003. Sajin and the reinforcement of the bounda- ynpsnro ttnnanun kundae kihaeng. ries of the Japanese colonial empire. Pusan: Pusan hynndae ynksagwan. On the one hand, colonial Korea was - Kwnn Hynk-Hui. 2005. Chosnn eso on closer (to the Japanese metropole) than sajin ynpsn. Seoul: Minumsa. before, as implied by the postcards, by - Tomita Shmji. 2005. Ehagaki de miru ship, rail, and post, and other material Nihon kindai. Tokyo: Seikytsha. markers of modernity; yet on the other, the colony was liberally populated with Hyung Gu Lynn people who were constructed as distant University of British Columbia and different. Along with various other Institute of Asian Research media, postcards thus helped portray [email protected] Fig 7: Kisaeng with Kayagum (a koto-like muscial instrument). Korean female entertainers were popular subjects for postcards.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Asia’s Colonial Photographies

Vivan Sundaram, “Remembering the Past, Looking to the Future”, 2001.

Courtesy of the Artist & SEPIA International.

Photography in India

Photography was first introduced to India in 1840, only a year after the announcements of the daguerreotype and calotype processes in France and England. The fragility of this early material, the uniqueness of the daguerreotype and the harshness of the Indian climate mean that photographs from this time are scarce, leaving us with a fragmented picture of the development of the medium.

Sophie Gordon type of photographers at work increases representative of photography in India. identified and promoted at the expense cation Traces of India: Photography, Archi- dramatically within the space of a few In particular the collection contains the of a greater understanding of the medi- tecture and the Politics of Representation, nitially, commercial studios were years. Their output ranges from studio photographs amassed by the Archaeo- um. From India, both Linnaeus Tripe 1850-1900 (Montreal, 2004) contains Iestablished in cities such as Calcutta, portraits to ethnographic documenta- logical Survey of India, the official body (1822-1902) and Dr John Murray (1809- contributions from a variety of scholars where an ever-increasing clientele could tion, from picturesque landscapes to set up by the British administration in 1898) are frequently cited as the most of different backgrounds, discussing a be relied upon to keep up a demand for documentary records of architecture, 1870 to identify and preserve India‘s accomplished masters of the art, and to range of meanings and interpretations portraits. Some amateurs also brought works of art and the natural history of architectural and archaeological herit- a lesser extent, Samuel Bourne (1834- for architectural photography. cameras to India; some of the earliest India. The history of photography in age. This collection alone consists of 1912). The work of these British photog- surviving photographs from India are in India has, over the last quarter of a cen- 37,781 prints, according to the online raphers fits the European paradigm for The Private Collector a family album, now in the Getty Muse- tury, been told largely from the perspec- catalogue.(Fig.2) successful, aesthetically-pleasing com- The growth of the market and the role of um, containing views taken in Nainital, tive of a handful of colonial collections, positions and the landscapes of Bourne the private collector have done much to Bareilly and Kanpur during the mid- in particular the India Office Collection, The development of ‘photography in in particular are composed according to stimulate the field into broadening and 1840s (Fig.1). Around the same time, now housed at the British Library in India’ as a field of research has taken the demands of the Picturesque ideal. embracing new avenues for research. the French daguerreotypist Jules Itier London. Publications by British Library place within the wider context of the (Figs.3 & 4) Each individual collector inevitably (1802-77) passed through India, whilst curators, including Ray Desmond ‘s Vic- growth of the history of photography as brings a unique set of criteria for mak- engaged in a treaty negotiation with torian India in Focus (London, 1982) and a subject of serious investigation. This is There is some tension within the field ing acquisitions. Indian collectors in China. A handful of his views of South John Falconer ‘s A Shifting Focus: Pho- evident through the creation of separate between scholars from South Asian particular come with ideas that differ India still survive today in a number tography in India 1850-1900 (London, photography departments in museums, departments who concentrate exclu- greatly, in the most positive way, from of collections. The extremely small 1995), have been influential in estab- libraries and archives (the Museum of sively on Indian photography within an those of Western museums. This usu- amount of material that has survived lishing significant photographers and Modern Art in New York established Indian context but who know little about ally ranges between a desire to preserve from the 1840s must represent only a events, while emphasising the impor- a photography department relatively the broader history of photography, and India‘s photographs because of the fraction of the photographic activity that tance of British documentary work. early in 1940, but many departments in those who work regularly with a wider richness and beauty of the medium, to took place. This colonial dominance is inevitable, European institutions were not created range of photographic images, such as ensuring that the information contained for although the photographs in the until the late 1960s and early 1970s) curators and photography dealers, but within the images such as records of The Colonial Contribution India Office Collection combine to cre- and, hand-in-hand with this, the devel- who generally know little about India. events and fast-disappearing buildings This lack of material from the 1840s ate an extraordinary collection of around opment of a commercial market for This debate can be boiled down to ‘con- is not only saved but made available and makes the story relatively straightfor- 250,000 items containing the work of buying and selling photographs. With text versus aesthetics’ and at present it used in the many conservation projects ward to tell in its early years. After 1850, hundreds of photographers, it repre- museums focusing on the aesthetic shows no signs of abating. Some, how- now establishing themselves in India. with the use of the camera spreading sents what successive colonial admin- qualities of photography at the expense ever, have successfully engaged with The Alkazi Collection, for example, has across the subcontinent, things get a lit- istrators believed to be worth collecting of its social history and meaning, the different approaches and aspects of the embraced many of these approaches. tle more complicated. The number and and preserving, rather than being truly work of a handful of photographers was work. Maria Antonella Pelizzari‘s publi- The collection acquires the acknowl-

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edged masters of photography as well fig. 1: One of the earli- the Lafayette studio‘s portraits of Indian auctions). It is interesting that one of as attempting to expand this category est surviving images rulers, all of which were taken in Britain the few Indian artists working with pho- through promoting the work of other of India. in the early 20th century. The collection tography at this level is Vivan Sundaram accomplished artists such as John Unknown amateur, of glass negatives from the Lafayette (b.1943), yet he is not a photographer. Edward Saché (1824-1882)1. It is also Street scene in a town studio is now split between the Victoria He employs photographs by Umrao creating an archive of work that repre- in Uttar Pradesh. Salt and Albert Museum and the National Sher-gil (1870-1954) and then manip- sents local traditions and practices, for print, c 1843-5. Portrait Gallery in London, the latter ulates them digitally to incorporate 2 example, painted photographs , collage (c) Christies Images Ltd. receiving the post-1925 material. further images of Umrao ‘s daughter, and montage work, and material from 2007 Amrita Sher-gil, one of India’s foremost studios working for the independent This work raises interesting questions twentieth century painters. Sundaram is princely states as well as for middle- not only over representation and identi- Amrita ‘s nephew. (main image) class Indian families. Scholars such ty when in the home of the Raj, but also as Christopher Pinney and Malavika over photographic links between India What is remarkable about Sundaram’s’ Karlekar have recently worked on this and Britain. Material was frequently series of photographs titled Re-take of type of material, presenting new lines fig. 2: William Henry sent from India to Britain, through dip- Amrita (2001-2) is that, while some- of thought and opening up new and Pigou, Shiva Temple lomatic and official channels, in order times beautiful and at other times unexplored collections in an academic at Chaudanpur, in to pass on information about the coun- deeply unsettling, it engages with pho- field that has, since the 1990s, been in Karnataka. Albumen try. The Royal Collection in Britain con- tographers and artists, as well as with danger of stagnating under Foucauldian print, c. 1857. From tains several groups of photographs that critics and the public, over issues con- approaches to (colonial) discourse and the Archaeological were sent to Queen Victoria, Empress cerning truth, identity and the nature power. (Fig.5) Survey of India Col- of India for just this purpose. Amongst of the medium. These concerns were lections. these is a particularly unusual group of central to debates over photography in Karlekar‘s work has also broken the (c) The British Library, views of Travancore (modern-day south the 1850s and remain so today. < artificial chronological boundaries that Photo 1000/9(1043 Kerala), sent to the Queen by Lady Napi- have arisen in the field, wherein early er, wife of the Governor of Madras, who Suggested further reading photography up to c. 1911 is considered toured the region in 1868. The photo- - Desmond, Ray. 1982 Victorian India in the domain of the historian, early 20th graphs were accompanied by lengthy Focus: A Selection of Early Photographs century photography that of the anthro- descriptions by Lady Napier, recount- from the Collection in the India Office pologist, and photography after 1947 fig. 3: Dr. John Mur- ing everything that was encountered on Library and Records. HMSO: London belongs to the modern art world. These ray, Agra, Taj Mahal. tour. (Fig.6) categories, coming from equally artifi- Salt print, c.1858. - Gadihoke, Sabeena. 2006 India in Focus. cial timeframes imposed in Western art The Royal Collection Some photographers sent their work Camera Chronicles of Homai Vyarawalla. history and other humanities subjects, (c)2007 HM Queen Eliza- for inclusion in exhibitions in Britain; Parzo Foundation & Mapin Publishing: do not take into account local practices. beth II. (RCIN 2701440) for example, Murray exhibited a view New Delhi This has resulted in large quantities of the Taj Mahal in the London Photo- of material, particularly from the early graphic Society exhibition in 1858, and - Falconer, John. 1995 A Shifting Focus: Pho- to mid-20th century, being ignored. Captain Henry Dixon showed views of tography in India 1850-1900. The British For example, although photographic Udayagiri (in Orissa) in the 1861 Archi- Council: London journals from the 19th century have tectural Photographic Association show, been fully examined, the journals of also in London. British families often - Gordon, Sophie. 2004 Uncovering India: the Photographic Society of India that purchased photographs and compiled Studies of Nineteenth-Century Indian were published in the 1920s are rarely albums as souvenirs; later they sent Photography , History of Photography 28:2, referenced. Work that is typically repro- fig. 4: Samuel Bourne. home postcards, showing monuments 180-190 duced and discussed in the journals Kanpur, The Memo- such as the Taj Mahal or the site of the was stylistically heavily influenced by rial Well. albumen Kanpur massacre. - Harris, Russell.2005 The Full Feature. The Pictorialism - consciously drawing on print, 1865. Lafayette Studio and Princely India. Roli the conventions of Western academic The Royal Collection The flow of information was not just Books: New Delhi, 2005. painting and emphasising the posi- (c) 2007 HM Queen one-way, however. Portraits taken in tion of the photographer as Artist – at Elizabeth II the Lafayette, Vandyk or Bassano stu- - Karlekar, Malavika, ed. 2006 Visualizing a time when Europe was rejecting the (RCIN 20701748). dios in Britain frequently found their Indian Women 1875-1947. Oxford Univer- art photograph in favour of work that way to India. Even from the 1850s, sity Press: New Delhi challenged existing conventions and photographs by leading British photog- traditional definitions. This ‘soft picto- raphers were exhibited in exhibitions - Pelizzari, Maria Antonella, ed. 2004 Traces rialism’ that was practised in India was and were circulated at photographic of India: Photography, Architecture, and the enormously popular for many years, yet society meetings. Extracts from several Politics of Representation, 1850-1900. Cana- it remains an unexplored avenue within European photographic journals were dian Centre for Architecture: Montreal the field. fig. 5: Unknown published in India, where everything Studio, “Raj Sri from reviews of the latest exhibitions - Pinney, Christopher. 1997 Camera Indica: These divisions and omissions have Kishore and Raj Sri to how to compose the best landscape The Social Life of Indian Photographs. Reak- also lead to modern and contempo- Hari Singh, against a views was discussed. The photographic tion Press: London rary photographic practice in India European backdrop”, societies - the first being established in being divorced from its own history, as photomontage, 1854 in Bombay, followed by societies - Sundaram, Vivan. 2006 Re-take of Amrita. Indian artists look almost exclusively gelatin silver print, - in 1856 in Calcutta and Madras - were Sepia International and The Alkazi Collec- to Euro-American photographers for watercolour, & gold, central in the early decades to establish- tion: New York precedence. This has some parallels c. 1900. ing information networks through their with past and current debates within the Courtesy of The meetings and journals and encouraging - Thomas, G. 1981 History of Photography: contemporary art field in India, leading Alkazi Collection of an exchange of queries and responses India 1840-1940. Andhra Pradesh State in particular to questions over identity Photography. from the members. Academi of Photography: Pondicherry that have been raised by artists as well as by critics. Today in India, contemporary photo- www.bl.uk graphic practice faces the same dilem- www.sepia.org Photographic Connections fig. 6: Unknown pho- mas as it does anywhere else in the The last few years have been remark- tographer, possibly world. With the recent re-branding of Notes ably fruitful with more publications Nicholas & Co. Kot- photography as ‘contemporary art’, we 1 Exhibition held at Sepia International Inc., and exhibitions tackling diverse aspects tayam, Syrian Church are now in danger of establishing a two- New York, 22 November 2002 - 11 January of this extraordinarily rich subject. The with the priest Mar tiered system in which anything not 2003. efforts of Sabeena Gadihoke to explore Dionysius standing on deemed worthy of the contemporary art 2 Exhibition held at Sepia International Inc., the work of Homai Vyarawalla (b.1913), the stone. From Lady description is regarded as second-class. New York, 10 May 12 July 2003. which began in Gadihoke ‘s documen- Napier’s Tour of Tra- Those photographers, or ‘camera art- tary film Three Women and a Camera vancore Album. Albu- ists’, promoted to an international level Sophie Gordon (1989), have culminated in a substantial men print, c. 1868. have their work displayed in major gal- Curator, Royal Photograph Collection publication that presents Vyarawalla‘s The Royal Collection leries and museums such as Tate Mod- [email protected] entire output, while focusing in depth (c) 2007 HM Queen ern, and their prints are sold in con- on her work as a photojournalist. There Elizabeth II temporary art auctions at Sotheby‘s and has also been a publication dealing with (RCIN 2701525). Christie‘s (rather than in photography

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 1 1 Asia’s Colonial Photographies Side Streets of History: A Dutchman’s stereoscopic views of colonial Vietnam

Jan George Mulder, a salesman from Haarlem, left a legacy of over 2000 stereo photographs, more than half originating from his time in French colonial Indochina. Yet not one of them contains a caption or even a hint about the contents. What’s more, Mulder’s life in Vietnam remains something of a mystery. John Kleinen immersed himself in this unique collection, determined to learn more about the images and the man behind them.

John Kleinen est people in Vietnam. An almost visible ‘colour line’ existed in Haiphong. This here is little in the collection of pho- was institutionalised in the colonial grid Ttographs that Jan George Mulder of the town planning, with separate (1869-1922) left to his family that pro- quarters for Vietnamese, Chinese and vides direct information about his life Europeans. The Chinese were treated as in Vietnam. What we do know about foreign nationals or ‘Eastern foreigners’. the man is gleaned from archival docu- Part of an international link between ments, secondary sources and account the port of Hong Kong and Haiphong, books that he kept after 1908 on his their presence was tolerated as long as return to the Netherlands. Mulder was it benefited French business. an employee of the German firm Spei- del & Co that began operating in Indo- The colonial city, which still had a china in the 1880’s. He travelled to Asia number of empty spaces at the time at the age of 35 and in 1904, started Mulder lived there, resembled a quiet, to sell lamp oil (kerosene) for the Asi- slumbering French provincial town. The atic Petroleum Company (APC) in the best-known locations were the Hotel du remote harbour town of Haiphong. Commerce, a meeting place for bach- APC was the marketing company for elors and European prostitutes, and the two emergent giants in the oil busi- Hotel de Marseille, near Speidel’s office. ness, Shell Transport & Trading Co. Though tourism was not yet developed, and Royal Dutch. From 1904 to 1908, the hotels served those travellers who Mulder used a Gaumont Stéréospido used Haiphong as a stop-over before to photograph his work environment boarding ships to destinations in Asia or (offices and outside settings), scenes Europe. Mulder’s own travels remained from his private life, as well as outings confined to an occasional visit to Hanoi to several places. Mulder’s photographs and once to Angkor Wat. Boats were are mainly stereoscopic images on glass the primary method of transport, and plates and depict cities, harbours, land- Mulder used the river during his few scapes and a number of human subjects trips to Hanoi, where he photographed whose identities remain unknown. The the Pont Doumer, the busy waterfront result is a large number of fascinating if J.G. Mulder at home with a servant. The chamber servant (boy) was also responsible for fanning the room, with a punkah, a large frame covered with cloth and the Hoan Kiem Lake. somewhat enigmatic images of colonial and suspended from the ceiling. Haiphong and its surroundings, none Judging from his images, Mulder was of which contains a single caption or tography. A visit to the World Exhibi- site, with a newly erected hospital for British Chartered Bank. He soon moved most interested in the Vietnamese any textual information about what is tion in Paris in 1900 probably induced the French Navy and local government to a private house at the corner of the countryside where he visited com- pictured. him to buy the expensive Stéréospido, staff, and other major projects under- Canal Bonnal and the Rue de Cher- munal houses, temples and pagodas, which was aggressively promoted by way. The municipality was represented bourg. Using his Stéréospido, Mulder and where he went duck hunting. He Mulder’s photographs - stereoscopic Gaumont. by a tribunal, a Chamber of Commerce created a visual memory for his rela- favoured outings to the Bay of Ha Long views - were produced using a technol- and a local branch of the Banque de tives in the Netherlands. His record of and the beach at Do Son (20 kilometres ogy that had lost its once exalted posi- Haiphong l’Indochine. The population numbered Haiphong includes the Chinese quar- from Haiphong). This fishing village tion. These views were made by mount- The gate to the Red River delta was the about 18,000 Vietnamese and 6000 ter, the streets near his house, the port was originally a centre for blue water ing two photographs side-by-side. They port of Hai Phong, which means ‘the Chinese. A minority of about 1000 area and the surrounding countryside, fishing. Soon it would serve as the appear three-dimensional when viewed Guardian of the Sea’. Traditionally, a Europeans, mainly French men and including the embryonic beach resort ‘Deauville of Haiphong’. About 3000 through a stereoscope. They enjoyed lucrative trade in silk, tea and textiles a few women, occupied the European of Do Son. He also photographed the workers readied the dirt road to Do Son tremendous popularity but around the extended as far as Yunnan in southern quarter. Mulder’s compatriot, Hendrik storage area located at the entrance to for cars. A local transport entrepreneur, time Mulder was photographing, the China. Haiphong soon became home Muller, described the town in his Azië the harbour, which contained lamp oil A. Bertrand, promoted his private taxi picture postcard was taking over as the to a small French enclave and gradually gespiegeld (Asia Mirrored, 1908) as hav- tins and large oil tanks inscribed with service, while the city council designed preferred format of photographic repre- grew to include a number of villages ing no quayside yet, and “seen from the company names APC and Speidel a tramway, which was completed after sentation. Nevertheless, Mulder chose along the main river, the Cua Cam. the river it looks unimportant, but as & Co. Mulder had left the country. Mulder to make stereoscopic views and his cam- This Quartier Indigène was preceded soon as one enters, it is very hospita- used Bertrand’s taxi service extensively, era, a robust Gaumont Stéréospido, and by a harbour area where small storage ble. Along the excellent, paved roads, Mulder’s pictures of himself seated or but more colourful was a local service a stereoscope have survived together facilities and a customs house were lined with small trees and pavements, travelling with Chinese traders are fasci- of human porters who carried European with the glass plates. Mulder’s choice of built. In 1884, the former French rési- are tall, beautiful houses built of brick nating. These compradores distributed tourists and rich Vietnamese around in equipment is surprising given that he dent and mayor of Hanoi, Raoul Bon- and plastered in French style”. Jan the lamp oil throughout the Delta. One bamboo sedans. was from a family of photographers and nal, built a European quarter. In 1904, George Mulder had his office along the of them, a Vietnamese entrepreneur would have had extensive knowledge the year that J.G.Mulder arrived, the busy Rue Paul Bert, in a building Spei- who had entered the maritime trade, The so-called Les Porteuses de Do Son about the latest developments in pho- city of Haiphong resembled a building del & Co shared with a branch of the was reputedly one of the four wealthi- attracted the attention of Mulder’s lens

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Mulder and a colleague in a sedan chair carried to the beach and Harbour estuary with river sampans on the foreground. The steamship Vietnamese housekeeper clad in brown silk tunic (ao nam than). A silver surrounded by the ‘Porteuses de Do Son’. belonged to the fleet of Chargeurs Réunis. necklace adorned with dragon motives completes the dress. as well as those of local postcard producers, who also distributed prints of scantily clad fisherwomen. The Porteuses looked like singers of popular chansons (quan ho or ca tru) and were dressed in brightly coloured gauze tunics in rich purples and deep reds with multi-coloured ribbons and flattened round hats. The atmosphere of the photographs evokes a Vietnamese version of Manet’s Le Dejeuner sur L’Herbe.

Life in the Tropics Haiphong’s community of non-French Europeans was small. At the turn of the century, the city counted just 100 ‘aliens’. Mulder’s colleagues were mainly Germans working for Speidel & Co. Mulder was a bachelor but a Vietnam- ese housekeeper ran his household, and posed proudly for the camera on the house’s doorstep. Her long-tailed silk robe and silver hanger indicate Stereoscopic photograph of Vietnamese babysitter (amah) in traditional dress with hair turban (khan giai) and white tunic (ao ban than) her important household position. The stereoscopic views give only a superfi- gate the cyclo driver. They belonged to after uprisings in central Vietnam and ied in his photographs are presumed cial glimpse of colonial life. The names the underclass, pejoratively called nha- attempts to poison the garrison of Hanoi here, but we cannot know with cer- of the many men and women that fig- que (bumpkin or peasant). in June 1908. Mulder, who must have tainty what he perceived or projected. ure in these photographs are unknown. witnessed or at least known about these As Roland Barthes has said, “whether But there is indeed a sense that ‘tropi- When Mulder returned home from events, returned to Europe and married. or not it is triggered, it is an addition: cal time’ - slower than European time Haiphong in 1908, he left a place He had earned a fortune at Speidel’s it is what I add to the photograph and - ticked languidly away in the images. where the modern history of Vietnam firm, which enabled him to emigrate to what is nonetheless already there”. Not The degree of slowness is embodied in had started to take shape. In that year, the US in 1910. He founded a farming being remembered at all: that is the fate the relaxed way these people posed for the first of a series of nationalist activi- community in Virginia inspired by the of most of the people in Mulder’s imag- the camera in white suits and their fes- ties started a string of anti-colonialist Dutch socialist, writer and psychiatrist es. The memorialisation of Mulder’s tive outfits, while they are drinking, eat- revolts. The backdrop was provided by Frederik van Eeden, who, inspired by Haiphong years is not a way of reviving ing or enjoying an activity, the precise the emerging modernisation of Viet- Henry David Thoreau’s Walden, estab- the past, but facing a future in which nature of which is unclear to the viewer. namese culture and influenced by the lished a communal cooperative in Bus- that very past is forgotten. < The extended act of remembrance is stunning Japanese victory over Russia sum, North Holland. This idea, similar taken over by nostalgia. in May 1905. Patriotic scholars organ- to one adopted by reformist scholars John Kleinen ised schools free of colonial supervi- in Vietnam, was that residents would University of Amsterdam Mulder showed a clear interest in his sion, such as the Free School of Tonkin be self-sufficient, sharing everything [email protected] native personnel, represented by the (Dông Kinh Nghia Thuc), and organised in common. Like Van Eeden’s experi- amah, seated next to a European baby, cooperatives and places of work where a ments and the ill-fated cooperatives of his housekeeper and a number of Viet- new generation of Vietnamese could be the Vietnamese, Mulder’s plans failed. * This is an abbreviated version of an essay that John Kleinen wrote for a collection of Mulder’s namese domestic staff. Their Tonki- prepared for a peaceful independence. After his return to the Netherlands, he stereo photos: J.G. Mulder. Zijstraten van de geschiedenis - De wereld rond 1900 in stereofoto’s. nese clothes signify that they were part The colonial administration’s toler- invested in Imperial Russian Railways Amsterdam, De Verbeelding, 2006, ISBN 90 74159 96 8. A longer version was presented at a of a rich European household. Outside, ance for the modernisation movement bonds and was eventually left bankrupt. recent Conference on Vietnam’s early modernisation in Aix-en-Provence, May 3-5, 2007. there is the gardener, and in front of the was short lived and promptly vanished He died in 1922. His memories embod-

J.G. Mulder having a meal with three Chinese Storage for lamp oil, brand Crown Oil, produced by Shell or Dutch European quarter of Haiphong with the Hotel de Marseille and the Hotel compradores at their office. Petroleum and distributed by APC through Speidel & Co. de l’Europe (today the Huu Nghi Hotel) in the background.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 1 3 Asia’s Colonial Photographies

Photographic Encounters in the Philippines, 1898 - 1910

At the end of the Spanish-American War, Spain ceded the Philippine Islands to the United States. The U.S. engaged in a three-year war against the Filipinos, who fought fiercely for their independence, and in 1902 it took possession of a country half a world away.

Melissa Banta “Two wounded insur- rom photographs published in U.S. gents in tent hospital Fgovernment surveys, anti-impe- on the First Reserve rialist literature, newspapers, travel grounds, 1899”. memoirs, and textbooks, a picture of the Philippines at the end of the 19th century began to emerge. Not a single view but a multiplicity of narratives. These images, assembled from varied contexts, reveal diverse perspectives of the Filipino-American encounter that took place over 100 years ago.

The early period of American-Filipino relations remains a relatively lost chapter in world history. “The undercurrents of imperialism and its consequences - identity and alienation, redemption and guilt, loyalty and betrayal,” notes professor Terry Oggel, “[are] conflicts “Negrito man, type 3, and Dean Worcester, show- exacerbated by suppression, not only in ing relative size. Full length front view, 1900”. the United States but in the Philippines, too.” Recent scholarship, including Ves- The insightful Displaying Filipinos vive as jarring reminders of the colonial rial message, a raging public debate and soldiers and civilians. At the time, oppo- tiges of War: The Philippine-American by Benito M. Vergara, Jr. explores, in enterprise in which they were created. wide-ranging views concerning the war nents of U.S. military action included War and the Aftermath of an Imperial particular, photography and its use in From these highly publicised pictures, and subsequent American occupation not only Filipinos, but also members of Dream, 1899-1999, edited by Angel support of an imperial ideology. The Americans began to form an impres- were also being expressed in words and the American Anti-Imperialist League, Velasco Shaw and Luis H. Francia, and objectifying, de-humanising quality of sion of the Philippines and develop a pictures. The Philippine-American War, African-Americans sympathetic to the White Love and Other Events in Filipino thousands upon thousands of mug-shot consciousness of the role of the U.S. as which began in 1898, was a brutal gueril- cause of Filipino independence, and History by Vicente Rafael, represent portraits of Filipinos taken in the early an occupying power. la conflict that lasted over three years and European observers. Photographs and notable efforts to retrace and repossess 1900s under the auspices of the U.S. resulted in over 6,000 U.S. casualties political cartoons depicting the conflict this history. Bureau of Science, for example, sur- At that time, despite the strident impe- and the deaths of over 220,000 Filipino figured in pro- and anti-war literature, newspapers, textbooks, and even fictional accounts that portrayed the campaign variously as a heroic military duty or a needless carnage.

Benevolent assimilation President McKinley’s doctrine of ‘benevolent assimilation’ - ‘to educate the Filipinos, and uplift them and civi- lize and Christianize them’ - provided the moral justification for the U.S.’s eventual annexation of the country. The first task, explained Howard Taft, then director of the Philippine Commis- sion, would entail gathering data of the ‘social and industrial conditions of the people, as the basis for intelligent legis- lative action.’ Dean Worcester, Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines from 1901 to 1913, took nearly 5,000 photographs (with the assistance of photog- “Moro boy, type 1. Son of Datu Batarasa, with “Bontoc Igorots in raphers and other anthropologists) on Governor E. Y. Miller, 1905”. automobile, 1904”. surveys sponsored by the U.S. Bureau

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“Bontoc Igorot entering service, 1901”.

All photographs courtesy of the PeabodyPlease Museum note of that Archaeology for historical and Ethnology, accuracy, Harvard all photograph Museum. captions are reproduced as they originally appeared. “After a year’s service, 1902”. “After two years service. 1903”.

of Science. A professor of zoology at the “Tagalog man, clean- highly stylised images, taken in elabo- University of Michigan, Worcester was ing a hardwood floor, rate studios in Manila, reveal the man- well versed in the process of scientific 1900”. ner in which the Filipino elite chose to data gathering. In makeshift field studi- represent themselves. os, he photographed and classified hundreds of unnamed Filipinos according In recent years, a number of contem- to evolutionary ideas of the day, ranking porary Filipino artists have returned to them on a hierarchical scale from sav- images created during the American age to civilised. occupation. Through a variety of inven- tive approaches, they have appropriated Series of before-and-after shots of Filipi- historic photographs into their work nos transformed ‘from their nakedness as a means of understanding the past and headhunting into constabulary and exploring their national identity. uniforms and baseball’ served as docu- Historic photographs continue to illu- mentary proof of ‘successful’ Ameri- minate the broader complexities of the can reforms. Worcester’s photographs American-Filipino relationship, and and anthropological findings, which examination of the varied uses of the appeared in the extensive publications medium over time reveal the dynamic of the Philippine Commission and in and shifting intersection of anthropol- histories written by Worcester, played ogy, politics and public perception. < a persuasive role in supporting U.S. Invaders and Resisters, acrylic on paper, 1980, policies ranging from economic devel- by Ben Cabrera. Courtesy of the artist. Melissa Banta opment to the question of Filipino inde- Harvard University pendence. Images taken by Worcester venues, an extensive body of literature tion expressed its own nuanced view of Snapshots of polo games, country club [email protected] and others on government surveys about the islands was being produced. American imperialism. galas, Filipino servants, and children later appeared in magazines (including Among these accounts, which were with Filipino nannies offer a striking National Geographic) and newspapers. often illustrated with photographs, Images in personal albums of U.S. contrast to the stark government pho- “The average American knew almost were political pieces, travel memoirs, administrators also fill out the picture of tographic records. Another view of the nothing about [the Philippines],” a as well as novels written by Western early American occupation by revealing Filipinos emerges in photographs of travel writer wrote in 1907, “until the travellers, teachers, missionaries, and a rare and intimate view into colonial the intellectual and professional class, newspapers and magazines began to diplomats and their wives. Often illus- life experienced by government officials many of whom were prominent Philip- educate him.” trated with photographs, each publica- and their families living on the islands. pine civic and business leaders. These

At the St. Louis World’s Fair in 1904, where over 1,000 Filipinos (including Negritos, Igorots, Moros, and Visayans) were showcased in a recreated village situated on a 47-acre site, fairgoers could see government photographs exhibited as well as purchase illustrated guide- books. Over time, however, these widely published portrayals earned Worcester the distrust of both Filipinos and a growing number of Americans. “Ask the average man on an American street what his impression of the Filipinos is and he will describe the naked dog-eating Igorote,” the New York Evening Post reported in 1913. “The man responsible for the inaccurate conception is Dean C. Worcester.” “Blas Villamor and his wife, 1906”. Personal accounts and “Two professional political views Moro dancing girls, In addition to government-sponsored 1901”.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 1 5 Asia’s Colonial Photographies Postcards from the Edge of Empire: Images and Messages from French Indochina

Postcards from French colonies are sold today as nostalgic evocations of a vanished world. The erotic, opium- infused images of Indochina have been particularly popular since the elegant fiction of exotic utopia they depict was carefully constructed to justify the colonial enterprise1

(1) (Card #68 Una Bayadere Annamite: Sor- Janet Hoskins like the 2617 postcards in the Getty Cul- Postcards were the public emblem of tie de bain d ‘une jeune femme annamite) tural Exchanges Archive, suggests that colonial travel, and the preferred form The text, composed on April 17, 1908, reads olonial postcards are often pub- we need to return them to the dialogical of correspondence for overseas resi- on top of the image “Ni formes, ni couleurs! Clished and critiqued for their racist context in which they were first sent. dents of all classes. Printed both as part Rien de beau chez elle!” (“No form and no and propagandistic content, but the eth- Rather than reading them as aspects of imperial propaganda efforts (Mac- colour! Nothing beautiful about her!”) On nographic value of the postcard has been of a totalising ‘colonial gaze’, we par- Kenzie 1984) and church-based mis- the back: “My dear Jane, I prefer to send neglected, as has the content of the mes- ticularise the gaze, and recognise subtle sionary societies (Mathur 1966), their you a few examples of this stunning col- sages printed on the other side. Includ- variations in its content. The caption main use was in personal communica- lection. You will thus be able to judge for ing messages in the analysis amplifies offers an official guide to interpreting tion. Their messages provide us with a yourself the women who are represented on and complicates the visual tendency the image, but the scribbled message is diaristic form of note-jotting, reflecting these cards: I agree with you: these yellow to stereotype, exoticise and, at times, more personal, telling the reader “this on the daily grind, the experiences of skins do not appeal to me at all! Oh, when demonise. There is sometimes a syn- is what you should think when you look feeling lost or disoriented, and - most will I be able to see again the pale faces of ergistic consonance between image and at this card”. It simulates, across a great interestingly - the projection of inner the pretty women in France!” The eroticized message, at other times an unconscious, separation of time and place, the expe- feelings onto exotic others, the use of image is a way of flirting and teasing the ironic or metaphoric dissonance. rience of gazing together at the same visual images as foil for comments both young woman it is addressed to, giving image, and offers us data to historicise sardonic and occasionally sincere. her a frisson of the temptations of the A reading of colonial postcards from the reception of these cards in a colonial Orient, while apparently assuring her of the both sides, especially large collections context. The signatures on many cards The first French postcards were printed writer ’s fidelity. are illegible but the addresses are not, in 1873, and in French Indochina the so the best analytic angle open to us is a first series of cards was published in ‘reception study’ - looking at the cards 1900 by François-Henri Schneider and (2) Tattouer au travail from the perspective of the readers, Raphael Moreau of Hanoi (Franchini Another card out of 11 sent to the same Jane as consumers of the colonial spectacle and and Ghesquière 2001: 220). Within a (1) repeats the theme of nudity and flirtation, by listeners to distant confessions. This year, they had published 3000 cards, showing a scene of naked pain with the cheery focus offers us a more nuanced and and soon a competition developed with greeting (“I wish you many joys! And you?”) with complex perspective on how postcards Pierre Dieulefils, a retired military on the back an elaborate description of how the are gendered, as they move from pre- officer in Tonkin, who issued more than skin is decorated (dated July 10, 1908): “They dominantly male senders in Indochina 5000 post cards from 1902 to 1925 (Vin- use a long piece of bamboo which becomes a (71% of those in the Getty collection) to cent 1997). The photographer is not very fine needle. How much they must suffer! predominantly female addressees (59% always known or acknowledged on the But they are disciplined to accept it, and perhaps of those whose addressee could be gen- cards, but the Saigon firms of August a quarter of those people we see do have their dered). Nicolier and later Salin-Vidal published bodies decorated with tattoos in this fashion.” Commentators of the period referred to many early photographs by Émile Gsell postcard collecting as a ‘feminine vice’ (Franchini and Ghesquière 2001: 224). (Naomi Schor 1994: 262), and women Several Chinese photographers (Tong were major donors of museum collec- Sing, Pun-Lun,Yu Cong) and one Viet- (3) Types d ‘Extreme Orient tions and published announcements in namese (Phan Chau Trinh, an exiled Racial differences and racial stereotypes were exchange journals (Mathur 1999: 112). nationalist) were well known, although a common theme of postcards of this era, such The postcard was the very example of their photographs were sometimes as this portrait of three types (races) identified the feminine collectible (Schor 1994: rejected from official colonial publica- as the Annamite (Vietnamese), Malabar (India) 262), but the activity of sending cards tions (Franchini and Ghesquière 2001: and Chinois (China), followed by the comment encompassed both genders and many 241). (dated February 26 1906) “Ce sont les trois races different subject positions in colonial qui dominent ici, et elles se valent bien!” (“These society, from simple soldiers and house- The French community in Indochina are the three races which are dominant here, and wives to elite commanders and ladies of was tiny, estimated at between 25,000 not one of them is worth more than the other!“) leisure. Opening family albums which and 42,000 at its peak in 1940, which display the images but conceal the mes- was roughly 0.2 percent of the total sages provides the scholar with the population. At the turn of the century, transgressive thrill of lifting them out almost all French citizens in Indochi- of their plastic slots and indulging in na were born in France, and the vast the guilty pleasure of reading someone majority expected to return there, so (4) Une horizontale Annnamite else ‘s mail. they tended to see themselves as exiles The Pigeon French phrase “chi trouve 2ième rather than settlers. While Indochina femme pour Jean, beaucoup jolie!” ( “I ‘ll find The colonial postcard, which had its was far from France both spatially and you a pretty second wife!“) mimes invitations heyday in the first two decades of the conceptually, its elaborate temples and from local touts. The locker room tone of 20th century, came to represent both exotic culture made it ‘the pearl of the this card and several others recalls Alloulla ‘s the technological triumphs of western Extreme Orient’ (a rival to British India analysis of The Colonial Harem cards printed in photography (printing and mass pro- ‘s ‘jewel in the crown’), and it was pro- North Africa (Alloulla 1989). duction) and the political triumphs of moted as the most civilised, as well as European conquest and expansion. the most profitable, of the colonies.

1 6 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Asia’s Colonial Photographies

(6) Charette de Buffle A postcard of rice fields from Tonkin bears this message for Eugenie: “Thank you for your sign of affection. I am glad to see you haven ‘t forgotten me. It is useless to tell you how my life has become sweeter here, here one can live like a landlord, and the climate is healthy which is very appreciated. We are getting along marvelously, my little doll as well, though she has become a real devil. At this instant she is on the veranda with her congaie playing the tamtam (annamite music). At least the time is passing and my daughter is growing up without causing me too much trouble.” The message of European comfort and prosperity is directly juxtaposed to the products of native labour.

Few of the writers of the belle epoque uniquely suited to the world of photog- domesticates it, as does the picture expressed a desire to spend the rest of raphy. Erotic images (figs. 1, 2, 4, and 5) of the native woman in his (western- their lives in what seemed a remote out- make up about a quarter of the whole, ised) home. A ‘hot rabbit’(lapin chaud post of a far-flung empire. Some were followed by scenes of daily life (3, 6, 7, in French slang) designates an ardent bored, depressed and homesick, while 9) and landscapes or street scenes (8). lover, while one who ‘leaves behind others found their adventurous travels Sardonic jokes and cheery greetings a rabbit’ (poser un lapin) has jilted his exciting, interesting and challenging. inscribed in the front image are often beloved and gone his own way. The As a group, they were wealthy and had paired with painful confessions on the rabbit, which lives both in the wild and great economic power, since they con- back (5, 8). captivity, and is both eaten and kept as a trolled the most sizeable French colo- pet, is a crucial image of the transition nial economy after Algeria ‘s (Brocheux One couple in Hanoi, Paul and Berte from conquest to concubinage, from and Hemery 1995: 310). As individuals, Ullman, received over 70 postcards penetration to cohabitation. The writer however, many were poor and plagued from former houseguests, another identifies with the rabbit, an animal by debt and disease, often asking rela- (5) La Japanaise Oki Kon couple who lived in Laos from 1904 to known both for its sexual assertiveness tives in Europe for financial assistance. Repulsion mixes with attraction again in this image of a Japanese courtesan 1908. Mr. Ullman was an engineer and and for its cuddliness, but also one not Dysentery and malaria were endemic, baring her breast, inscribed with the local gossip: she was killed by a jeal- the Chief of Public Works in Hanoi. usually associated with long term fidel- and cholera was an intermittent threat ous client . The back text says: Saigon 8 November. “My old buddy boy The sender is a railroad official near- ity. It miniaturises the colonial experi- to public health. Colonial nostalgia has (vieux potaux), You know the punishment that I received at the infirmary ing retirement who writes that he is ence into one of comforting familiarity, come to cloak the region in a fog of dark when you left Saigon, the Colonel changed that into 15 days in prison. After depressed and tired. He feels homesick but reminds the reader of the fact that romanticism, epitomised by the cliché that I went back into the hospital for hot piss and cystitus. and believes he is cursed with bad luck the writer will someday leave his part- of an opium-inspired reverie, in which When I get out I will send news of our pals.” The women are presented by (#7:J‘ai toujours le guigne qui me pour- ner ‘rabbit’ (the native woman) behind naked concubines and noble savages implication as a possible source of his infection, perhaps during an unau- suit), He worries about his health and to return to France. < float around on sampans, drifting across thorized leave taken in the company of the male addressee. his finances and declares he has no taste the bay of Ha Long. Postcard messages, to stay on in Indochina. His wife, on the Notes: while they often comment sardonically other hand, describes life as wild and 1 Norindr, Panivong, 1996. Phantasmatic on these themes, also move us away full of charm, and is enthusiastic about Indochina: French Colonial Ideology in from remembered delights to everyday the beauty of the countryside, local fes- Architecture, Film and Literature. Durham, concerns, and show us a population not tivals, women‘s hairstyles and theatri- North Carolina: Duke University Press. merely reflecting on a lost past but grap- cal performances. He finds the weather Morton, Patricia, 2000. Hybrid Moderni- pling with present concerns. exhausting (énervant), while she finds it ties: Architecture and Representation at the invigorating (température idéale). Their 1931 Colonial Exposition, Paris. Cambridge, It is my argument that the interior- child becomes tanned and healthy from Mass: MIT Press. ity of the coloniser is often made vis- the mother‘s perspective, but tired and ible through images of the colonised. (7) Enfants mois vulnerable from the father’s. He sends References Although racial stereotyping remains “My dear little friend, Please hug your father and 26 cards, all of them rather restrained part of the picture, there is also a more mother and tell them that next Sunday I have to and respectful, to the man who may Brocheux, Pierre and Daniel Hemery subtle process of seeking out the mys- go off on a hunting expedition among the gentle- be his employer. She sends 43 cards, 1995 Indochine: la colonisation amigue 1858- teries of the ‘natives’ and using this men who live on the other side. Big kisses to my filled with a large, loquacious script, to 1954 (Paris: la Decouverte). peculiar world as a mirror to reflect little Georges.” Naked ethnic minority children the woman she describes as her dear upon aspects of their own lives. In 1854, holding cross bows are sent to a young friend confidant. They seem to inhabit two Franchini, Philippe and Jerôme Ghesquière, Oliver Wendell Holmes described pho- or relative with news of a visit to their territory very different countries - hers is utterly eds. tography as the mirror with a memory, a by the writer, underlining an implied contrast enchanting, while his is repugnant. 2001 Des Photographes en Indochine: Tonkin, new technology that reflected one‘s past between the lives of children in France and Annam, Cochinchine, Cambodge et Laos to oneself. What he failed to understand Indochina. The transition from a glorified, mas- au XIXième Siècle. Paris: Réunion des was that the heyday of popular photog- culinist age of conquest (which in Musées Nationaux. raphy and postcards coincided with the Indochina corresponds to the turn heyday of empire. Holmes‘s mirror of the 20th century) to a tamer, more MacKenzie, John encompassed colonised peoples and bourgeois form of settler colonialism 1984 Propaganda and Empire: The Manipu- lands, whose frozen images would pro- (9) Les bonzes a la pagode is not only denied in French colonial lation of British Public Opinion 1880- vide alternative selves through which (dated December 11, 1916) Back text: “What can postcard images, it is the motivation for 1960, Manchester University Press. colonial residents might search for their we hope for if not the end of this cruel war and their miniature format. Susan Stewart own reflections. that God will keep us in good health! I hope that observes that “The miniature, linked to Mathur, Saloni the end of all that is near, and that soon God nostalgic versions of childhood and his- 1996 Re-visualising the Missionary Subject: The postcard writers had a variety of will tell you that we should all come together tory, presents a diminutive, and thereby History, Modernity and Indian Women. reactions to the images, and while we to cry and pray together for those who have so manipulable, version of experience, a Third Text. v. 37 (winter) : 53-63. do not know very much about them as courageously given their lives for the country version which is domesticated and pro- 1999 Wanted Native Views: Collecting colo- individuals, we can contexualise their and for God!” Christian prayers are invoked with tected from contamination“ (1993: 69). nial postcards of comments and try to understand them the image of Buddhist monks, in a text showing Similarly, the postcard image embodies for what they are - part of a process of more identification than distance. many potentially troubling aspects of Schor, Naomi mirroring and projection, which is colonial life, such as racial inequality, 1994 Collecting Paris. In J. Elsner and R. sexuality, violence and, at least for the Cardinal, eds. The Cultures of Collect- writer, transforms what might other- ing, Cambridge: Harvard University (8) Repas annamite, wise be threatening and overwhelming Press, p. 252-74. The front of this card says in misspelled Eng- into something small, endearing, and lish, “What a joye!” while the back describes (to exotic. Stewart, Susan a daughter studying in London) the “dirty and 1993 On Longing: Narratives of the Mini- disgusting” foods that local people eat. This “I let myself live between fierce ani- ature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the card comes from a long series sent by this man mals and forests”, one writer tells us Collection. Durham: Duke University to both his son and his daughter, with a clearly on the back of a card showing a Viet- Press. gendered selection of images - cooking, theater namese woman in a rocking chair, troops and village scenes for his daughter, mili- adding that “here there is much wild Vincent, Thierry tary fortifications, ethnic minority warriors and game and wild lovemaking, and there 1997 Pierre Dieulefils: Photographe d ‘Indo- soldiers for his son. are also rabbits.”His reference to a chine. Gignac-la-Nerthe: Borel et Fer- soft furry small and decidely benign aud. animal familiar to him from his childhood ‘downsizes’ the exotic menacing wildness of his surroundings, and also

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 1 7 > Research Chinese performing arts: from communist to globalised kitsch

While Chinese authorities closely monitor artists, artistic venues and performances, they give free rein to commercial culture as long as stability, prosperity and consumerism are sustained. The result, given China’s blistering urban economic growth, is that commercial pressure, more than government restriction, determines the conditions of cultural production and export. This has led to a kind of mass production of the art and culture the state approves of and a snuffing out of what it does not. This is how Chinese communist kitsch has transformed into a kitsch of globalised capitalism.

Dragan Klaic ment. Commercial pressure is more risk being banned but are sometimes detrimental and threatens to curb artis- allowed to carry on for a few evenings. he Chinese economic boom is what tic innovation, harm cultural heritage Foreign embassies, whose cultural Tinterests most foreign observers, and favour the production and export departments occasionally bring art- politicians and investors. They know of a limited range of uniform cultural ists from abroad to work with Chinese much less about shifts in cultural goods in place of multifaceted forms of peers outside state institutions, com- production and distribution, though international cultural cooperation. The plain of the bureaucratic labyrinths but state control over freedom of expres- capitalist frenzy, with its thousands of are reluctant to trespass the ambiguous sion is the most frequently discussed construction sites, ugly office buildings limits of an expanding grey area of cre- topic. Google, for example, has been and shopping centres, rules the Beijing ativity that is neither explicitly banned criticised by its users for bowing to Chi- urban landscape. Ostentatious advertis- nor permitted. Yet it is precisely in that na’s restrictions on links to ‘sensitive’ ing is a ubiquitous eyesore, as though realm where radical and innovative Chi- websites, while last year’s ban on the communist kitsch has been smoothly nese artists dwell, testing the bounda- performance of the Chinese-language transformed into an equally ghastly cap- ries of the possible and expanding the version of The Vagina Monologues in italist sort. Popular commercial culture zone of experimentation. Shanghai struck some as an interven- imagery, chiefly Japanese and Ameri- tion of old-fashioned prudishness. Such can, dominates the public space. Besides ‘unlicenced’ events in aban- incidents attract international attention, doned factories and construction sites, but they also trivialise the complex cir- Less visible are all the government rare site-specific performances, even cumstances and changes in cultural bodies that have established their own on crowded pedestrian overpasses and policy that remain hidden from public companies for cultural production, dis- normally busy roads, are occasion- scrutiny. tribution and mediation. Many govern- ally licenced. Audiences gather mainly ment-subsidised cultural organisations thanks to information communicated A tsunami of commercialism behave like commercial enterprises only by popular websites, text messages Government control over culture or have created for-profit business or word of mouth. Otherwise scarce remains oblique, unsystematic and units. Artists, managers, teachers and media attention might signal more unpredictable, yet censorship is not the researchers, as well as present or former interest for prestigious and commercial main impediment to artistic develop- government and party functionaries, programmes, but occasionally it’s the have also established their own com- result of a government effort to margin- mercial companies; with an unabashed alise a ‘sensitive’ production into ano- [advertisement] hard-sell rhetoric of hyperbole, they nymity. Meanwhile, some unlicenced offer services in event management, performances, that manage to see the program development, art export, the light of day, (in fact they tend to happen presentation of foreign works and even at night), and reach the public are clearly ways to circumvent the bureaucratic the work of small cohorts of colleagues stranglehold on licensing. and friends. Thus ten years after the founding of the Beijing Modern Dance Licenced to death Company, contemporary dance is still The entrepreneurial climate has affect- in a pioneering phase and, even in this ed the arts, but those effects and the arts enormous city, attracts a miniscule themselves remain under an oppressive audience as it takes place in a shabby cloud of restrictions and controls. For cultural centre on the periphery. example, all performing arts venues must be licenced, and productions com- Cultural prostitution ing from abroad, from the provinces While the authorities seem eager to or authored by unofficial companies keep tabs on artists, spaces and audienc- operating in Beijing require additional es, much of their controlling impulse is licensing as well. While government probably topical. Capitalism ushered authorisations to perform might not be in the freedom of entrepreneurship. immediately denied, they are not always Along with it came the a new tolerance issued or are repeatedly postponed. For for traditional religious expression after international work, local presenters decades of officially imposed atheism. must submit Chinese translations of Today some worshippers insist on pray- the script, videotape, photographs and ing in public while prostrate or kneeling reviews three months before a sched- and offer sacrifices in Confucian tem- uled performance, then arrange all ples, such as big plastic bottles of cook- logistics not only at great expense but ing oil and thousands of red notebooks without any guarantee that a licence that attest to parental wishes for their will be issued in time. Informal ways children’s academic success. Whole to speed up, circumvent, or otherwise districts around shrines thrive on the expedite the approval process seem to sale of religious paraphernalia. This exist, but for productions not based on a business is tolerated, but government play, such as dance or movement pieces is worried. It sees a surge in religion or for international co-productions with as a challenge to the Communist party Chinese artists, these obscure, heavy- ideological monopoly; thus the topic of handed government review procedures religion is not allowed on the stage and can be insurmountable. neither are references to recent events in China’s history that could cast the In principle, one cannot sell tickets for Communist party record in a negative an unlicenced show or for a show at an light. Pornography, however, is allowed unlicenced venue. Informal compa- to run rampant, spawning a growing nies that temporarily claim or ‘squat’ number of ‘adult’ stores that no long- a performance space and produce lower need to disguise themselves as foot key performances for small audiences and body massage parlours. Again,

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this is tolerated as small business, but The Chinese participants kept ask- is being unleashed in cultural produc- Museums are jazzed up to resemble euros, (and as much as 20,000 euros it would never be allowed to become ing their European colleagues: which tion. Because the government subsidis- theme parks, to peddle ‘antiquity’ to for a masters degree), to cover yearly subject matter for a theatre production. cultural products interest Europeans? es mainly prestigious, traditional cul- tourists and fleece them with souve- tuition fees and their cost of living. Commercial impulses are allowed and What kind of artistic export would tural institutions (such as the National nirs, while cultural heritage renovation The state subsidy has been increased even encouraged, but works of art must be a success? This frequent question Theatre and the National Symphonic is carried out carelessly, because time several times in recent years but the not challenge official ideological ten- implies the readiness of hosts to deliver Orchestra), and invests little in artistic is money and money needs to be made tuition is being charged nevertheless ets. Art is expected to refrain from any it all: Chinese acrobatics, circus, Kung development, the current generation fast. One year before the 2008 Olym- – a common phenomenon everywhere social critique and cannot be allowed to Fu musicals, traditional Beijing opera of young artists is left at the mercy of pics a ban on new construction will in China, making the concept of free expose the gap between the official com- (in a compressed, more easily digested market forces and standards set by the come into force to spare the city from education obsolete, even in elementary munist line and the thriving capitalist form), folk dances, traditional orches- globalised culture industry. They are more dust and rubbish and help make and secondary education. Siemens and reality that includes some problematic tras, even Western classical music. The pushed into serial production – origi- it look clean and tidy. Meanwhile, the other European companies donated features, such as prostitution, pornog- same driven, lightning-quick acumen nality, innovation, artistic integrity and provincial authorities and some richer expensive sound and light equipment raphy and a rapid stratification of the that produces millions of shoes of Ital- vision carry much less leverage and cities want to follow Beijing and Shang- to the Academy, obviously banking on society. ian-like quality at a fraction of the cost are trampled in the rush toward profit. hai’s cultural lead: they dream of their students becoming loyal customers own theme parks and prestigious spec- in their professional career, but some Shanghai observers tell of sudden tacular mass events, willing to invest in teachers have set up factories at the cancellations and postponements of the acquisition of top stars from abroad, outskirts of Beijing and are churning various cultural initiatives since early like Madonna. out unlicenced copies of the same stage 2006. This is probably as a result of a gadgetry. In two years the Academy will silent political purge, culminating in Mass cultural production move to a huge new campus with even the autumn of 2006 with the arrest of In a city as big as Beijing there is not better facilities, some 70 kilometres the Party boss of Shanghai and many much official interest in small-scale outside of Beijing, where a new genera- of his cronies for siphoning municipal cultural infrastructure that will serve tion of artists might be protected from social security funds. That this political artistic development. For example, commercial pressures, but they will also upheaval blocked cultural production is Factory 798 on the north-east periph- be detached from the inspirations and another indication of how much the arts ery was originally an artistic squat but challenges of the metropolis with its remain under government control and now boasts over 200 galleries, some huge contrasts of old and new, rich and how much international cultural coop- exquisite cafés and restaurants and a poor, traditional and fashionable. eration remains dependent on tacit offi- small, well-equipped contemporary cial support. Now, the Shanghai power dance space. The complex thrives on Not that this concerns the state. In infrastructure needs to be reconsolidat- the growing demand from rich Chi- fact, at this point, true artistic developed before the flow of cultural production nese for Chinese art and on the foreign ment isn’t even on the state’s agenda. and ambitious international program- market hyped by international dealers With the Olympics approaching, the ming can start again. and curators. Worse, a corporation, with government is interested primarily in government complicity, could take over continued prosperity and consumer- The Chinese-European Performing the complex, make it even trendier and ism, unperturbed stability and culture Arts Meeting in Beijing, organised in more commercial. In music, perform- as a representation of ideology, national October 2006 by the Informal Euro- ing arts, photography, video, film and glory and successful modernisation. pean Theatre Meetings (IETM) network literature the same commercial impuls- In the meantime, the for-profit cul- (www.ietm.org), allowed European es and corporate approaches loom. ture industry can be as imitative as it theatre and dance professionals to look chooses, while true creativity struggles behind the ornate but clichéd décor of Thus the public interest and artists’ between market pressures and state cul- the Chinese stage and explore its sys- interests are subject to corporate pow- tural policy. < temic features, grasp its socio-economic ers that often collude with government and political environment, examine the bodies and functionaries. The Central Dragan Klaic is a theatre scholar and cultural diversity of its creative work, and under- Academy of Drama Theatre, recently analyst. He teaches arts and cultural policy stand artists’ motivations, aspirations, renovated and well equipped with class- at Leiden University. limitations and frustrations. European rooms and studios, several venues, a [email protected] and Chinese professionals talked about dorm and a canteen, caters to 2,000 stu- their work and questioned each other’s dents who enjoy excellent facilities. But position and priorities. these students must pay 1,000-2,000

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 1 9 > Research What is immediate perception? The Buddhist answer

Is the immediacy of our knowledge an epistemological ideal or merely a psychological reassurance that our senses don’t misguide us? If we disregard immediacy in favour of other means to determine all of our knowledge including sensation, how can we discern sensation from knowledge? Conversely, if we regard immediacy as a physiological event (sense stimulation), how can we prove that it’s part of the cognitive process? Immediacy-related problems arise in any epistemological discourse – Western or Eastern, ancient or modern. What is immediacy according to Buddhist epistemological tradition (pramanavada) represented by Dignaga (480-540) and Dharmakirti (600-660)?

Victoria Lysenko

ccording to the Stanford Encyclo- Apedia of Philosophy (henceforth, the SEP), immediacy requires two criteria: ‘The first one appeals to the idea of inference: something is immediately experienced or is given if the cognitive consciousness of it is not arrived at via any sort of inferential process. The second one appeals to the idea of certainty: something is immediately experienced or given if the awareness of it is certain, incapable of being mistaken’ (BonJour: Fall 2001).

In their disputes with Brahmani- cal thinkers the Buddhists tried to exclude any kind of mental construction (kalpana) from the realm of the immediately given. But, deprived as it is of mental construction, immediate perception becomes automatically incapable of providing any cognitive information about its object. That is why Buddhist thinkers had to prove that immediate perception (pratyaksha), in spite of its non-conceptual character, is still a genuine instrument of knowledge (pramana). How did they manage to reconcile the ‘blindness’ of pure sensation with its being part of the cognitive activity?

Units of becoming The main goal of knowledge from the Buddhist point of view is to know things the way they are (yathabhutam) or to know reality as such (tathata). What then constitutes reality? For the Bud- dhist the essence of reality is imperma- nent (anitya); to exist means to change, because nothing has any endurable essence (anatman). Existence is being reduced to a stream of discrete momentary dharmas.

The term dharmas (in plural form) has no equivalent in Western thought; it has been interpreted in many ways: ‘phenomena’, ‘point-instances’, ‘units of becoming’, ‘properties’, ‘tropes’ etc.. To know reality as it is means to know it as a series of dharmas. For the Buddhist this kind of knowledge is obtained in meditation and has a totally immediate character. In this instruments of valid knowledge (pra- that Dignaga calls samanyalakshana only inasmuch as their epistemology mind-independent or mind-dependent. way immediacy is obviously related to mana) exist: pratyaksha, or perception, – a general characteristic applicable to requires them to be. They even seem As far as immediacy is a kind of inner the religious soteriological perspective and anumana, or inference, and each many objects or distributed over many to feel free to alternate between several experience of mental actuality, it will of the Buddhist tradition, but it is the of them has its own subject matter. instances. Samanyalakshanas, generally conflicting metaphysical standpoints. be natural to accept that svalakshana, immediacy of the common cognitive Pratyaksha deals with what Dignaga translated as ‘universal’, are endurable For example, in most of their works, at least in some of our authors’ texts, is experience that was a subject of epis- calls svalakshanas, literally, that which and not subject to change – for this rea- Dignaga and Dharmakirti adopt a so- regarded as a sort of sense data. temological discourse and controversy characterises itself, a particular charac- son they are regarded by Buddhists as called Sautrantika standpoint, presup- among philosophers of different Indi- teristic or pure particular – something only relatively real (samvrttisat). posing the existence of external objects. Is pratyaksha a cognitive an schools and traditions – Buddhist absolutely unique, singular and, most In other parts of their work, however, event? as well as Brahmanical. important, momentary (kshanika). As The term svalakshana does not easily they shift their ontological frameworks To Dignaga, a pratyaksha (etymologically, svalakshanas are ultimately real (para- lend itself to interpretation. Its under- and move to a Yogacara rejection of ‘before eyes’) is above all an immediate Particulars and universals marthasat) and inexpressible, to experi- standing is still a highly controversial external objects…Commonsensical lev- experience, and its immediacy proves its as subject-matters of ence them means to experience reality matter among scholars. The problem els are introduced for the sake of con- veracity and certainty. This immediacy pratyaksha and anumana as it is. The object of the other pramana, is that its ontological status is quite venience and withdrawn to be replaced is so important that he defines pratyak- According to Dignaga’s major epis- inference (anumana), is constituted ambiguous in our authors’ writings. by higher but more counterintuitive sha through the exclusion of mediacy in temological work Pramanasamuc- by conceptualisations, verbalisations, The reason for this ambiguity was schemes’ (Dreyfus 1997: 49). A choice the form of mental constructions. Thus caya (‘A Collection of Instruments of reflections and other products of men- formulated by George Dreyfus: ‘Dig- of ontological positions is equally appli- he calls it kalpana-apodham, ‘free from Knowledge’, henceforth, PS), only two tal construction (kalpana or vikalpa) naga and Dharmakirti…are ontologists cable to svalakshana: it may be either mental constructions’ (PS: 3c). In this

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way the first criteria of immediacy from form of its object. To exclude the pos- the SEP is strictly observed. sibility of interpreting sarupya in the sense that knowledge may have only If pratyaksha is construed by Buddhists the form of the object, but not its own as a direct experience (anubhava), does form (nirakaravada), we should add to it mean that its immediacy consists in our criteria the self-reflexive character the activity of the sense faculties (indri- (svasamvedama) as a confirmation of ya) or in the contact of the senses with the fact that cognitive event has its own their object (indriya-artha-sannikarsha)? form as well. Buddhists accept neither of these alternatives. That a sense faculty cannot Thus, we can single out six criteria by itself possess cognitive activity was of immediacy from the works of our acknowledged by all Indian epistemolo- authors]: 1) non-inferential character gists (pramanavadins). And the major- (kalpana-apodham), corresponding to ity of Indian philosophers, except Bud- the first point of the SEP definition; dhists, saw in the sense-object contact 2) non-erring character (abhranta), the main condition of sense perception. corresponding to the second point of Why didn’t Buddhists? First, for them SEP definition; 3) instrumentality (pra- not all senses could enter in direct con- manatva) with regard to practical tasks; tact with their objects (they insist on 4) vividness (spashta); 5) congruence non-contactualness of certain senses (sarupya) with its object; and 6) self- – the visual and auditory). Second, pra- reflexive character (svasamvedana). In tyaksha is not necessarily a sense per- this way, an acquaintance with Buddhist ception. Among its manifestations Dig- epistemology may suggest new perspec- naga lists mental perception (manasa tives for our understanding and inter- pratyaksha), yogic perception (during pretation of perceptual immediacy. < meditation) and self-awareness, which have nothing to do with senses. Thus For further reading we could safely say that immediacy of - BonJour, Laurence. Fall 2001. ‘Epistemo- pratyaksha is not reduced to any sort of logical Problems of Perception’. Zalta, direct sense stimulation. Edward N., ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia as a variety of pratyaksha. Literally, exempt from mental construction, does something), for example, a jug, con- of Philosophy. See also: http://plato.stan- Then how is it produced? Dignaga is svasamvedana is a self-awareness, not he mean that the pramana of pratyaksha stitutes two different cognitive events ford.edu/archives/fall2001/entries/per- not clear about this question. Accord- the awareness of the Self as Atman, but is a true cognition? The confirmation that have different contents. One is ception-episprob/>). ing to Dharmakirti, a svalakshana, or the awareness of the cognitive event that pramana is not tightly associated perception without mental construc- particular, possessing its causal func- itself, or self-reflective awareness. Dig- with truth lies in the veridical status of tions, the other is perceptual judgment - Dreyfus, George. 1997. Recognizing Reality. tion (arthakriya), can produce its own naga distinguishes between mental per- anumana (inference). Being a mental somehow caused by this perception Dharmakirtis’s Philosophy and Its Tibetan image or aspect (akara) in our mind. ception of the object, such as colour and operation dealing with mentally con- and assisted by memory. For Dhar- Interpretations. New York: SUNY press. Does it mean that we really apprehend other sense qualities, and self-aware- structed objects, it could not grasp the makirti the perceptual judgment ‘this svalakshana at the moment of percep- ness of desire, anger, pleasure, pain, true nature of the object and for this rea- is a jug’, unlike inference (anumana), - Dunne, John. 2004. Foundations of Dhar- tion? Taking into account that all of our etc., which for him constitute mental son is regarded as bhranta – erring or is not a pramana because it deals with makirti philosophy. Boston: Wisdom Pub- own cognitive devices – images, concep- events not dependent on any sense subject to errors. Nevertheless, it is still something already apprehended by lications. tions, words, etc. – are products of men- organ. Svasamvedana is a sort of intui- a pramana. Why? Because, according to perception. But how does he explain tal construction, how could we say that tive experience (anubhava) that accom- Dharmakirti, it may reveal something our experiencing immediacy with - Gupta, Rita. 2006. The Buddhist Concepts immediate perception of particulars or panies all kinds of mental activity, being previously unknown and may lead to a regard to seeing something definite, of Pramana and Pratyaksha. New Delhi: of their aspects is a cognitive event? For itself free of any conceptualisation. It is successful action. It is pramana because like a jug? For him it is because of the Sundeep Prakashan. Dignaga and Dharmakirti the answer sometimes rendered by the term ‘apper- of its instrumentality with regard to kalpana (mental construction) that a to this question is not simple. Being ception’, introduced by Leibnitz in the practical tasks, including final eman- cognitive image appears for us as a - Williams, Paul. 1998. The Reflexive Buddhists, both of them reject the sense of the reflexive awareness of our cipation (nirvana). Thus we may safely totally external thing (Pramanavart- Nature of Awareness: a Tibetan Madhya- existence of Atman or Self in a role of personal cognitive experience as desir- add instrumentality to what we sup- tika III: 359-362). One more distin- maka defence. Curzon Press: Richmond, a permanent cogniser. For them there able or not. But that does not mean pose may be the Buddhist definition of guishing feature of kalpana owing to Surrey. UK. is no subject of knowledge apart from either that cognition is cognised by a immediacy. its mediate character is its lack of viv- the knowledge itself, which is a flow of separate cognitive act (otherwise, there idness (Svavrtti to Pramanaviniscaya Victoria Lysenko is a research professor at momentary point-instances (dharmas). would follow an infinite regression) or Sketching a new definition of 1. 31 ). Accordingly, pratyaksha is dis- the Institute of Philosophy, So what makes an instance of pratyak- that svasamvedana, being a sort of intro- perceptual immediacy tinguished by its vividness (spashta), Russian Academy of Sciences. sha a piece of knowledge if sense-object spection, has other mental states as its Dharmakirti argues that when we which may be construed as our fourth [email protected] contact is not cognitive and conceptuali- objects. think of an object, we have only a criterion of pratyaksha’s immediacy. sation is cognitive but not immediate? blurred cognition of it, whereas when To this set of criteria one may add Is pratyaksha a true or an we see it we have a vivid apprehen- another: sarupya, the congruency of They might propose an answer con- instrumental cognition? sion. But for him simple seeing and internal image with external object, or nected to their concept of svasamvedana When Dignaga defines pratyaksha as ‘seeing as’, (perceiving an object as the fact that the knowledge takes the

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IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 2 1 > Research The future of the East Asian political economy: China, Japan and regional integration

As international newspaper headlines increasingly focus on energy and security issues, one could almost forget that the main ties that bind states and regions of the world together are trade and economic relations.

Maaike Heijmans

rom the 1970s onward, international economic rela- Ftions have been broadened to include the political sphere – marking the start of much discussion on ‘the political economy of…’. Politics in this respect encompasses not only international political relations but especially domestic politics, cumulating in the so-called ‘two-level game’1. This dual approach is particularly useful in a region where economic means have been used, arguably more than anywhere else, 4FB for international as well as domestic political purposes: the PG +BQBO East Asian region. +"1"/ /035) .0/(0-*" The current status of East Asia, (i.e Northeast and Southeast ,03&" Asia), should be attributed first and foremost to the economic 1BDJGJD success and attractiveness of the region. Notwithstanding the :FMMPX 0DFBO much debated loose political integration, economic connec- TFB 4065) tions in the region are profound, although for a long time at ,03&" the inter-firm and inter-regional rather than the inter-state level. Causes, explanations and possible solutions for issues $)*/" in international relations of the region in the broadest sense /035)&"45"4*" of the word – the political economic, but also energy and security issues – should be sought therefore first and foremost in 5"*8"/ the field of political economy. The three developments in the field of political economy that I believe will shape the future of )0/(,0/( international relations of East Asia are addressed here. These 1IJMJQQJOF are the development of China, the relationship between China -"04 (VMG 4FB and Japan, and the economic integration between countries .:"/."3 PG5POLJO in the region. The changing role of the United States in the 1)*-*11*/&4 7*&5/". region is of great importance with regard to the second and, #BZ 5)"*-"/% PG $".#0%*" to a lesser extent, the third development. In conclusion, the #FOHBM (VMG importance of these developments in general and for the EU 4PVUI PG 4065)&"45"4*" $IJOB in particular are sketched briefly. 5IBJMBOE 4FB Development of China ."-":4*" Whether spoken of in terms of the ill-phrased ‘peaceful 1"16" rise’ or the more recent ‘peaceful development’ slogan2, 4*/("103& /&8 the development of China is a crucial factor in the shaping *OEJBO0DFBO "SBGVSB4FB (6*/&" of East Asia’s international relations. Not only does China’s */%0/&4*" +BWB4FB growth depend on domestic policies, reform and stability – China’s success or failure affects the region as a whole. China has become economically interconnected with the region to the extent that real and even perceived (in)stability will significantly affect other East Asian countries, as did the aftermath of the collapse of the Japanese ‘bubble’ in the early 1990s.

China is revitalising its relations with countries in the region, particularly the countries grouped in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The ASEAN countries are engaged in a balancing act of taking the opportunities towards high growth rates by opening the country to for- already from the mid-1990s, and fell below five percent in their large neighbour has to offer while not being overshad- eign investment5. The success or failure in making China’s recent years8. One only has to remember the Chinese booing owed by it. China is conscious not to be seen as an econom- development sustainable will for these reasons – and as of the Japanese team during the final of the Asian Cup in ic threat, as its proposal for a free trade area with ASEAN suggested by the two-level game – have a profound influ- 2004 and the fierce anti-Japanese demonstrations in 2005 to back in November 2000 illustrates. This move by China ence on the region. understand why. The Chinese on their side, have been much was largely geopolitically motivated. It should be seen as an antagonised by the continuing visits of former Prime Minister attempt to engage neighbouring states and shed the threat The relationship between Japan and China Koizumi to the infamous Yasukuni Shrine. The government perception stirred by China’s success in attracting industrial Notwithstanding signs of improvement since the inaugura- has taken the change in Japanese leadership as an opportunity jobs and foreign investment. The success of China’s policy tion of Japanese Prime Minister Abe last September, relations to mend ties, however. The Chinese government was remark- of engagement, as well as the positive but wary attitude of between Japan and China are extremely fragile. Bilateral rela- ably quiet following Abe’s comments on so-called ‘comfort ASEAN-countries, was apparent when another step toward tions fell to an historical low in recent years, and while this women’ in March - a clear indication of the strong desire to the creation of the full completion of the free trade agree- deterioration long resulted in ‘cold politics, hot economics’, improve relations and avoid dismay prior to Premier Wen’s ment was taken last January. Following the signing of the they came to a point where even economic relations were visit to Japan. The unprecedented shift in media coverage trade-in-services agreement, Philippines President Arroyo increasingly politicised. The Japanese business lobby, grouped from a focus on historical issues to coverage of contemporary said: ‘We are very happy to have China as our big brother in in Nippon Keidanren, openly expressed concern to its govern- Japan in connection with Wen’s trip is confirms this9. The Chi- this region’3. ment and urged it to repair relations with China – and, for nese government is obviously raising pressure and playing for that matter, South Korea6. The sudden decision in 2005 of the high stakes, at the risk of extensive domestic criticism should The domestic challenges faced by China (analysed in detail Japanese government to end ODA loan aid to China should Abe betray Wen’s faith. The new engagement between China in the latest of a series of World Bank regional studies in also be seen in this (political economic) perspective, while tak- and Japan is a positive sign, but tensions remain despite the East Asia4) are diverse and profound. Cities and liveabil- ing into account the legacy of war and colonial past in bilateral warm rhetoric on both sides. Important questions are yet to be ity, cohesion and inequality, and corruption are of crucial relations. The sudden shift in ODA policy can be attributed answered. notably whether or not Abe will visit the Yasukuni importance in managing the domestic distribution of eco- to certain Chinese policies, the deterioration of relations, the Shrine and whether he will gain support for his policy in the nomic rents. The Chinese government itself also recog- fast economic development of China and its implications for Upper House elections in July. Abe’s position was weakened nised these challenges and placed internal challenges high Japan, and a general aid fatigue of public opinion7. Opinion by the quick fall in his popularity domestically soon after his up the agenda. Indeed, President Hu’s recent proposal for polls found that public perceptions of the other country in inauguration, but more recently the Prime Minister regained a ‘harmonious socialist society’ has been interpreted as one Japan as well as China have deteriorated. The percentage of credit for engaging China while not seeming soft, and for his of the most profound shifts since Deng geared the country Japanese who indicate they ‘like’ China had been decreasing long overdue visit to the United States in April. A complex

2 2 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Research Rituals, pantheons, and techniques: mix of international and regional status, bilateral rivalry and The future of East Asia’s political economy is important for domestic politics defines the bilateral relationship. observers in and outside the region. Increasing regional trade a history of Chinese integration notwithstanding, East Asia is still one of – if not Rivalry between the Japanese and the Chinese cannot be the – most open regions of the world. It is of major impor- understood apart from both countries’ aspiration for leader- tance for its largest trade partners – the European Union religion before the Tang ship in the region – or, better, wariness of the other country (EU) and the United States – to ensure that East Asia remains taking a leadership position. While the United States remains open and transparent. For this purpose, increased under- The study of Chinese religion over the last 30 years has led to a great power in the region, its supremacy is waning as Chi- standing and co-operation between the regions is required. fundamental changes in the way we see Chinese history and civilisation. na’s influence grows. Preoccupied with the Middle East and With regard to the EU-China strategic partnership however, The traditional paradigm – that saw China as an empire governed Central Asia, the Americans furthermore give leeway for and one analyst remarks that three years after its announcement, by an agnostic, philosophically sophisticated elite and populated by even encourage Japan to take a more pro-active role in the ‘it has become clear that political rhetoric on the scope and superstitious masses – has been overturned, but nothing coherent has region. Neither Japan nor China however, seems in a position nature of EU-China relations has yet to catch up with political replaced it. to claim a leadership role now or in the near future.Through reality.’14 Regrettably, critique of inter-regional co-operation an active policy of economic diplomacy, Japan has throughout resembles that of East Asian intra-regional cooperation. The John Lagerweij the past decades led the region in economic terms. It did not EU as well as a stronger ASEAN+3 should make an effort to however, actively seek to translate this position into leadership turn the tide. recent conference in Paris aimed to do precisely that: create a new para- in a more general sense. This changed as China started gain- A digm for the understanding of Chinese religion from the ancient period to ing prominence on the world stage and is increasingly spo- In his presentation of the Communication that is part of the the end of the 6th century, by which time the basic contours of Chinese religion ken of as a future leader of the region. The speech by Foreign renewed China strategy of the EU, Trade Commissioner Peter had stabilised into the familiar configuration of the Three Teachings and what Minister Taro Aso in December 2005, in which he presented Mandelson commented that ‘trade policy stands at the cross- most students now call shamanism. Japan’s objective to be a regional thought leader, a stabiliser roads of the EU’s internal and external policies’14. For the and a country that wants to build mutual relationships of EU, just as for the East Asian region, the political economy If this had not hitherto been attempted, it is at least in part because of the explo- trust, showed Japan’s new ambitions. Japan’s proposal for an remains a two-level game involving domestic as well as inter- sion of knowledge and the increasing specialisation that accompanies it. But it is East Asian community and East Asian Economic Partnership national interests. But EU policy of putting tariffs on textiles also because of the lack of a unifying theory or, at the very least, methodology. The Agreement should be seen as further proof of its renewed from China as recent as late 2006, is not setting the right answer to the first difficulty is to invite leading specialists to work together and, to interest in and engagement with the region. Undeniably example. < the second, to propose a common approach. It is this common approach which however, Japan is losing leverage over countries of the region. will be the key to success or failure and which, therefore, requires explanation. While ASEAN countries are, for economic reasons, inclined Notes to lean increasingly towards China, for political reasons they 1 Putnam, Robert D. 1988. ‘Diplomacy and domestic politics: the logic This approach is, in the first place, multi-disciplinary, relying on philology, welcome a more active Japan. The China-Japan relationship of two-level games’, in: International Organization, Vol. 42, 3: 427- archaeology, and epigraphy as the foundations of any well-rounded account of thereby will shape East Asia’s political economy. 460. an ancient society in which texts remain a primary source. In a certain sense, 2 For a valuable analysis of the debate on and impact of these con- the key role is played here by archaeology, in part because of the vast range of Economic integration in cepts, see: Joshua Cooper Ramo 2006. Brand China, London: The new textual and iconographic materials it has provided, but also and perhaps East Asia Foreign Policy Centre. above all because material remains, deposited in tombs whose shape and con- A third factor that is to profoundly influence the future of the 3 ‘China and Asean sign broad trade accord’, in: International Herald tents vary over time and space, offer hitherto unimagined, nearly direct access political economy is the region’s path of economic integra- Tribune, 15 January 2007. to daily life, actual practice (as opposed to ideological prescription), and regional tion. Integration was throughout the 1970s and 80s based on 4 Remarkably, this report, titled ‘An East Asian Renaissance: Ideas for cultural variety. expansion of (private) Japanese production networks, spurred Economic Growth’ is the fourth in a four-yearly series and the first by the Plaza Accord of 1985. The 1990s saw attempts to state- to stress economic linkages in the region. The World Bank: 2006, The second critical feature of the approach is that it is at once sociological and led intra-regional integration, mainly through APEC. While conference edition (draft). anthropological. The determined focus of the work on rituals, pantheons, and monetary co-operation took off successfully in the aftermath 5 ‘Beijing counts cost of growth’, in: International Herald Tribune, 12 techniques reflects the weaning away of religious studies from philosophy, of the financial crisis of 1997-98, inter-regional economic October 2006. thanks in large part to the impact of the anthropological study of societies with- integration largely failed due to lack of political will on the 6 Nippon Keidanren, Shinnaikaku e no kibou [Wishes addressed to the out written texts. Religion is now seen to consist in techniques of communica- side of numerous East Asian countries. Since the beginning new Cabinet] 26 September 2006, available at: http://www.keidan- tion with the invisible; it is about what people do, whom they address, and how. of the new century however, economic integration has taken a ren.or.jp/japanese/policy/2006/068.html. Mythology and other modes of discourse are implicit in ritual gestures, spatial more regional (Asians-only) turn and advanced through gov- 7 Drifte, Reinhard 2006. ‘The Ending of Japan’s ODA Loan Programme dispositions, and iconographic traditions. ernment level talks and negotiation10. China’s entry in the to China All’s Well that Ends Well’, in: Asia-Pacific Review, Volume WTO in 2001 provided an essential stimulus to this effect and 13 (1): 94-117. The search for meaning in Chinese religion must give pride of place to this the United States’ more permissive stance – as opposed to its 8 Muroya Katsumi 2006. ‘Nihonjin no ‘suki-na kuni / kirai-na kuni’ no implicit as opposed to the explicit discourse because it is through rituals and earlier strong disapproval of Japan’s proposal for an Asian kenkyuu’ [Research on ‘liked and disliked countries’ of Japanese], in: around specific gods that social groups are constituted and the empire defines Monetary Fund – increased possibilities. Here also, domestic Gaikou [Diplomatic Relations], Volume 21 (2): 6-9 (Winter). itself. The discovery of the centrality of ritual in Chinese social and political life as well as international developments merit attention. 9 Kato, Takanori 2007. ‘China walking media tightrope’, in: Yomiuri and elite discourse concerning them is relatively recent, but it has come increas- Shimbun, May 1. ingly to dominate the Sinological agenda. In organising the chapters of each suc- As traditional regionalisation is increasingly complemented 10 While regionalization refers to the expansion of informal, bottom- cessive volume around the two basic issues of religion and society and religion by efforts toward regionalism, an increasingly complex ‘noo- up linkages, regionalism entails formal, state-led integration in the and the state, the project aims at keeping the focus on the sociological dimen- dle bowl’ is connecting countries and sectors of economies11. form of free trade and economic partnership agreements and inter- sions of religion. Inclusion of chapters on hagiography, sacred geography, and Although the term is not usually used in this sense, a second governmental institutional linkages. The ‘noodle bowl’-metaphor to festival calendars confirms the overriding emphasis on religion as practiced. ‘noodle bowl’ of institutionalised relations through inter- and describe trade arrangements in the East Asian region was first used intra-regional institutions is forming. Throughout the past by Baldwin (2004). It should be seen as the East Asian version of the But perhaps the most important innovation of all is the inclusion of shamanism, decade East Asia has seen a surge in government-led initia- spaghetti bowl phenomenon of FTAs, introduced by Bhagwati albeit because if the emergence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism as China’s tives for regional co-operation, such as ASEAN+3, ASEAN+112 referring to the crisscrossing of FTA linkages and their varying rules, three major religious traditions is the central subject of Chinese religious his- and the East Asia Summit. Generally these gatherings have not the rules of origin. This difference is rightfully pointed out by tory from the founding of the empire in 221 BCE down to the end of the sixth been talking shops more than they have been able to produce Kotera, column 23 May 2006, Research Institute of Economy, Trade century, this emergence goes together with a joint attack on traditional, sha- real results, however. What East Asia needs now, is manage- and Industry, Tokyo. manistic modes of interaction with the invisible world. But shamanism does ment, not vision13. 11 While ASEAN+3 (ASEAN Plus Three or APT) is the grouping of not just go softly into the deep, dark night. It remains central to popular forms ASEAN and China, Japan and Korea, ASEAN+1 refers to the meet- of religion to this day, and its Buddhist and Taoist rivals for ritual monopoly Much is still uncertain about where East Asian integration ings of ASEAN with these countries individually. also integrated important aspects of shamanism into their own practices. Any is heading. While some suggest that bilateral and regional 12 Baldwin, Richard E. 2006. Managing the Noodle Bowl: the Fragility history of Chinese religion which considers Chinese society to be its real subject agreements are undertaken with the final goal of integrating of East Asian Regionalism, Social Science Research Network: CEPR ignores this dynamic interaction at its peril. < the whole region, others foresee that increased fragmentation Discussion Paper No. 55661. will come to a point of no return. The question is whether 13 Axel Berkofsky 2006. The EU-China Strategic partnership: rheto- John Lagerweij is Directeur d’études at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Section countries are in for short-term gain or for real economic inte- ric versus reality, in: Facing China’s rise: Guidelines for an EU strat- des Sciences Religieuses; member of the research team Centre de recherche sur les gration in the long term. It is high time to create oversight at egy (Chaillot Paper no. 94), Paris: Institute for Security Studies (p. civilisations chinoise, japonaise et tibétaine (CNRS, EPHE, Collège de France, Université the government level and to manage the two noodle bowls 104). Paris 7). before they become too knotted to unravel. The ASEAN+3 14 Speaking points by Commissioner Mandelson, Press Room, Euro- [email protected] grouping encompasses the major production networks span- pean Commission, 4 October 2006. Available at: http://ec.europa. ning East and Southeast Asia and is experienced in political eu/commission_barroso/mandelson/speeches_articles/sppm117_ engagement with other regions, notably through the Asia- en.htm The international conference Rituals, Pantheons, and Techniques: A History of Chinese Religion Europe Meeting. A more institutionalised process spurred by before the Tang was held in Paris, 14-21 December 2006, and was organized by the Ecole Pra- these countries therefore provides the most likely route to suc- Maaike Heijmans is research fellow for Asia Studies with the Cling- tique des Hautes Etudes, Department of Religious Studies (Paris), and the UMR 7133 Centre cess. Consciously structured or not, the regional framework endael Diplomatic Studies Programme at the Netherlands Institute de recherche sur les civilisations chinoise, japonaise et tibétaine. IIAS was among its many for political economic relations of the future will be outlined for International Relations ‘Clingendael’ in The Hague. sponsors. throughout the next decade.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 2 3 > Research Equalisation as difference: Zhang Taiyan’s Buddhist-Daoist response to modern politics

Since the late 1980s, scholars have viewed China’s progress towards market capitalism with great optimism, but in the last ten years intellectuals, both in China and abroad, have begun to voice reservations. Critics have pointed out China’s growing problems of income inequality, unemployment and environmental degradation. In this context of critical reflection, Viren Murthy argues that the work of the late Qing intellectual Zhang Taiyan is especially meaningful.

Viren Murthy a series of defeats in wars during the he was able to get through his difficult a triumphant march of spirit is really a late 19th century, the Qing Empire and jail experience. When he was released degenerative disaster created by karmic uring a period in Chinese history late Qing intellectuals began to think of from jail in 1906, Zhang went to Tokyo seeds. He then combines Buddhism Dwhen most intellectuals were sup- ways to transform China into a nation- to edit the famous revolutionary jour- and Daoism to describe a world outside porting ideologies related to moderni- state that could compete in the global nal, The People’s Journal (Minbao), and of this karmic progression of history. sation, such as social evolution, Zhang capitalist system. The modern state and in this journal, he developed a new phil- constantly drew on Buddhism and Dao- economy entail a host of categories from osophical framework largely critical of Pushing language to its limits ism to express criticisms. Given that citizenship to equality and intellectuals dominant intellectual trends. Zhang develops this philosophical throughout the 20th century, and even began to re-orient their learning and alternative in a number of essays dur- today, both the Chinese government writing towards these new concepts. During the years 1906-1910, often ing 1906-1910, but he expressed this and Chinese intellectuals have gener- referred to as Zhang’s Minbao period, philosophy most completely in what ally endorsed some version of moderni- Until the late 19th century, Chinese he addressed both the reformers and many take to be Zhang’s masterpiece sation as a political and economic goal, intellectuals were largely trained in tra- the anarchist’s ideologies, claiming “An Interpretation of a ‘Discussion on Zhang’s writings have an uncanny con- ditional classics and they aimed prima- that they were insufficiently self-reflec- the Equalization of Things’,” published in temporary relevance. rily at becoming bureaucrats or func- tive. Following Kant, Zhang attempts to 1910. In this text, Zhang uses Yogacara tionaries in the imperial government. return concepts and the world of experi- Buddhist concepts to understand the Scholars have generally interpreted However, in the midst of national crisis, ence to their conditions of possibility; ancient Daoist philosopher, Zhuangzi. Zhang’s thought in terms of indig- they began to use their knowledge crea- Zhang Taiyan. however, he understands conditions of Zhang pushes language to its limits enous contexts, but I contend that tively to envision a passage from impe- possibility in Buddhist terms, namely to express an ideal that escapes the Zhang’s philosophy, and the late Qing rial to modern institutions. In this con- ethics. Thus, references to the “univer- as the karmic fluctuations of the seeds conceptual categories associated with ideology to which he responded, follow text, not only would intellectuals search sal principle of science,” “the universal in Alaya consciousness (the storehouse karmic history and points to a world a larger global pattern. Specifically, that outside of the canonical Confucian principle of morality” and the “univer- consciousness). By drawing on Yogacara of difference and a new affirmation Zhang’s thought has similarities with tradition and mine Buddhists and Dao- sal principle of evolution” are found in Buddhism, Zhang develops a vision of of singularity. In so doing, he brings that of critics of German idealism, such ist texts for resources, they would also late Qing texts. The principle of evolu- history as an unconscious process of Buddhist, Daoist and Western ideas of as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, and invoke the philosophies of Kant and tion is particularly important, since, drives. According to Yogacara Bud- equality together in a unique manner. that we can explain such conceptual Hegel to create hybrid theories of mod- despite political differences, reformers, dhism, the storehouse consciousness, More specifically, Zhang constantly affinities with reference to the common ernisation. Late Qing scholars from a revolutionaries and anarchists often which is the highest level of conscious- gropes for a way to express something context of global capitalism. Georg number of different political perspec- presupposed some vision of history as ness, contains a number of seeds which beyond mundane concepts. Thus he Lukács links the principles of German tives often drew on Western philosophy progress. initiate a type of historical process. Dan contends that Zhuangzi’s conception of idealism to the social forms of capital, along with traditional ideas to create Lusthaus interprets the effects of karmic “equality” involves making distinctions and provocatively contends that mod- new concepts adequate to the task of Zhang Taiyan’s attitude to this principle seeds as historicality and stresses the without concepts: ern philosophers often mistake histori- modern nation building. changes depending on the period. From organic metaphor of seeds. He explains cally specific aspects of the structure of 1900-1903, he endorses the universal that just like plants, karmic experiences “Equalizing things” (qiwuzhe) refers capitalism for universal forms of con- One such new concept, which reform- principle and some type of evolutionary develop from unseen roots, which stem to absolute equality (pingdeng). If we look sciousness.1 German idealists posit a ers, revolutionaries and anarchists vision of the world in the context of his from seeds.2 As we act in these experi- at its meaning carefully, it does not simply transhistorical movement of conscious- generally endorsed, was the universal anti-Qing Dynasty writings. However, ences, we unconsciously plant new kar- refer to seeing sentient beings as equal ness that realises itself in modern insti- principle (gongli). The universal prin- in 1903 Zhang was convicted of writing mic seeds and so a cycle of the interplay … One must speak form (xiang, laksana) tutions such as the state. Nietzsche and ciple refers to a concept or movement, seditious essays defaming the emperor between past, present and future con- without words, write of form without Schopenhauer attack this structure of such as the ethical principle of citizen- and he was sentenced to three years in tinues. In his 1906 essay, On Separating concepts (ming) and think form without consciousness from an abstract per- ship or a process of social evolution, prison. In jail, Zhang avidly read the the Universal and Particular in Evolution, mind. It is ultimate equality. This accords spective. To counter Hegel’s idea of the which subsumes particular things or sutras of Yogacara Buddhism and later Zhang uses this framework to explain with the “equalization of things.”3 teleological movement of Spirit, they actions. Intellectuals applied this prin- claimed that it was only through recit- Hegel’s philosophy of history. In short, argue that consciousness and history ciple to both the realms of science and ing and meditating on these sutras that he claims that what Hegel describes as The above passage may seem opaque, is a wild interplay of drives or the will. but given that Zhang explicitly oppos- They eventually aim to overcome this es his philosophy of equalisation to blind progression of history and put for- Hegel’s teleological vision of history, it ward some type of alternative. There is is possible to interpret him as search- a similar antinomy between optimistic ing for a concept of difference free from and pessimistic visions of history in late conceptualisation, a gesture we may Qing China. Specifically, the majority of find in Gilles Deleuze’s philosophy. In intellectuals during the early 20th cen- particular, in Deleuze’s interpretation tury endorsed some version of history of his compatriot Henri Bergson, he as a progressive movement and Zhang distinguishes difference from determi- Taiyan developed a critique of this view nation. According to Deleuze, Hegel’s from Buddhist and Daoist perspectives. dialectic represents a linear movement Following Lukács, one can conclude because his idea of difference is exterior that both sides of this debate respond to the thing itself and hence inevitably a-historically to transformations of capi- involves both determination and con- talist modernity, since each group pre- tradiction. We see this in a number of supposes some type of transhistorical the antinomies that pervade his thought ontological movement, which becomes such as the opposition between being their foundational standpoint. and nothing, or between particular- ity and universality. Deleuze clearly From imperial power to attempts to draw on Bergson to think global player his way outside such oppositions and To understand the above philosophi- claims that in Bergson’s view “not only cal debate in the context of early 20th will vital difference not be a determina- century China, we must note how intel- tion, but it will rather be the opposite – lectuals were shaped by, and responded given a choice (au choix) it would select to, their rapidly changing environment. indetermination itself.”4 Were it merely Social and intellectual life in the late indetermination, Hegel could retort that Qing was influenced by widely circulat- in essence Bergson is simply unable to ing discourses of modern philosophy think difference and thus the phrase and the concrete forces of the global “given a choice” is crucial. Ideally, we capitalist system of nation-states. After Zhang constantly drew on Buddhism and Daoism to express criticisms. should not choose between determi-

2 4 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Research

nate and indeterminate, but from our Image of intellectuals, however, face a problem He Zhaotian ed., 2003), 419-453. usual conceptual grid, we can only see Modern China: that Zhang could never adequately con- 2. Kondo Kuniyasu, “Shm Heirin no kaku- “vital difference” as indeterminate. To www.chem.ubc.ca ceptualise, namely how to translate the- mei shism no keisei” (The Formation of express this paradoxical determination, ory into a historical practice that trans- Zhang Binglin’s Revolutionary Thought) Zhang cannot stop at leaving words, forms the global capitalist world. < in ChTgoku kindai shisMshi kenkyu (Tokyo: concepts and mind. He affirms some Keiso shobo, 1981) type of mark made in this non-concep- Suggestions for Further Reading 3. Takada Atsushi, Shingai kakumei to ShM tual space by form (xiang, lakshana). The literature on Zhang Taiyan is immense, Heirin no seibutsu ronshaku (The 1911 especially in Chinese and Japanese, I include Revolution and Zhang Binglin’s “Inter- Zhang attempts to think of an equality here only a short sample. pretation of the Equalization of Things”), that avoids the contradiction between (Tokyo: Kenbun shuppan, 1984) the universal and the particular, or the Western Languages antinomies between sameness and 1. Wang Hui, “Zhang Taiyan’s Concept of the Notes difference, which he sees in German Individual and Modern Chinese Identity,” 1 Georg Lukacs, History and Class Conscious- idealists. In Zhang’s view, it is not in Wen-hsin Yeh, ed. Becoming Chinese: ness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics (HHC), mere thought that produces concep- Passages to Modernity and Beyond (Berke- Rodney Livingston trans. (Cambridge, tual antinomies; rather, through our ley: University of California Press, 2000), Mass: MIT Press, 1971) 110-111. karmic actions, we generate a concep- 231-259. 2 Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology: tual framework, which confronts us as 2. Shimada Kenji, Pioneers of the Chinese A Philosophical Investigation of YogAcAra a type of inescapable logic. Zhang com- Revolution, Joshua Fogel trans. (Stanford: Buddhism and the Ch’eng Wei-shi lun (Lon- pares the conceptual framework that Stanford University Press, 1990) don: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002) for the link people create through karmic action to 3. Wang Young-tsu, Search for Modern between karmic seeds and history see, Kant’s categories and when he attacks Nationalism: Zhang Binglin and revolution- 25 and 179. For a discussion of the plant this framework, he reproduces a basic ary China; 1869-1936, (London: Oxford, metaphor, see 193-194. structure we see in the pessimistic cri- 1989). 3 Zhang Taiyan, “Qiwulun shi,” in Zhang tiques of German idealism. Rather than 4. Eveline Ströber, Von der Evolution zur Taiyan quanji (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin grounding concepts such as the univer- Erlösung: Zum Frühen Philosophischen chubanshe, 1980) vol. 6, 1-59, 4. sal principle in a historically specific Denken Chang T’ai-yens (1868-1936) (Doc- 4 Gilles Deleuze, “ La conception de la dif- social formation, Zhang links contem- toral Dissertation, Bonn, 1990). férence chez Bergson,” Etudes Bergsoni- porary ideological trends to the tran- ennes, 1956, 92. “Bergson’s Concept of shistorical dynamic of karmic action. lutionary history. The Chinese commu- ise. From the mid-1990s, however, a Chinese and Japanese Difference” Melissa Macmahon trans. nists institutionalised such a reading growing number of intellectuals such as 1. Wang Yuanyi, “Duli Cangmang: Xinhaigem- in The New Bergson, John Mullarkey ed. However, Zhang’s philosophical signif- of history and then during the 1980s Wang Hui and Sun Ge, have drawn on ing Qian Zhang Taiyan de Jijin Sixiang jiqi (Manchester: Manchester University icance shines through when placed in and 1990s, intellectuals would often the legacy of Zhang Taiyan, and those Wutuobang yu Fan Wutuobang Xingzhi” Press, 1999) 50 trans amended. the intellectual history of 20th century criticise Chinese communism using a who develop the critical dimension of (Independent and Boundless: Zhang China. Throughout the 20th century, similar model of history. For example, Zhang’s thought, such as his student Taiyan’s Pre-Republican Revolution Writ- Viren Murthy and even today, most Chinese intellec- they claimed that Chinese communism Lu Xun, to question the legitimacy of ings and its Utopian and Anti-Utopian Modern East Asia Research Centre tuals presuppose some version of evo- represented China’s failure to modern- contemporary capitalist society. These Dimensions) (Intellectual Inquiry Vol. 10 [email protected]

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IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 2 5 > Research Colonial or indigenous rule? The black Portuguese of Timor in the 17th and 18th centuries

From the late 15th century, the Portuguese created a far-flung political, religious and economic network in maritime Asia, where Portuguese men often married Asian or mixed-blood women who were Catholic by birth or conversion. The resulting mestiço groups constituted a ubiquitous and important presence in Portuguese Asia for hundreds of years, as they became instrumental in maintaining relations with indigenous Asian societies. One interesting case is the Topasses or black Portuguese population on Timor, which enjoyed a pivotal role on the island in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Hans Hägerdal century and later moved to Larantuka even headed military expeditions. Dutch The fall: from officers to petty on East Flores – both places were step- reports repeatedly complain about kings to ‘Black Foreigners’ he scattered complex occasion- ping stones to appropriate sandalwood ‘Roomse paapen’, or Catholic padres, For the Topasses, the 18th century was Tally known as the Portuguese ‘sea- and other commodities on Timor. In the who easily influenced local populations filled with conflicts with the Estado da borne empire’ was directed in Asia mid-17th century they began to move to to the detriment of Dutch aims. Índia, which imposed Goa-appointed by its colonial organisation Estado da the Lifau area on the north Timor coast. governors who settled in Lifau begin- Índia, based in Goa, India, but its con- This modestly sized group, which was The rather few priests operating in the ning in 1702. Although the Hornays trol over Portuguese activities was less moreover hostile to the Estado da Índia Solor-East Flores-Timor area were able and Da Costas managed to expel the than complete. Rather, it was but the for long periods, was able to prevail and to strengthen the Topass sphere of influ- white governor from Lifau in 1769, formal aspect of the Portuguese pres- retain a Portuguese identity owing to ence through their missionary activi- their power had been on the wane since ence. Almost from the beginning of four factors: ethnicity, religion, political ties. In the 1620s, 1630s and 1640s, 1749, when they suffered a major defeat the Portuguese enterprise in Asia, mer- structures and the group’s place in the an intense flurry of conversions swept against the VOC in western Timor. The chants and soldiers acted outside the early colonial system. West Timorese rajas into Catholicism. conflicts deterred traders from Macau auspices of the Crown. Much of this was obviously superficial, and emboldened Southeast Asian ‘Blacks with shotguns’ and but at the same time conversion implied Chinese to increase their economic Portuguese society contained an ele- ‘hanging trousers’ a political approach to solidifying the networks on Timor to the detriment ment of racialist thinking, but it is not The ethnic composition of the Topass- Portuguese colonial empire, where the of the old Topass-dominated system. enough to look at indigenous Asians es was constantly changing, and this institution of the Portuguese kingship Towards the end of the 18th century using European perceptions of human relates to the ethnic perceptions preva- in Lisbon was symbolically important in their influence was mainly confined to categorisation. Rather, we must put the lent in Southeast Asia until fairly recent spite of its obvious distance. the Oecusse-Ambeno enclave and Lar- Portuguese groups in Asia in a localised times. At this time there was no propa- antuka, and the Hornays and Da Costas context, exploring how they adapted gation of a racial hierarchy based on That leads to the third factor in Topass emerged as local petty kings of Oecusse to indigenous conceptions. For while alleged intellectual or other properties. retention of Portuguese identity, the rather than just colonial officers. Portuguese newcomers to Asian waters It was entirely possible to alter one’s A “Topas” or “Mardick” with his wife. political development of the Topass prided themselves on their whiteness ethnic belonging, thus it was possible From a sketch by Johan Nieuhof, published in his work community. From the late 16th cen- Was, then, Topass rule on Timor coloni- and discriminated against mestiços, for people of all skin colours to become Voyages and Travels in the East Indies 1653-1670. (1682). tury the mixed group on Solor was led al in any meaningful sense, or is it more whites and mestiços both were seen as members of the Topass community. by officers with the title Capitão Mor, judicious to regard it as a basically indig- Portuguese, not least in the eyes of their Topass leaders, the Hornay and Da the Topasses. A 1659 report by a Dutch while the main title-holder in the 18th enous power? Arguments support either Asian neighbours. In what is conven- Costa families, descended from a North official notes some 300 Topasses on century became Tenente General. Owing position. Documents from the heyday tionally called the early modern period, European and a Pampanger (Filipino), Timor, of whom few were white or of to the non-existence of the Estado da of Topass rule, from the 1650s to 1702, roughly 1500-1800, religious affiliation respectively, which exemplifies both the mixed race; the great majority were Índia in these waters before 1702, the reveal a rather loosely structured tribute frequently constituted a more important breadth of their ethnic origin and the ‘blacks with shotguns’. Thus locals choice of leaders was made locally. A system, the tuthais, that was adopted marker of identity than physical features. possibilities of advancement regardless acquired a Portuguese identity and kind of dynastic dynamics evolved after from the local Timorese principalities. Thus the Catholic creed was the funda- of skin colour. The mixed community proficiency in European weaponry, 1664, when the Hornay and Da Costa This may seem more like a pre-colonial, mental denominator of Portuguese- that arose in Solor and later Larantuka which was important when the main families ascended to the leadership. rent-seeking practice than colonial rule ness in Asia, and since most people of was thus reinforced during the 17th Timorese weapon was still the assegai. These two families ruled in turns up (in the sense of a systematic subordina- Portuguese descent retained a marked and 18th centuries. The sources of such A 1670 Franciscan report attests that to modern times in the Oecusse area tion in order to produce economic and Portuguese identity, intermarriage was a demographic reinforcement were sev- the Portuguese language was spoken in in north-western Timor. Their genealo- other benefits to an external nation or means to establish a loyal Catholic com- eral. Larantuka by the local population, and gies are insufficiently known, but it’s power). In general, the Topasses may munity in Portuguese posts. that locals educated by the Portuguese clear that they regularly intermarried not have been terribly different from the One, oddly enough, was the great rival community identified themselves as after 1700. From the second half of the majority population, and for the most Timor was economically attractive to of the Portuguese, the VOC, because ‘Portuguese’. Even Timorese princes 18th century, moreover, they intermar- part they were of course of Timorese or external powers owing to the trade in numerous defections from VOC out- were at times categorised as Topass- ried with the Da Cruz royal dynasty of East Florenese blood. sandalwood and beeswax. It was also posts and ships took place in East Indo- es and behaved in a fashion that ran Ambeno on whose traditional domain known for problematic geographical nesian waters. Conditions for VOC serv- contrary to traditional Timorese codes they settled. It is interesting to note that On the other hand, it is also true that conditions, which made the means of ants in these faraway places were often of conduct. It was possible to enter the Hornays and Da Costas, apart from there was a close relationship between subsistence and even access by sea cum- miserable, which made desertion a dan- the ethnic category of ‘Portuguese’ a few brief periods, were not violent Topass governance and the colonial sys- bersome. The island’s multi-ethnic soci- gerous but attractive alternative. Such by adopting certain markers, such as rivals, but rather peacefully co-existed. tem managed by Portuguese traders, ety possessed primitive technology and desertions are known to have taken language, profession (soldier, adminis- By the early 19th century, they even particularly from Macau. The rationale was divided into innumerable princi- place both in times of war and peace trator, trader) and clothing (the Dutch signed contracts jointly. for external interference on Timor – the palities. Still, it was on Timor and some until 1730. Very few instances have know the Topasses as ‘hangbroeken’, sandalwood trade – demanded coopera- surrounding islands that the name been found of Portuguese deserting to meaning ‘hanging trousers’). All this, The Topasses were able to dominate the tion between a polity able to secure reg- of Portugal was preserved, while its the VOC side, though suppressed Portu- again, accords well with the flexible most important West Timorese prin- ular shipments and traders from other other South-East Asia possessions were guese clients on Timor sometimes did. Southeast Asian way of alternating cipalities from around the mid-17th Portuguese-controlled Asian ports who knocked off by the Dutch East Indies between ethnic identities. century. In 1670, they undertook expe- appeared on a likewise regular basis. Company (VOC) between 1605 and The non-official aspect of the mixed ditions to the eastern coastlands and Timor therefore was included in an early 1641. This is the more remarkable since Portuguese community was also under- Padres, generals, wife-giving brought them into a superficial state colonial system built on a superficial but the Estado da Índia had few resources scored by the social position of white and -taking: consolidating of submission. By the late 17th century often heavy-handed domination over to spare for the marginal Timor. The Portuguese who joined their ranks. A power through religion and they thus had a very strong position on the innumerable Timorese principali- number of whites on the island was 1689 Dutch colonial report characteris- politics Timor, while the Dutch were confined ties. That the Topasses were something never large. Moreover, since 1613, the es them as pennyless people and runa- More than blood, religion was the to the island’s westernmost parts. One apart is also reinforced by a study of local Portuguese had to contend with Dutch ways, which implies that they were on more profound identity marker; one important aspect of this was their mar- Timorese traditions recorded over the interests in the Timor area, though the the margins of white society. Another is reminded that the very word ‘ethnic’ tial culture, which was even able to last two centuries. In spite of being over- Dutch, too, allocated few resources to Dutch colonial report, from 1665, men- in early modern European dictionaries include members of Timorese aristoc- whelmingly Timorese in terms of ethnic this far corner of Southeast Asia . tions prisoners from Cochin and Can- referred to something pagan or non- racies. Another aspect was their ability origins, the Topasses were and remained nanore, most of whom were presuma- Christian, rather than something relat- to act as wife-givers and wife-takers. The in the eyes of Timorese posterity Kase Part of the eternal question of how the bly Indian Christians or of mixed blood, ed to racial origin or material culture. Topass leader Mateus da Costa (d. 1672) Metan – the Black Foreigners. < Portuguese managed to hang on in who ended up in Lifau. It is apparent Dominican priests, who enjoyed a role married a princess from the principality Timor for several hundred years lies that people who the Estado da Índia in Topass society that was not restricted of Amanuban, which in the Timorese Hans Hägerdal precisely in the dynamics of the Topass- wanted out of the way were sometimes to religious service, demonstrate reli- system placed him into a strategic posi- Senior Lecturer in History, Växjö University es – a term probably connected to the sent to the Timor area. gion’s role in the reification of Topass tion vis-à-vis his in-laws; as a wife-taker [email protected] Indian ‘du-bashi’, meaning ‘bilingual’ or identity. Documents contain many hints he was expected to support the latter, ‘interpreter’. Their mestiço community However, locals from Timor and the of the great devotion Topasses exercised but he also found an important base in evolved in nearby Solor in the late 16th surrounding islands were able to join toward Dominicans, who sometimes Amanuban for fighting his rivals.

2 6 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Research Remarkable liaisons among the well-to-do

Fragments, marginal texts, and even ‘bad literature’ can sometimes take us further than better-known, canonical works. I was reminded of this after an unexpected find in Leiden University’s van Gulik Collection.

Wu Cuncun cause for hesitation. At the same time, an abundance of love union would cause are numerous; and, in particular, penetra- stories or erotic tales produced in the 17th century in China tion caused intense shame for the penetrated. y ‘find’, a pornographic novel bearing the title Fugui included at least one or two homoerotic episodes interwoven Mqiyuan (‘Remarkable liaisons among the well-to-do’), with the main narrative threads, and Fugui qiyuan is only fol- Mercantile morals? does not appear in any of the major catalogues of traditional lowing an already established convention when it includes Given the accepted balances pertaining between social status Chinese fiction. It is clear from the poor quality of the litho- two such strands. In the first the merchant Qiu Munan, a and sexuality at the time, Wei’s forgiveness of Qiu, and their graphic printing, the cheap grade of paper, the many errors wealthy landlord from Nanjing, becomes irresistibly attract- subsequent friendship, is quite extraordinary. There is no and the two roughly worked illustrations in the front pages ed to Wei’s fine looks and proceeds to lure him into his con- question that Wei feels wronged, but Qiu manages to make a that this small book belongs among the many similar works fidence. He plies him with drink, and when Wei collapses deal that overrides morality. Perhaps we are meant to believe printed for popular consumption in the late 19th and early in a drunken stupor he rapes him. What is most unusual in that what Qiu’s wife has to offer is so priceless it erases all 20th centuries. this episode is that, despite this insult to the young schol- debt or crime: ‘I will take you as payment for his crime…We ar’s high status, they then proceed to become firm friends, are all open-minded people. Why should I fix upon his past The first thing to note about this work, beyond its physical largely as a result of the merchant making his comely young misdemeanour and deny him the opportunity to reform?’ signs, is that it is not original: reading through it we find that wife available to Wei. it is actually a much corrupted, unrecorded, re-titled edition At one level the narrative provides a running ledger, and at of the early Qing dynasty erotic novel Taohuaying (‘Peach blos- In the second homoerotic episode Wei enjoys dalliances with another level a running joke. No sooner does Wei forgive som shadows’). The author of Taohuaying, identified here by a young waif he has taken in as his page. As we should expect Qiu than he asks him if he can continue to see his wife when the pseudonym Yanshui Sanren (‘Unencumbered Man of in late imperial China, in this (consensual) episode, in con- he is away on business. Qiu’s reply is quite businesslike: Mist and Water’), is generally agreed to be Xu Zhen, a novel- trast with the first, the young scholar is the active party. What ‘When men find themselves in such friendly agreement, ist whose lifespan straddled the end of the Ming dynasty and is notable, however, is that the episode with the merchant why should they squabble over a woman?’ And having penet- beginning of the Qing dynasty. While the characters and sto- takes up the whole of chapter six and their friendship contin- rated Wei once, Qiu’s desire appears to have been completely ryline are more or less unchanged in Fugui qiyuan, the latter ues as a strand through subsequent chapters until the novel’s satisfied, and they become friends as if nothing had ever is a much-abridged ‘edition’ and contains numerous graph end. It is in the extensive treatment of this earlier episode, happened. The business of deal-making has united them, (character) and grammatical errors. where the hero ends up ignoring the insult of penetration, and in subsequent chapters they are seen doing their best that this minor example of erotic literature falls outside the to assist each other to get on in life. Qiu is happy to allow Comparing it to the edition of Taohuaying in the modern run-of-the-mill homoerotic cliché found in other novels form Huashi to become one of Wei’s concubines; Wei presents Siwuxie huibao collection (published in the mid-1990s in Tai- the early Qing. However, while the episode where Wei Rong is Qiu with his own page, Guangge. A common device for wan), we find this renamed edition is of such poor quality that penetrated by the merchant is somewhat outside the mould, ending tales of sexual adventure, the hero achieves immor- it appears to have been printed without having been proofread. the way in which the episode is set up, and also the way in tality. Before that occurs in this case, Qiu leaves to become a There are glaring errors, such as the incorrect rendering of the which it is complemented (or even compensated) by his own Buddhist mendicant, but first he presents Wei with his enti- name of the famed early Ming artist Shen Shitian (Shen Zhou dalliances with the page (where the direction of penetration is re household, including maids and servants. Not long after, 1428-1509). And in chapter six we find that Xu Zhen’s original ‘conventional’), it actually functions as a vehicle for rehearsing Wei also decides it is time to discard all fame and wealth, and opening – a tightly composed passage of approximately 100 and accenting the accepted status rules surrounding male- he ascends into the realm of immortals with his wife and five words that considers the place of homoerotic attraction in Chi- love. concubines (including Huashi). nese tradition (‘When even august emperors were fond of it, should we be surprised that it is so thick on the ground today’) The sacrosanct ‘rear courtyard’ While the tendency in 17th century erotic novels to dismiss – has been so radically abridged in Fugui qiyuan that the 38 This is made clear if we examine the episode in more detail. It chastity, social status or sexual taboos may have been in part graphs that remain convey little more than nonsense. is love at first sight when the merchant meets the young schol- fed by a fashion for high-minded libertine ideals of individual ar, who has come looking for a room to rent while attending freedom and expression, this strand in Fugui qiyuan and its It is clear that the later ‘editor’ was interested only in pre- the provincial examinations in Nanjing. Qiu has a very pretty 17th century predecessor suggest that models of mercantile serving licentious detail. Everyday episodes, literary passages young wife (Huashi), but he is only attracted to young men exchange may also have contributed to thinking about moral and auto-commentary have been pared down to brief, dull (his name is a homophone for ‘adore males’). The following alternatives. How much should we read into this? and insipid passages, while erotic description always remains day he becomes increasingly frustrated because he knows that carefully preserved. A work of this kind may be evidence that while he has a regular relationship with a young melon-seller, Perhaps in Taohuaying chapter six was originally meant to be there was a readership interested primarily in titillation, a status rules do not permit him to approach his young tenant. little more than the imaginative development of a homoerotic market serviced by cheaply available forms of pornography Recognising Wei’s soft spot for the opposite sex, he guesses interlude in what is in the end a rather formulaic exploration stripped of any literary pretension. that even if he rapes Wei while he is drunk and defenceless, of erotic possibilities. Like much erotic writing from the 16th his anger will be assuaged if his beautiful wife is offered as an and 17th centuries, while there is an abundance of rollicking An erotic tale of its time unspoken compensation. He even calculates that it would be action, Taohuaying places as much (if not more) emphasis on While it suffers from all the above deficits, Fugui qiyuan (and best if this was arranged to take place as soon as Wei begins exploring social permutations as it does on describing physi- its antecedent) is perhaps not all that atypical for a certain to emerge from his stupor. At this point, besotted with Wei, he cal contortions. When all the permutations have been explo- style of erotic fiction published from the late Ming through the determines, ‘If by any chance my love could be satisfied, and red there is nowhere left for the narrative to go, except upward early Qing. The outline of the narrative and plot are quite pre- then Wei does not forgive me, I would feel no regret at losing into the celestial spheres (the authors were not interested in dictable and conventional. Along the same lines as, for exam- life and property’. As it turns out, Wei is intensely angry over heading downward). In contrast, Fugui qiyuan, a later and ple, The Carnal Prayer Mat, the novel unfolds around a young being raped, but his anger subsides under the unrestrained much corrupted edition of the same tale, attempts to divest gifted scholar who pursues liaisons with a great number of administrations of Qiu’s young wife. itself of everything extraneous to the bedroom scenes. Its rea- beautiful women. Wei Rong is young and handsome, from a dership may have become bored with the ‘social titillation’ wealthy family and effortlessly attracts any ‘beauty’ he casts What Qiu Munan has done so far is, in effect, to propose a that so fascinated 17th century readers. < his eyes upon. He also excels as a talented sexual partner, and new paradigm for deciding the propriety of same-sex rela- with the aid of Daoist aphrodisiacal lore he manages to estab- tions between men. And it makes both structural and his- Wu Cuncun lish a large household of many concubines. At the end of the torical sense that he is a merchant. Structurally, it is clear School of Languages, Cultures and Linguistics, University of New tale he ascends, with his entire entourage, to a life among the that his model is one that makes sexual relations a ‘good’ England, Armidale, Australia immortals in the celestial spheres. that can be exchanged in a deal like any other. We might IIAS fellow 2006 even call it a barter-based model, if not a ledger-based model. [email protected] There is little here that makes this novel stand out from Historically, we know that from the Song dynasty scholar- among the many other ‘conventional’ popular erotic tales of official values and mercantile values were in a relationship its period and that may be why it was largely forgotten as time of constant tension. went by. Nevertheless, there are a number of things worth not- ing about chapter six, entitled, ‘A drunken fish is robbed of its Qiu Munan is able to use a merchant’s guile to make an rear courtyard flower’, which revolves around male homoerot- assault on the supposedly sacrosanct ‘rear courtyard’ of ic practices between two men of high social standing. While a scholar. Reflecting social attitudes of the time, as well as it is often the case that something common and conventional the application of the law, Ming and Qing novels usually in one era may seem unusual in another, we need not be sur- portray homoerotic behaviour between elite men and their prised when a homoerotic episode is included in a Chinese (sometimes shared) servants, entertainers or catamites. The novel that otherwise describes the licentious carryings on of inequality of these relationships was never questioned, nor I would like to thank Dr. Mark Stevenson (Victoria University, Aus- men and women. did same-sex relationships within these boundaries cause any tralia) for his assistance in the preparation of this article. I should social offence; instead, they were taken as a sign of a litera- also like to express my gratitude to Mr Koos Kuiper and Mr Remy There is no doubt that Wei Rong has a soft spot for female tus’s romantic lifestyle. Examples of same-sex relationships Cristini of the Sinology Library at Leiden University, for their gener- beauty and takes every opportunity to engage in lovemaking; between upper-class men are harder to find, in either life or ous assistance with access to the van Gulik collection. neither social background, age nor even marriage are ever literature, but allusions and references to the scandal such a

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 2 7 > Portrait ‘Danzanravjaa is my hero!’: the transformation of tradition in contemporary Mongolian poetry

This is quite possibly the first literary critical paper to be written in English on contemporary Mongolian poetry.1 As such, it would seem fitting that the title used here repeats the words of the poet Ayurzana. That he, a member of Ulaanbaatar’s young, cool intelligentsia, should see the 19th century poet-monk Danzanravjaa as his hero provides us with a powerful socio-cultural platform from which to observe how these young poets work in a modern idiom while remaining aware of their Mongolian heritage. g-a ayurzana (1970) Simon Wickham-Smith enchantment, the creation of a dream state through allitera- tion and echo. Standing in the silence of night, my mind stupefied, have written here previously on the life and work of the Who was it flashed across my dulled sight? I 5th Noyon Khutugt Danzanravjaa.2 Danzanravjaa’s educa- In fact, it is more a memory than a dream, but a memory This vision was as incense through the darkness, tion provided him with a vast corpus of religious and liter- caught in the clasp of melancholy, which characterises much A path of sadness hanging in the air. ary material from which he could draw, and it is the use he of this poetry. Take, for instance, Ölziitögs’s poem In your made of this tradition which characterises his poetic output. absence. For me, the overwhelming loss expressed in this I stumbled along a lighted path, Structurally, his technique makes frequent use of the head- poem is a temporary loss, and this emphasises the feeling that Seeking what remained in my memory. and-tail form, in which each line of a stanza begins with the her lover (presumably) is going to return. But this is a poem A rose garden nearby, and same letter and ends with the same word. What is contextually about vision, and Ölziitögs’s vision holds a powerful image to I fell into the past. most interesting here is that this is clearly a technique based which she can open only in the darkness: ‘In the dark, in the upon orality: repetition through the stanzas serves as an aide dark alone, you appear / Where the whole world, time and And suddenly I returned. memoire. Over time, however, the metalinguistic aspects of existence, grow dim’. This is more than simply a vision in her orthographic and aural structure have been subsumed into mind of her lover’s image; it is a revelation of a love which is That perfume! the form of the genre and the genre itself has become integral found in the world beyond the senses. I’d fallen for it utterly, had picked it, breathed it in. to the literature.3 O, what flower was it? Ayurzana, who has claimed, Danzanravjaa is my hero!, deals In terms of subject matter, too, Danzanravjaa begins from the with a similar theme in his poem ‘Standing in the silence Was this truly someone’s love traditional topoi of Mongolian poetry – nature, the seasons, of night’. It is interesting to compare the work of these two Floating around me? Or a shooting star? the nomadic life – and interweaves them with practical advice poets, as the ideas within their poems seem to relate closely to Or else, in the silence of night, based on Buddhist wisdom to produce what in many ways is a one another. The relation between the work of Ayurzana and Was it a shining visage floating past? radical and unusual corpus. In fact, it was precisely the acces- Ölziitögs is further enhanced by the information that they are sibility of his lyric to the nomadic stock from which he came married to each other. Whilst I do not want to presume any that so set him apart from the religious establishment. creative similarity from this information, it would seem point- There, a thousand suns burning in my heart, less to ignore the obvious emotional input given the nature The words of the Buddhas in the infinite sky Perhaps, then, it is a striking conceit to frame Danzanrav- of both of their poetries. Here, for instance, we have another Flew like a crane, leading the flock into spring. jaa as the precursor to the work of today’s young Mongolian poem concerned with the physical senses – of smell rather poets. But he is just a frame. The new voices of Mongolian than vision – but Ayurzana’s approach is more narrative. Some suns fade from existence. poetry live in a society where national pride and tradition are His narrative, in fact, seems to range from a kind of wakeful Some words vanish from the world. being deliberately focussed on the future and out into the dream (in which he is caught unawares by a presence, a scent) And some tumble into my eyes as snow, wider world. Young poets are discovering a way to combine through memory (again catalysed by scent – ‘A rose garden And strike the earth. the Mongolian poetic tradition with a Western sensibility and nearby, and / I fell into the past’) to a feeling of disassociation are thus creating what might tentatively be designated a new in the final verse that, in some ways, resolves the poem into Anemones, shocked into life by the melting earth, strand of world literature. an eternal mystery. Have gripped my mind. I sensed their new buds, autumn’s evening The nomadic life: dreams and visions What strikes me in particular when comparing the work of Perfume, from a thousand years away. A cursory glance through the pages of Mongolian poetry4 will these two poets is the ways in which they address the physical reveal that, as is the case with Mongolian culture as a whole, world. Nature and our relationship with it have been central to the sound of rain falling on the felt roof the experience of dreams and visions is central to the poetic Mongolian poetry for centuries: for instance, this relationship the sound of rain striking the felt roof aesthetic. Indeed, the repetition founded in orality is a kind of is one of Danzanravjaa’s principal themes and the medium the sound of sound striking the felt roof …repeating without repeating… the sound of rain falling on the felt roof the sound of rain striking the felt roof the sound of sound striking the felt roof …repeating without repeating…

(translated by Simon Wickham-Smith)

Ts bavuudorj (1971) a very big, white elephant

A very big, white elephant Has passed through the world. He’s left with the calmness Of the mighty ocean. He’s left, uprooting The serenity of the earth. He’s left, shaking Dew from the topmost leaves. He’s returned, disturbing the sun gods. He’s left, commandeering Golden temples, shining with blood. He’s left, waking Grey peaks under snow. He’s left, shutting the eyes of the mighty. He’s returned, shaking East and West. A very big, white elephant Has passed through the world. A very big, white elephant…

2 8 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Portrait ‘Danzanravjaa is my hero!’: the transformation of tradition in contemporary Mongolian poetry

through which he frequently chooses to express his under- How interesting, too, that the poet ‘feel[s] freedom in the dark- standing of Buddhist teachings. But the turning of the seasons ness’. But this darkness is a natural darkness and, finally, he is so commonplace a focus for both contemporary and premod- exchanges this reassuring darkness for the personal inner ern literature that it would be extraordinary not to find it in the darkness of ‘my grief and sadness...’ The ellipsis here, more works of even the youngest and most urban(e) of writers. frequently used in Mongolian poetry than perhaps in Western poetries, seems to me to emphasise the poet’s understanding sorrow So whereas Ayurzana chooses to express nature through a of his own futile and pointless life. dream of concrete (or at least explicit) images (the silence of I have come crawling to you, night, a lighted track, a rose garden) and evokes scent, that These three poets discuss the relationship between the inner Through arrogance and sudden drops in temperature, most fragile of senses, to express his sudden emotion, Ölzi- and outer worlds, their inner and outer lives. This is of course Through the colours of the world and itögs uses the visible solidity of phenomena (an apple, a hat, not an aspect exclusive to Mongolian poetry, but I would argue Through the suppression of dreams. butterflies, a cloud) to express something that is absent from that the deep sense of feeling for, and direct relationship to, I want to love you her and yet felt absolutely. nature is characteristic of Mongolian literature, at least from With the kind of sweet affection the earliest written sources. The nomadic instinct that informs That can dwell only in a human being. Accepting pain and sadness Central Asian literature as a whole brings to the fore not only In my heart I mourn one thing, The complex interweaving of images in and between these the earth and its creatures beneath, but also the heavens and That I’ve not been able to love another. two poems can be extrapolated to the work of other poets. the stars above; the entire cosmos takes on a central role. I regret I’m not a swallow on the wild steppe, The signature poem of Enkhboldbaatar, one of the founders That I cannot soar to meet another. of the poetry collective UB Boys,5 expresses a sense of des- External influences: haiku and the Buddha I want to love you, to peration and confinement relative to the feelings evoked by The literature of neighbouring cultures has been a constant Open the eyes of cross-legged Buddhas. Ayurzana and Ölziitögs. ‘I sit in a darkened room’, Enkhbold- influence on Mongolian poetry. I have already mentioned the I’ve such a magic storm – baatar writes in his poem The Set (Absolute Values) extending nomadic literatures of Central Asia, but of course the Bud- I want to make a lily in the snow glance up. the idea of confinement into another of the standard themes dhist poetry of Tibet and China has also exercised a powerful I’ve such a shining wind… of Mongolian literature, the idea of facing the world, with effect. Although Danzanravjaa never actually visited Tibet, I want to love you…but all its difficulties, in a direct and self-aware way. Of course, the general monastic and specific Buddhist education that In the hazy smile of this moment this theme is also central to Buddhist literature, but there he received shows throughout his oeuvre: there are direct I can’t come close to you. is perhaps a harsher – or at least a stronger – tendency in references to the poems of the 6th Dalai Lama, with whom In this cold glow of arrogance, Mongolian literature (and arguably in Mongolian society as a he is often compared, and also less obvious references to the I cannot come to you. whole) to accept pain and sadness, which can be seen in part glu and gzhas traditions of both secular and religious Tibetan I wanted only to love you… as a manifestation of Danzanravjaa’s influence. For Danzan- poetry.7 ravjaa was scathing in his criticism of people who refused to acknowledge the truth that was right in front of them, with all But in the contemporary world, Mongolian poetry has been its problems and cruelties: when we look at Enkhboldbaatar’s influenced by cultures further abroad. Erdenetsogt’s Mongo- music poem, then, we should take into account not only his personal lian Haiku series uses the traditional Japanese form in a loose experience but also the historical feeling expressed by poets way: rather than presenting an image followed by a short con- Times of loud noise inside the ger such as Danzanravjaa.6 cluding idea (in the sense preferred by Basho), Erdenetsogt Of the fire’s smell… often presents a single image over the three lines. So these are The lion protects our heritage in the moonlight. The stifling quality of this poem closes around us even as we not haiku per se, but rather an adapted form, namely, Mongo- Father’s dreams underfoot, read; we are forced to feel the poet’s misery and futility. The lian haiku: this recalls the way in which the premodern tradi- Mother’s fingers on her rosary, one outside reference, to the moon, ‘Like a woman’s eyes, gaz- tions of nature poetry and Buddhist poetry have been given a Only Buddha in their minds… ing’, is so dulled and non-committal that its almost total lack more modern voice. Their calm, clear eyes are heavy, their of effect is startling. And, later, when the moon reappears, Mantras flying, the effect is again to plunge the poet more deeply into his As with traditional Japanese haiku, Erdenetsogt’s Mongolian An ornament of sound… grief, a kind of lunacy or night madness in which emotions haiku evoke nature: the examples printed here are representa- are heightened and desperation is made more profound. tive of the entire collection, with references to flowers, the (translated by Simon Wickham-Smith)

l ölziitögs (1972)

Looking at mountains, I feel I am a mountain. Looking at mist and haze, I feel I am a cloud. After the rain has fallen, I feel that I am grass, and When sparrows start to sing, I remember I am morning.

I am not a human, that’s for sure.

When stars flare up, I feel I am the darkness When girls shed their clothes, I remember I am spring When I smell the desire of everybody in this world, I realise how my quiet heart is a fish’s.

I am not a human, that’s for sure.

Under the colourful sky, an immense EMPTINESS Starting from today I am only…

A secret whispered to God

What do you like, God asked me in a whisper. The sound of the church bells, The lit candle melting down, The snow, shining in the darkness, And my Bombuulei’s smile.

What don’t you like, God asked me in a whisper. The sound of the church bells, The lit candle melting down, The snow, shining in the darkness, And my son’s smile.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 2 9 > Portrait

d enkhboldbaatar (1971) seasons, horses, the moon… all these images are central to also to deny the sensate world; it is frequently portrayed as a the Mongolian aesthetic sensibility and, taken together, the via negativa, so much so that to combine it with an upbringing a set (absolute values) entire collection of poems present this traditional aesthetic under Soviet control might very likely give rise to feelings of in a modern form. desperation. .1,56,,.0O∞.E,E,0000T∞..,∞ The principal structural difference within these poems is This combination is at work in Erdenetsog’s poem ‘Sketch’ point (not a new start), between a form more in keeping with the Japanese model Neither the image seen, nor the melody heard, can be record- one (this is the real start), (‘mirages canter / along the mountain cliffs / the sun still ed, and the poet remains frustrated. But the disconnect here is comma (links a numerical sequence), burns untamed’) and the single-image of Erdenetsogt’s crea- metaphysical; it brings to mind the inability to remember an fifty-six (not an age, not an order, not anything), tion (‘waterweeds, swimming / like fish in a pool / under a entirety, how Buddhism shows the fleeting quality of experi- comma (this could be the end), grass-green moon’). In my opinion, these haiku indicate one ence and, thereby, shows the poet the immediacy of his experi- comma (but this one’s a mistake), especially significant feature of contemporary poetry in Mon- ence and thus of his mind. So the poem is also imbued with a another point (this delimits the values), golia: the interest and enthusiasm of poets for experimenta- feeling of acceptance, that this is how the world, the universe, zero (the correct form) and, behind it, tion with basic forms. is. This is in itself a realisation of wisdom, an acceptance of the letter O (same shape, different meaning), the nature of reality, and expresses the influence of Buddhism infinity (this is the continuation), Buddha in a gulag of form upon Mongolian culture. point (the limit of the endless infinite), But while Erdenetsog’s haiku exemplifies the general tenden- the letter E (this is the end), cy among young poets toward experimentation with common Language over meaning: the sound of comma (starting over), and again forms, almost none of them attempt to radically experiment thoughts conveyed the letter E (but this is where it starts), with form itself. This is probably owing to the interplay of aes- However, we can no longer characterise Buddhist thought as comma (signal), thetic conservatism in Mongolian culture and the fear of nov- inherent to the Mongolian psyche. Seventy years of MPRP zero zero zero zero (four places), elty and boundary-breaking that characterised Soviet culture domination reduced explicit Buddhist practice to a mini- the letter T (meaningless), after its initial radicalisation during the 1920s. Thus there is mum, although domestic and international efforts are trying ∞ (the most amazing [being other]), no evidence of L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poetry (a movement in to revive it. A more coherent understanding of Buddhism’s point (geometrical), and again experimental poetry), no abstraction, no fragmentation, no place in the contemporary literary scene can be found in the point (literal), visual poetry. work of Bavuudorj. On a superficial level, there are copious comma (this is how it ends. It means…), references to Buddhism throughout his work; on a deeper continuing (this indicates the beginning)… I have been able to find only one poem, Enkhboldbaatar’s level, however, it is the atmosphere created by his language ‘A Set (Absolute Values)’, that pushes in any way against the in which Bavuudorj’s approach to spirituality is revealed. envelope of form. It is a simple, line-by-line exposition of a This atmosphere relates perhaps to a kind of animated aes- series of numbers, letters and symbols. What appears to be a thetic, as though the ‘real’ world were somehow crossed with random list has, however, been infiltrated by additional punc- a cartoon. The imagery thus becomes somewhat distorted I sit in a darkened room, tuation and irrelevant letters, and the feeling evoked as the and simpler, though in places it is considerably more potent Thinking about this and that. description continues is one of hopeless surreality. Given the and vivid. The dull moon peers in through the window, arrow that ends the sequence, which ‘indicates the beginning’, Like a woman’s eyes, gazing. this hopeless surreality is set to continue ad nauseam. ‘A Very Big White Elephant’, for instance, refers to the ‘pre- The clouds move awhile, cious elephant’, which represents the strength of an enlight- Plunging me into darkness. In many ways, this abstract and apparently experimental ened mind, one of the Buddha’s seven royal attributes. So My sight is far away now, poem repeats the feeling of the Enkhboldbaatar poem dis- while this is a poem about a marauding elephant, it is also a I feel freedom in the darkness. cussed above. Both poems emphasise a sense of futility, of poem about the nature of the enlightened mind. This particu- From behind the clouds, the moon reappears. spiralling misery, while conjuring (both literally and meta- lar approach to Buddhism might be seen as a kind of spiritual Again, the room closes its walls around me. phorically) with ideas of freedom and darkness. We can pos- re-evaluation, even revolution. After all, this elephant has not I cannot see beyond the walls, sibly see a source of these feelings in the situation of Soviet only ‘commandeer[ed] / Golden temples, shining with blood’, And close my eyes in desperation. and post-Soviet Mongolia: the apparent hopelessness of being he has also ‘left, shutting the eyes of the mighty and returned, I leave behind the freedom of the dark, confined within a dictatorship has given way to perhaps an shaking East and West’. That this appears to be only a refer- And sit amid my grief and sadness… equally hopeless democracy, where totalitarian control has ence to the precious elephant, rather than a poem specifically been swapped for a nearly lawless free-for-all. But we can also about it, leaves the semiotic field open for individual inter- see that other strong influence on Mongolian culture, Bud- pretation, not unlike the fundamental openness of Buddhist dhism. For Buddhism offers personal freedom but appears practise. … (emphatikos)

Live not in song but in tears, and Don’t be too frail when you’re in love. Be aware that you can barely see through rancour, and In forgiveness, that all of us are sinned against by life. No, no, our fate has always been To be an ordinary and downtrodden servant. We have looked up to the sun, We have had no history up to now. My right hand tightly envelopes my left, My heart tortures my brain, Else desire and trust will gnaw themselves, And my dear body will be mutilated. We may oppose the fury of our fate, But its hook will trick us, As the roe deer is struck down by the hunter’s arrow, And, helpless, collapses to its knees. Oh yes, we are always slaves, We are born into the hands of destiny, And there we die. But we must fight and, If we fight, then death will be acceptable. So live not in song, but in tears, Live to endure, to struggle, and to struggle once again, Like a sword, like a sharp knife, and Barely able to see through righteous anger. But, at the end, one thing: In this struggle, you will never be victorious. You will never win. And that’s because There’s nothing good in anything.

(translated by Simon Wickham-Smith)

3 0 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Portrait

On the spiritual level, then, ‘A Very Big, White Elephant’ is - Erdenetsogt, T. 2006. No Existence. (translated by Tsog T erdenetsogt (1971) slightly unhinged, a dervish of a poem, where the poet’s cre- Shagdarsüren). Ulaanbaatar ated world is more conducive to ecstasy than to contemplative - Ölziitögs, L. 2002. Erkh Chölöötei Baikhin Urlag buyuu Shine Nom. Sketch calm. ‘Music’, on the other hand, is a quiet and diaphanous Ulaanbaatar poem. Dwelling in the past, it is a conjuring of memory, of a - Ölziitögs, L. 2004. Gantsaardlin Dasgaa. Ulaanbaatar When I thought about the World family scene where harmony is effected through an uphold- An unusual portrait revived ing of tradition and Buddhist practice. In this way, we can see Anthologies As I took my brush to paint it how Bavuudorj presents the traditional, ger-dwelling nomadic ------. 2006. Ancient Splendor (translated by Tsog Shagdarsüren and Things were without shape… lifestyle within the context of a peaceful remembrance. There Simon Wickham-Smith). Ulaanbaatar. are commonalities here with other contemporary Mongolian - Bawden, Charles. 2002. Anthology of Mongolian Traditional Litera- When I thought about the Universe poets, not least of them Mend-Oyoo, one of the most impor- ture. London: Kegan Paul. A multi-coloured melody picked up tant voices of the generation prior to Bavuudorj’s. But among As I took my pen to write it down these young poets, the language of vision and memory points General criticism on contemporary poetry Whispers were with no words and a colourless ink… backwards to the national cultural tradition and forwards to a - Batkhuyag, P. 2006. Yaruu Nairgaar Yariltsakhui. Ulaanbaatar. new way of looking at the changing world of Mongolian society: neither wholly nomadic nor wholly urban, neither wholly Notes verse upon an offering scarf Buddhist nor wholly atheist. 1 I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Elizabeth Myhr in 1. helping me to organise my thoughts regarding the relationship A poet’s verse, Contemporary Mongolian poetry has suffered from being between Mongolian and Western poetic forms Whispered to autumn birds, is the teaching of God, reared during the cultural isolation of the Soviet era, but it 2 I have been unable to find any criticism, in fact, on any contemporary is the song of coming back, is nonetheless a vibrant force among Central Asian poetries. Mongolian literature in any Western language. I would be happy to is the fate of being left behind. The work of these five young writers not only addresses the hear from anyone who has information on previous studies. A poet’s song, common themes of nomadic literatures but also the Buddhist 3 Wickham-Smith, Simon. Spring 2006. ‘The Way of the World’. IIAS Offered to the winter moon, is a burning love, tradition with which Mongolians are now starting to recon- Newsletter (40). is the wisdom of struggle, nect. In this way, then, these poets are closely following the 4 This is of course not only the case in Mongolian: it is noteworthy is an echo from the mountains watching over us. tradition of Danzanravjaa, expressing their ideas of love and how many people still feel that poetry has to exhibit rhyme and A poet’s feelings, separation, of spirituality, of the natural world in a straight- rhythm in order to be poetry. Caressing a spring flower, the tears of beauty, forward manner and with direct language. Furthermore, 5 There is no space here to look beyond the confines of contem- are an undimmed sadness. the almost total lack of formal experimentation bespeaks an porary Mongolian poetry, but the anthologies mentioned in the are a credulous desire. emphasis on content over form, which reflects the practical bibliography, one compiled and translated by Charles Bawden and A poet’s character, nature of a nomadic culture. another by myself and Tsog Shagdarsüren, will provide the reader Brimming over the summer skies, is a flash of stars, with sufficient comparative evidence. is the sound of the universe, But at the root of these poems there remains the visionary, 6 This group was founded in 1989 by Enkhboldbaatar, Dashmunkh, is the garden of space. dreamlike quality, a thread stretching back through the history and Nyam-Ochir and is at the forefront of the small but influential A poet’s verse, of Mongolian literature. This quality is frequently expressed Ulaanbaatar literary scene. The group’s English motto sums them Offered to humanity, is a song of freedom, more in the language than in the meaning; it is the way in and indeed all the poets discussed in this paper up perfectly: ‘We is the wind moving a pennant, which ideas are expressed, the sound of the thoughts con- are not new, but we don’t want to be old’. is a point to lean upon, a body to wear away. veyed. Sound in the original is all but lost in translation, for 7 I should also mention here another strand of poetry prevalent in A poet’s words, translation can only attempt to indicate the original. But if the 20th century, namely, the underground, anti-communist samiz- Famous throughout Mongolia, are the laws of the state, attempt is all we can do, then attempt we must, for translation dat tradition. This had its own feeling of desperation and misery are a decree of the state is a tool that broadens audiences, gets poets heard, and thus and humour but, again, is beyond the scope of this essay. are an oath to the state encourages a deeper investigation of this literature, as much 8 Glu and gzhas are short verses, used by both spiritual and secu- 2. in Mongolia itself as in the West. < lar poets, to express specific and immediate ideas, in a way quite A poet is a glimmering of the universe. similar to Japanese haiku. Generally consisting of two couplets, A poet is a magnificent flash of light. Primary texts these styles were used by poets such as the 6th Dalai Lama, Drukpa A poet is the whip of the sky. - Ayurzana, G. 2005. Non plus ultra. Ulaanbaatar Kunley, and Milarepa and exist in the present day in the form of A poet is the messenger of God. - Bavuudorj, Ts. 2006. Sarni Shülgüüd. Ulaanbaatar repartee, work or political songs. - Enkhboldbaatar, D. 2006. Tüner Anirgüi.Ulaanbaatar - Erdenetsogt, T. 2005. Setkeliin ogtorgui. Ulaanbaatar Simon Wickham-Smith, [email protected] from mongolian haiku Translator of Mongolian and Tibetan literature I dreamed a smile long gone next to my pillow, the moon

mirages canter along the mountain cliffs the sun still burns untamed

waterweeds, swimming like fish in a pool under a grass-green moon

a string of birds and clouds leave flowers with eyes of tears

as spring days long for rain, my thoughts find no rest

In your absence

In my eyes there are butterflies, a felt hat, mirror and a candle. In my eyes there are women, an apple, trees and a bird. In my eyes there are clocks, a key, cloud and the sky. In my eyes there is everything, except for you.

Even the wings of the butterfly and the nice felt hat cause me sadness. Because you are not here, the sun is not yellow and the tree is not green. If I can’t see you and I can’t hear you, I don’t need ears and eyes, I don’t need anything.

In the dark, in the dark alone, you appear, There, where the whole world, time and existence, grow dim. I will close my eyes, therefore. Oh, this burdening light, this burdening sun…

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 3 1 > New for review - our Books received? Request a received?RequestBooks our copy from the editors at: iias [email protected] Interestedin reviewing one of Janowski,Monica and Fiona Kerlogue. 2007 KinshipandinSoutheast Food Asia Copenhagen:NIAS press. pp. 292, ill., maps & tables,ISBN 978-87-91114-93-9 Mahdi,2007Waruno. Malayand MalayWords Things: Lexical Souvenirsfrom anExotic Archipelago in GermanPublications before 1700 Wiesbaden:Harrowitz pp.Verlag. 396, ill., mapstables,& ISBN 978-3-447-05492-8 Moore,Elizabeth H.2007 EarlyLandscapes ofMyanmar Bangkok:River Books. pp. 271, colour ill., ISBN974-9863-31-3 Rizal,Soledad Jose. Trans. Lacson-Locsin. 2007 ElFilibusterismo Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. pp. 342, ISBN978-0-8248-3132-5 Seekins,Donald M.2007 Burmaand Japan Since 1940:‘Co- From Prosperity’to‘Quiet Dialogue’ Copenhagen:NIAS publishing. pp. 176, ill., mapstables,& ISBN 978-87-91114-98-4 Sercombe,Peter and Bernard Sellato eds. 2007 Beyondthe Green Myth: Borneo’s Hunter- Gatherersinthe 21st Century Copenhagen:NIAS publishing. pp. 384, maps tables,& ISBN 978-87-91114-84-7 Than,Tin Maung Maung. 2007 Statedominance inMyanmar: The politicaleconomy ofindustrialization Singapore:ISEAS. pp. 472, maps tables,& ISBN978-981-230-350-9 Wintle,Justin. 2006 RomancingVietnam: inside the boat country Oxford:Signal Books. pp. 449, ill., ISBN1-904-955-15-0 Adam J.2007 Young, ContemporaryMaritime Piracy in SoutheastAsia: History, Causes and Remedies Singapore:ISEAS. pp. 158, ISBN978-981-230-407-0 Desai,Manali. 2007 StateFormation and Radical Democracy inIndia London:Routledge. pp. 185, tables, ISBN978-0-415-40769-4 Kachru,2006 Yamuna. Hindi Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishingpp. 309, Company. ISBN978-90-272-3812-2 Lambert-Hurley,Siobhan. 2007 MuslimReformWomen, and Princely Patronage:Nawab Sultan Jahan Begam ofBhopal London:Routledge. pp. 256, ill., ISBN978-0-415-40192-0 Southeast Asia Connors,Michael 2007Kelly. Democracyand National Identity in Thailand Copenhagen:NIAS publishing. pp. 293, ISBN978-87-7694-002-7 Olga.Dror, 2007 Cult,Culture and Authority: Princess Lieu HanhinVietnamese History Honolulu:University ofHawai’I Press. pp. 260,ISBN 978-0-8248-2972-8 Durand,Frederic. 2006 EastTimor: CountryA atthe Crossroads ofAsia and the Pacific GeohistoricalA- Atlas Chiangmai:Silkworm Books. pp. 198, maps & tables,ISBN 978-974-9575-98-7 Edwards,2007Penny. Cambodge:The Cultivation ofNation,a 1860-1945 Honolulu:University ofHawai’I Press. pp. 339, ill.,ISBN-978-0-8248-2923-0 Federspiel,Howard M.2007 Sultans,Shamans and Saints: Islam and MuslimsinSoutheast Asia Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. pp. 297, mapstables,& ISBN 978-0-8248-3052-6 Hansen,Anne Ruth. 2007 HowtoBehave: Buddhism and Modernity inColonial Cambodia 1860-1930 Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. pp.254, ill., ISBN 978-0-8248-3032-8 Hussin,Nordin. 2007 and Society Trade inthe Straits of Melaka:Dutch Melaka and English Penang1780-1830 Copenhagen:NIAS publishing. pp. 388, maps tables,& ISBN 978-87-91114-47-2 Cwiertka,Katarzyna J.2007 ModernJapanese Cuisine: PowerFood, andNational Identity London:Reaktion Books. pp. 240, ill., maps & tables,ISBN 978-1-86189-298-0 Goodwin,Janet R.2007 SellingSongs and Smiles: The sex trade in Heianand Kamakura Japan Honolulu:University ofHawai’I Press. pp. 208,maps tables,& ISBN 978-0-8248-3068-7 Hamada,Koichi and Hiromi Kato ed. 2007 Ageingand the Labor Market inJapan Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. pp.191, tables, ISBN978-1-84542-849-5 KidderJohn Jr., Edward J.2007 Himikoand Japan’s Elusive Chiefdom Archaeology, ofYamatai: History and Mythology Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. pp. 401,ill., maps tables,& ISBN978-0-8248-3035-9 Orie,Endo. 2006 CulturalA History ofJapanese Women’s Language AnnArbor: Center for Japanese Studies, The UniversityofMichigan. pp. 139, ISBN1-929280-39-4 Rubinger,Richard. 2007 PopularLiteracy inEarly Modern Japan Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. pp. 238, ill.,maps tables,& ISBN978-0-8248-3026-7 Schalow,Paul Gordon. 2007 PoeticsA ofCourtly Male Friendship in HeianJapan Honolulu:University ofHawai’I Press. pp. 219,ill., ISBN 978-0-8248-3020-5 Korea Kim,Jungsup. 2007 InternationalPolitics and Security in Korea Cheltenham,UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.pp. 195, tables, ISBN978-1-84720-029-7 South Asia Banik,Dan. 2007 Starvationand India’s Democracy London:Routledge. pp. 224, tables, ISBN978-0-415-40729-8 Behera,Navnita Chadha. 2007 DemystifyingKashmir WashingtonD.C: Brookings Institution Press. pp.357, maps tables,& ISBN978-0-8157-0860-5 Share,Michael. 2007 WhereEmpires Collided: Russian and SovietRelations with Hong Kong, Taiwan andMacao HongKong: The Chinese University Press. pp. 375,ill., ISBN 978-962-996-306-4 Swee-Hock,Saw anded. John 2007 Wong SoutheastAsian Studies inChina Singapore:ISEAS. pp. 204, ill., maps tables,& ISBN978-981-230-404-9 Zhen,Zhang ed. 2007 TheUrban Generation: Chinese Cinema andSociety atthe turn ofthe 21st Century Durham,NC: Duke University Press. pp. 447, ill.,ISBN 978-0-8223-4074-4 East Asia PeterChow, C.Y ed. 2007 EconomicIntegration, Democratisation andNational Security inEast Asia Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. pp.319, tables, ISBN 978-1-84542-978-2 Chung,Duck-Koo and Barry Eichengreen eds. 2007 anEast Asian Toward Exchange Rate Regime WashingtonD.C: Brookings Institution Press. pp.164, tables, ISBN 978-0-8157-1419-4 Indonesia Boellstorff,2007 Tom. CoincidenceA ofDesires Durham,NC: Duke University Press. pp. 292, ill.,maps tables,& ISBN 978-0-8223-3991-5 Koning,Juliette Husken.and Frans 2006 Ropewalkingand Safety Nets: Local ways ofmanaging insecurities inIndonesia Leiden:Brill. pp. 224, ISBN 978-90-04-15487-2 Nordholt,HenkSchulte and Gerry van Klinken ed.2007 RenegotiatingBoundaries: Local politics inpost-Suharto Indonesia Leiden:Press. KITLV pp. 562, maps tables,& ISBN978-90-6718-283-4 Perwita,Anak Agung Banyu. 2007 Indonesiaand the Muslim World Copenhagen:NIAS press. pp. 221, tables, ISBN978-87-91114-92-2 Japan Adolphson,Mikael S.2007 and Claws TheoftheTeeth Buddha: Monasticwarriors and Sohei inJapanese History Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. pp. 212, ill.,ISBN 978-0-8248-3064-9 China’srise and the balance of China Benn,James A.2007 Burningfor the Buddha: self-immolation inChinese Buddhism Honolulu:University ofHawai’i Press. pp. 360, ISBN978-0-8248-2992-6 Chan,Kam C,Hung-Gay and QingfengFung ‘Wilson’Liu eds. 2007 China’sCapital Markets: Challenges from WTOMembership Cheltenham,UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.pp. 344, maps tables,& ISBN978-1-84542-656-9 Clark,Hugh R.2007 PortraitofCommunity:A Society, Culture andthe Structures ofKinship inthe MulanRiver(Fujian) fromValley the Late through the SongTang HongKong: The Chinese University Press. pp. 473,tables, ISBN 978-962-996-227-2 Dikotter,2007Frank. ThingsModern: Material culture and everydaylife inChina London:C.Hurst Co..pp.& 381, colour ill., ISBN1-85065-815-3 duHilaryCros, F.Leeand eds. Yok-shiu 2007 CulturalHeritage Management inChina: Preservingthe cities ofthe Pearl River Delta London:Routledge. pp. 170, maps tables,& ISBN978-0-415-39719-3 Dafydd,Fell, Henning Kloter and Chang Bi-yu. 2006 Whathas changed?Before andTaiwan Afterthe the Change inRuling Parties Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz. pp. 288, tables, ISBN978-3-447-05379-2 Fernandez,Juan Antonio and Leila Fernandez- Stembridge.2007 China’sState-Owned Enterprise Reforms: AnIndustrial and CEO approach London:Routledge. pp. 307, tables, ISBN0-415-40268-9 Jieyu,Liu. 2007 GenderinUrban and Work China Abingdon:Routledge. pp. 178, tables, ISBN978-0-415-39211-2 andKeller,William Thomas G.W. Rawski eds.2007 influenceinAsia Pittsburgh:University ofPittsburgh Press. pp. 271,tables, ISBN 978-0-8229-5967-0 General KalraS and S.Ali,Sayyid. V. N, 2006 PostcolonialA People: South Asians in Britain London:pp.Hurst 435, Company. ill.,& maps tables,& ISBN 1-85065-797-1 Athukorala,Prema-chandra. 2007 MultinationalEnterprises inAsian Development Cheltenham,UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.pp. 282, tables, ISBN978-1-84720 -102-7 Devasahayam,Theresa and Brenda S.A. Yeoh eds.2007 andWorking Mothering inAsia Copenhagen:NIAS press. pp. 256, ISBN978-87-7694-013-3 Mehrotra,Santosh and Mario Biggeri eds. 2007 AsianInformal Workers:Global risks, local protection London:Routledge. pp. 475, tables, ISBN0-415-38275-0 Mohanty,Manoranjan, Baum, Richard, Ma, Rongand Mathew,George ed. 2007 Grass-rootsDemocracy inIndia and China:The right toparticipate NewDelhi: Sage Publications. pp. 498, tables, ISBN978-0-7619-3515-5 Arts 2007 Hahn,Tomie. SensationalKnowledge: embodying culturethrough Japanese Dance Middletown,Connecticut: WesleyanUniversity Press.pp. 193, ill., ISBN 978-0-8195-6835-9 Miyao,Daisuke. 2007 SessueHayakawa: Silent Cinema and TransnationalStardom Durham,NC: Duke University Press. pp. 379, ill.,ISBN 978-0-8223-3969-4 Xun,Zhou 2007and Francesca Tarocco. Karaoke:the global phenomenon London:Reaktion Books. pp. 207, colour ill., ISBN978-1-86189-300-0 Central Asia Kamp,Marianne. 2006 TheinUzbekistan:New Woman Islam, Modernity,and Unveiling Under Communism Seattle:University ofWashington Press. pp. 332,ill., ISBN 978-0-295-98644-9 > New for review New for review

3 2 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Review Southeast Asia: an additional bibliographical tool

Antweiler, Christoph. 2004. Southeast Asia: A Bibliography on Societies and Cultures. Singapore: ISEAS, 111 pages, ISBN 9 873825 877062

Jürg Schneider tures within Southeast Asia. His aim is a CD-ROM with all its contents on a may have received differential treat- In sum, this book – or rather the accom- rather to provide an ‘orientation about word file. This allowed me to perform a ment. In addition, search terms need panying CD-ROM – can be used to iden- n spite of the abundance of printed general books on the whole region as number of searches on the CD-ROM to to be quite generic to produce useful tify general and comparative studies on Ibibliographies and increasing reli- well as on books about specific topics find out more about the potential uses results. Also, a certain familiarity with Southeast Asia. Thus, it may be useful ance on internet-based tools and infor- which are trans-nationally relevant with- of the bibliography. A simple full-text research on Southeast Asia is required for those who want to find material for mation, this bibliography can usefully in Southeast Asia’ (Antweiler 2004:3). search on the term ‘history’ for exam- to assess the value of a search result introductory courses on Southeast Asia, support general and introductory read- Perceiving the lack of short, general and ple produced around 40 titles, most of as the author provides us with no fur- but also for researchers of specialized ing on Southeast Asia in the social sci- interdisciplinary bibliographies featur- which would be of genuine interest to ther information or annotations on the topics within the region who are try- ences. ing publications on Southeast Asia from anybody intent to read up on Southeast entries selected. ing to identify studies with a broader or a general (regional) or disciplinary point Asian history. As Antweiler indicates more comparative view. < There are plenty of bibliographies of view, Antweiler has collected about in the preface, the references selected Thus, selectivity and interdisciplinarity that cater for the needs of researchers 900 references. These titles are pre- would be to the greatest part relatively can be considered as the two merits of on Southeast Asia. Kemp’s relatively sented in alphabetical order by author recent publications (post 1980s). The Antweiler’s compilation. Drawing from References recent (1998) Bibliographies of South- name, without annotations. However, English language dominates, but some a narrow sample focusing on the region - Freeman, Derek. 1980. Iban Agriculture. east Asia published by KITLV lists over deviating from the general rule of a German and French publications are as a whole, search results will tend to be A Report on the Shifting Cultivation of Hill 5,380 bibliographies of which 433 refer regional focus, some works on specific also included. small and focused. The user is spared Rice by the Iban of Sarawak. New York: Ms to the region as a whole. The remain- topics or ethnic groups are included if long lists of hits that he or she would Press. ing close to 5,000 entries refer to more they are ‘of exemplary relevance’ or of Looking for broad introductory mate- then have to narrow down further. The - Kemp, Herman C. 1998. Bibliographies of specialised subject or geographical bib- ‘general importance for the region’. In rial on forest issues in the region, I range of disciplines covered – from Southeast Asia. Leiden: Koninklijk Instit- liographies. The magnificent indices practical terms, this refers to studies obtained 15 useful references from a anthropology, political science, history, uut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, of Kemp’s publication greatly facilitate that have greatly influenced Southeast search on ‘forest’, covering various geography to economics – may provide KITLV Press, Bibliographical Series 22. efforts to find specialised bibliographies Asian research and can now be consid- disciplines, also a good start to get a useful leads into any of the disciplines on the region, or any of its parts. ered classics, such as Freeman’s (1980) first overview of the subject. A final of this vast field of study. Jürg Schneider is an anthropologist with study on ‘Iban Agriculture’. Evidently, example: A search on ‘agriculture’ interests in Indonesia and agrarian develop- Contrary to what its title seems to indi- there is a lot of discretion at work here yielded nine hits, relatively low given A shortcoming is the lack of a review ment. He is affiliated to the Federal Office cate, Antweiler’s (2004) contribution, regarding what one would consider a the long importance of the subject to section introducing the major discipli- for the Environment, Berne, Switzerland. Southeast Asia – A Bibliography on Socie- work of exemplary relevance. Southeast Asian studies. This indicates nary traditions and research areas rep- [email protected] ties and Cultures, is not a comprehensive that the compilation is also a function resented in this selection which would reference bibliography of publications Coming with no indices, this book would of the research interests of the author, expand on the remarks on selection cri- treating individual societies and cul- be difficult to use if it did not include and that subjects of similar importance teria in the introduction.

China & Iran: Ancient Partners in a The Urban Generation: Chinese cinema Post-Imperial World and society at the turn of the 21st century By John W. Garver Editor, Zhang Zhen University of Washington Press, Seattle 2006 Duke University Press, Durham, NC 2007 ISBN o 295 98631 X ISBN 978 0 8223 4074 4

In recent years, Iran’s nuclear aspirations have dominated Since the early 1990s, while mainland China’s state-owned its relations with the US and Europe. China stands as Iran’s movie studios have struggled with financial and ideological staunchest ally on the UN security Council, as well as its pri- constraints, an exciting alternative cinema has developed. mary source of advanced technology and military assistance, Dubbed the “Urban Generation,” this new cinema is driven by built on centuries of close economic relations. Succesive gov- young filmmakers who emerged in the shadow of the events ernments of these two ancient and proud nations have re- at Tiananmen Square in 1989. What unites diverse directors affirmed their common interests in seeking an Asia free of under the “Urban Generation” rubric is their creative engage- Soviet expansionism and US unilateral domination. ment with the wrenching economic and social transformations underway in China. Urban Generation filmmakers are van- This interesting and timely book from Garver, (the first of its Modern Japanese Cuisine: guard interpreters of the confusion and anxiety triggered by the kind), charts the evolution of Sino-Iranian relations through Food, Power and National Identity massive urbanisation of contemporary China. This collection several phases, including Iran under the shah, the 1979 revo- by Katarzyna J. Cwiertka brings together some of the most recent original research on lution, and the Iran-Iraq war. China and Iran also explores Reaktion Books, London 2006 ISBN 978 1 86189 298 o this emerging cinema and its relationship to Chinese society. the contentious debates over Iran’s nuclear programmes and China’s role in assisting these programmes and supporting Over the last decade the popularity of Japanese food in the The contributors analyse the historical and social conditions Iran’s efforts to modernise its military and oil industry infra- West has increased immeasurably, contributing to the con- that gave rise to the Urban Generation, its aesthetic innova- structure. tinuing diversification of Western eating habits; but Japanese tion, and its ambivalent relationship to China’s mainstream cuisine itself has evolved significantly since pre-modern times. film industry and the international film market. Focusing This book explores the origins of Japanese cuisine as we know attention on the Urban Generation’s sense of social urgency, it today, investigating the transformations and developments its documentary impulses, and its representations of gender food culture in Japan has undergone since the late 19th century. and sexuality, the contributors highlight the characters who populate this new urban cinema – ordinary and marginal- Among the key factors in the shift in Japanese eating habits ized city dwellers including aimless bohemians, petty thieves, were the dietary effects of imperialism, reforms in military prostitutes, postal workers, taxi drivers, migrant workers catering and home cooking, wartime food management and – and the fact that these “floating urban subjects” are often the rise of urban gastronomy. Japan’s patchwork of diverse portrayed by non-professional actors. Some essays concen- regional cuisines became homogenised over time and was trate on specific films (such as Shower and Suzhou River) or replaced by a set of foods and practices with which the major- filmmakers (including Jia Zhangke and Zhang Yuan), while ity of Japanese today ardently identify. This book demon- others survey broader concerns. Together the thirteen essays strates that Japanese cuisine as it is currently understood in this collection give a multifaceted account of a significant, and valued, in spite of certain inevitable historical influences, ongoing cinematic and cultural phenomenon. is primarily a modern invention concocted in the midst of the turbulent events of the late 19th and the 20th centuries.

Katarzyna J. Cwiertka is a recognised expert on the subject of Japanese cuisine and its modern history, and this book is a result of more than a decade of research. It also includes a section on the spread of Japanese food and restaurants in Western countries. Modern Japanese Cuisine will be of interest to the general reader interested in Japanese culture and society, as well as to a more specialised audience, such as scholars

Bookmarked of Japan, anthropologists and food historians.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 3 3 > Review The Really Forgotten Korean War

Hawley, Samuel. 2005. The Imjin War. Japan‘s Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China. Seoul: The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch; Berkeley: The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 664 pages, ISBN 89 954424 2 5

Sem Vermeersch Although the book offers no new rev- key military decisions. This is clear in rigorous criticism, for they may have elations, it accurately reflects current General Sin Rip’s defence of Ch’ungju. served to paint their authors in a flatter- f the Korean War of 1950-53 is still knowledge. In this sense it resembles Hawley shows that his strategy of ‘fighting light, as may have been the case for Ioften labelled the ‘forgotten war’, Stephen Turnbull’s Samurai Invasions, ing with a river to one’s back’ was not Yu Snng-nyong’s war reflections. Also, then what about the Imjin War of 1592- the only other English language book- mere folly but rather based on Chi- a few of the author’s generalisations are 98? While there are now literally hun- length treatment,1 which is superior nese military precedent2. By cutting open to question, for example, that the dreds of works available in Western in terms of its lavish illustrations but off all escape routes for his untrained Koreans did not need Chinese interven- languages on the Korean War, Samuel inferior in its detail. Their ordering of and inexperienced men, he hoped they tion, or that Koreans were good fighters Hawley’s volume is only the second events is similar, but their assessment would fight for their lives (pages 154-8). when defending high ramparts and bad devoted solely to the Hideyoshi inva- of key issues differs somewhat. One of While this reliance on Chinese military ones when standing the ground of their sions, and the first to give them their the most enduring controversies regard- manuals proved disastrous on land, it adversaries. full due. Although the war is undoubt- ing the invasions is whether or not Yi worked very well at sea, where the Japa- edly a key event in world history, even Sun-sin’s ‘turtle ships’ were ironclad. nese had no answer for Yi Sun-sin’s It is disappointing that the author decid- a basic description of its development Hawley argues that they were almost superior battle strategies. ed to apply romanisation standards very was until recently unavailable. Previ- certainly not (pages 195-8), while Turn- loosely. All diacritics have been omit- ously, the only facet of the invasions that bull leaves some room for doubt (pages Accommodating the lay ted, not only the macrons on Japanese Japanese ‘meglomaniac warlord’ Toyotomi managed to draw the West’s attention 243-4). reader to a fault vowels and the breves on Korean vow- Hideyoshi. were the exploits of Admiral Yi Sun-sin The author uses secondary sources els, but also the apostrophes indicating and his alleged invention of ironclad Hawley’s major strength is his insight responsibly, but the shortcomings of aspiration. Thus the city of Ch’nngju Moreover, different romanisation sys- ‘turtle ships’. on Korean military tactics. While the relying mainly on English-language is rendered as ‘Chongju’ throughout, tems are often mixed, especially the Chosnn army suffered from the neglect sources are obvious, as many date back but with many similar place names McCune-Reischauer system and the This is a pity, because the Imjin War and discrimination of Confucian offi- to the very beginning of Western schol- (besides Ch’nngju there is also Chnnju Revised Romanisation System of Kore- was a major event in the final stages of cials, it drew heavily from Chinese arship on Korea and Japan. Many prima- and Chnngju), readers unfamiliar with an; thus we find ‘Kwak Jae-u’ instead the traditional East Asian world order military classics, which clearly inspired ry sources, meanwhile, demand more Korean geography will be confused. of Kwak Chae-u (Mc-R) or Gwak Jae-u and in the transition to the modern (Revised). period. The pragmatic, militaristic Japanese, spurred on by the megalo- Another annoying feature is the fre- maniac warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi, quent repetition of whole sentences, clashed with the idealistic Confucian even paragraphs. Undoubtedly, this is bureaucracies of Ming China and to refresh the reader’s memory the Chosnn Korea. An international war invasions developed on many fronts, of a kind never seen before, it was and as the narrative moves back and perhaps the first example of modern forth some repetition is inevitable but warfare, with the speed, organisation the author could at least have made an and sheer size of the invading Japanese effort to vary his phrasing. Meanwhile, force unrivalled until the modern peri- while maps are provided to help readers od: the more than 150,000 men con- trace the main stages of the war, they quered the 450 kilometres from Pusan are rather sketchy, and many battle sites to Seoul in just 20 days. are not listed. No maps show battle formations at major engagements. The war is also important in world history as a case study of the effects of Perhaps these were editorial decisions Western missionary, trade and mili- in the interest of making the work more tary expansion; the muskets that were accessible to the general reader, but I perfected and used to such devastating think they are counterproductive, as effect by the Japanese had been intro- they tend to confuse rather than sim- duced by the Portuguese in the 1540s, plify. On the whole, however, the author while many of the Japanese command- has succeeded in providing us with a ers and their troops were Christian con- much needed reference work which verts. A Spanish missionary accompa- gives us all the basic facts about a dev- nying Japanese troops sent back to the astating conflict that is crucial in under- West its first eyewitness accounts of standing the recent history of northeast Korea, and missionaries or traders also Asia. What remains to be done, howev- introduced plants from the New World, er, is to move beyond the details of the such as red pepper and tobacco. Hidey- battlefield into the realm of political, oshi’s death in 1598 signalled the final economic, cultural and social history to retreat of Japanese forces, but his inva- reveal the larger contours and effects of sions left enduring material and psy- the Imjin War. < chological scars on all three countries involved. notes 1. Turnbull, Stephen. 2002. Samurai Inva- ‘Fighting with a river sion. Japan’s Korean War 1592-1598. Lon- to one’s back’ don: Cassell. Samuel Hawley provides a compre- 2. The expression “Bei shui yi zhan”, literally hensive, in-depth overview of the war, “fighting with the river at your back”, was its causes and effects, and the reasons often used to mean “either win or die”. for failure and success in battle. Based This expression came from the battle of on all available English-language sec- Jingjingkou, in which the military com- ondary sources, primary sources and mander Han Xin deliberately stationed his a few modern Korean studies, the troops facing the enemy, with their backs author writes in a lively prose style that to the river, leaving no escape route. The includes both dramatic re-enactment of knowledge that there was no way out but key scenes and more reflective exposito- victory or death inspired the soldiers to ry passages. The result is an engrossing fight harder. narrative that reads almost like a novel. Despite the action-packed plot, Hawley Sem Vermeersch avoids reducing actors to stereotypes of Academia Koreana, Keimyung University heroism or cowardice, good or evil, and [email protected] does so without ignoring the tragedy of the war. A turtle ship replica at the military museum in Seoul.

3 4 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Review Music and Manipulation

Brown, Steven and Ulrik Volgsten eds. 2006. Music and Manipulation. On the Social Uses and Social Control of Music. New York, London: Berghahn Books. 376 pages. ISBN 1 57181 489 2

Bob van der Linden shrines of Sufi saints (which often also music and morality without giving any serve as music schools): This music, definite resolution. mong human beings (and ani- made famous in the West by the Paki- Amals), music has always been a stani singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, The light of Asia key mode of communication, being is based not on the text of the Quran Music and Manipulation is a timely able to influence individual and group but on Sufi poetry. As in Independent book that, despite the overtly theoreti- behaviour and to create social cohe- India, it seemed that initially the Paki- cal and repetitive style of writing, sets sion as well as conflict. Rhythm, har- stani government was going to support a standard for a new field of study and mony and melody manipulate and can the broadcast of classical music. Yet the Traditional Indian therefore deserves to be read widely. be manipulated. The interdisciplinary clergy’s opposition to music prevented instruments. www. On the whole, disappointingly, the anthology under review contains theo- this, mainly because the texts of many hinduwisdom.info authors do not provide precise explana- retical analyses by sociologists, human- of the classical songs were connected tions about music’s powerful effects on ists and psychologists about the use and either with Hindu deities or with the munication system and take the social Hargreaves unsurprisingly make clear people but, even so, their contributions control of music in society. It is the first separation of lovers. Accordingly, the production of music rather than music that ‘it is extremely difficult to predict contain fascinating material for further volume ‘to address the social ramifica- Pakistani government adopted a more itself as a starting-point for the under- how customers or staff will react to a study. Moreover, the issues dealt with tions of music’s behaviourally manipu- easy-going attitude, with the result that standing of the relationship between particular piece of music because any solely concern Western musical prac- lative effects, its morally questionable the market for classical music gradu- music and society. Music can create response to music is determined by tice and their treatment in the light of uses and control mechanisms, and its ally diminished and popular (mainly both consensus and conflict as it is ‘a three interacting factors, namely, the musical developments in Asia would economic and artistic management film) music became utterly dominant. major tool for propagating group ide- music itself, the listener, and the listen- surely extend our knowledge of music through commercialisation, thus high- In 1974, however, the government did ologies identities, and as such serves ing situation’ (p. 117). Steven Brown and as a mode of communication. Much lighting not only music’s diverse uses establish the Institute of Folk Herit- as an important device for reinforcing Töres Theorell question the validity of research is still needed in relation to the at the social level, but also the ever-frag- age in Islamabad, which among other collective actions and for delineating the dogma that “good music is good for emergence of music as a commodity in ile relationship between aesthetics and things did much for the conservation of the lines of inclusion for social groups’ you”. In their opinion, twentieth cen- a global market in the Asian context. In morality’ (back-cover). Pakistani folk music. (p. 2). Importantly, while being part of tury music therapists and musical heal- fact, perhaps more than in the West, a trans-national entertainment industry, ers of all times and places uncritically it is the market rather than religion Music, censorship and Since the late 19th century in particu- music today has become a significant ‘ignore social factors such as listening and/or state that controls (and censors) colonialism lar, music censorship and canonisation economic commodity. On the whole, the context, personal history, culture, and musical life in Asia today. The endless In 1953, the Indian government founded largely took place under the banner of role of music in contemporary society even species; in other words, all ignore production of illegal CD’s, DVD’s and the National Academy of Music, Dance nationalism. Folk music collection, and raises moral questions in relation to cen- music as a communication system’ (p. video’s as part of a global music market and Drama in New Delhi for the pres- on its basis the creation of an authentic sorship, propaganda, commercialisation 143). Likewise, the idea (based on exper- certainly stands in clear opposition to ervation and development of these arts. national music style, was undeniably and globalisation. Following a preface by iments with rats!) that listening to the the Western feudal vision of property The main nationalist themes propagat- crucial to this universal process. While the editors and an introduction by Steven music of Mozart enhances performance of which music copyright is part. And ed through this institution were unity in the West this process generally led Brown, the book is divided in two main of spatial reasoning tasks completely how to explain the overall success of through diversity and the cultural and to modernist developments in music, segments: eight chapters subdivided in overlooks personal and cultural differ- background music and Karaoke bars in moral uplift of the population through (partly because of Orientalist and ethno- three parts on the social use of music ences. Undoubtedly, music can ‘produce Asia? What are the musical manipula- art. For the same reason, the Indian musicological scholarship), musical (“Manipulation by Music”) and five chap- immediate physiological and psycholog- tions behind Bollywood music and why government founded institutions like progress in the non-West remained ters in two parts on the social control of ical effects on people’ but ‘the extent to is it always played so incredibly loudly the Indira Gandhi National Centre for much under the influence of (neo-) music (“Manipulation of Music”). which there is a deterministic relation- in Indian buses? Equally, the controlling the Arts and made use of its monopoly colonialism. ship between a given musical parameter developments and changes in musical over All India Radio (and later state tel- In the first part “Music Events”, Ellen and its effect, independent of cultural style and sound, musical behaviour and evision) to disseminate national music. The hegemony of Western music in Dissanayake draws parallels between mediation and individual experience’ musical conceptualisation as a result By broadcasting Indian classical music colonised cultures led to the subsequent ‘the evolutionary (biological) process remains to be questioned (p. 143). In part of colonialism merits further schol- on the radio, the government not only decline of traditional music making of “ritualization” in animal communi- three “Audiovisual Media”, the essays by, arly investigation. Recently, Gregory D. aimed at improving the public’s knowl- because of its relegation from central cation and the ritual (cultural) uses of respectively, Philip Tagg, Rob Strachan Booth (2005) wrote about the (colonial) edge of music but also manipulating its ritual and social functions to ‘native’ musical behaviour in human rites or and Claudia Bullerjahn consider the history and social role of Indian wed- taste. The harmonium, for example, was and ‘tribal’ contexts, such as entertain- ceremonies’ (p. 32). Despite the com- manipulative potential of music that ding bands. Likewise, for example, a banned from the radio until the early ment for tourists or celebration of the merciality of music today, she believes occurs in a wide range of mass media study about the influence of Christian 1970s. In the footsteps of Rabindrinath past. The performances of gamelans that ‘it is still possible in music to set - including film, television, commercials hymnody and the harmonium on north Tagore and Western ethnomusicologists (orchestras) on Bali and, as discussed aside, to some degree, everyday knowl- and music videos - as well as at music Indian popular music traditions or one like A.H. Fox Strangways and Arnold by Helen Rees (2000), Naxi music in edge and experience so that… we can events and as background music. about the manner in which Sikh sacred Bake, the Indian government declared China’s Yunnan province are only two enter an “extra-ordinary” state, some- music was canonised under colonial that the instrument’s fixed-pitch did not examples. Alternatively, one of the posi- times even feeling transformed’ (p. 51). In part four “Governmental/Industrial rule would be welcome. < confirm Indian flexible intonation and tive effects of colonialism for instance Peter J. Martin argues that going to a Control”, Marie Korpe, Ole Reitov and therefore was harmful both to the sing- remains the introduction of the Western modern classical, jazz, pop or any other Martin Cloonan focus on religion and References er’s and audience’s perception of musi- violin in South Indian Karnatic music concert, shows signs of formalised ritual government as the two main agents of - Booth, Gregory D., 2005. Brass Baja: Sto- cal refinement. Likewise, songs from (Meunier 2006; Weidman 2006). and reinforces identity. Ulrik Volgsten, music censorship. Besides the former ries from the World of Indian Wedding Bands, films that contained elements derived then, emphasises that both the language Soviet bloc, Nazi Germany, South Africa New Delhi: Oxford University Press. from Western popular music, were Consensus and conflict around music, that is culturally internal- and the United States (where jazz and - Meunier, Jean Henri, 2006. Violin from the banned from radio on moral grounds. Governmental and religious music cen- ised by the listener, and mass media pro- rock music have been called the work Heart: Biography of Dr. L. Subramaniam Alternately, to breed the idea of unity sorship is just one of the themes dis- vide increasing possibilities for musical of Satan), they also refer to the extreme (DVD), Living Media India Ltd. through diversity, All India Radio fre- cussed in Music and Manipulation. All manipulation. In part two “Background cases of music censorship in Iran under - Rees, Helen, 2000. Echoes of History: Naxi quently broadcasted manipulated ses- contributors consider music as a com- Music”, Adrian C. North and David J. Ayatollah Khomeini and in Afghanistan Music in Modern China, New York: Oxford sions of Indian folk music, whereby under the Taliban. Afterwards, Joseph J. University Press. arrangements of the traditional songs Moreno discusses the bizarre employ- - Weidman, Amanda J., 2006. Singing the were recorded with studio musicians. ment of music during the Holocaust Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postco- and Roger Wallis deals with the indus- lonial Politics of Music in South India, Dur- The comparison between India and trial control of music (i.e. the world ham: Duke University Press. Pakistan is interesting. Like Christen- of music copyright and the record- dom, Islam has an ambivalent attitude ing industry). In part five “Control by Bob van der Linden (Ph.D., University of towards music. The Quran does not Reuse” Ola Stockfelt looks at the moral Amsterdam 2004) is a historian of modern mention anything at all about the mak- questions surrounding the re-use of South Asia and a practiced musician. His ing of music but it is generally forbid- music. Closely related, Ulrik Volgsten book Tradition, Rationality and Social Con- den by the ulema on the basis of the and Yngve Åkerberg investigate the pros sciousness: the Singh Sabha, Arya Samaj and hadith. Even so, though the Muslim and cons of music copyright and, for Ahmadiyah Moral Languages from Colonial clergy solely legitimises the quasi-mys- example, ask themselves: ‘who would Punjab is forthcoming with Manohar in New tical chanting of the Quran and the call find it logical to pay a fee to Einstein (or Delhi and his new research project concerns to prayer, music is played in numerous his heritors) every time “his” knowledge the relationship between music and empire Islamic folk and art traditions. A good Sitar player. would be used for something?’ (p. 355). in Britain and India.: example is Qawwali music of South www.songsofjonath- In the epilogue, the editors reconsider [email protected] Asia, originally sung and played at the onwilson.com the ambiguous relationship between

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 3 5 > Review Japanese apologies

Yamazaki, Jane W. 2006. Japanese Apologies for World War II: A Rhetorical Study. London and New York: Routledge. xii, 196 pages, ISBN 0 415 35565 6 In August 1995, as the 50th anniver- compensation for victims of Japanese Gerhard Krebs sary of the second world war’s end aggression. The different political atti- approached, the Socialist Murayama tudes – conservative versus left-wing he Japanese government turns a Tomiichi led a coalition government – are also reflected in the choice of Tblind eye to the country’s colonial that included his long-time enemy, the expressions: ‘comfort women’ versus and second world war misdeeds – so conservative LDP. A known pacifist ‘sex slaves’, ‘Nanking incident’ versus goes the oft-heard criticism that peri- and advocate of non-alignment, neu- ‘Nanking massacre’, ‘China Incident’ odically creates tension throughout the trality and a closer relationship with versus ‘China War’. Yamazaki sees the Far East. Jane Yamazaki, however, chal- Asian nations, Murayama apologised conservative aversion to apology as an lenges the view that Japan has never no differently than Kaifu, Miyazawa or expression of a masochistic view of his- apologised for past crimes, and argues Hosokawa had, yet the world took him tory and also of a fear that apologising instead that the rest of the world has much more seriously. Ironically, his would imply the Emperor’s responsibil- turned a deaf ear on repeated Japanese South Korean chil- stature as an apology advocate under- ity, if not culpability. But she neglects to expressions of regret. In recent decades dren taking part in mined his own government’s recogni- sufficiently address conservatives’ fear Tokyo has apologised several times in anti-Japanese demon- tion of his apology: after a long debate that admission of guilt would invite different ways ranging from merely strations. and vociferous right wing pressure, demands for compensation. making excuses to expressing sincere the resulting Diet resolution was so regret. The problem often lies in lan- watered down that the word ‘apology’ Appearing unrepentant guage, since Japanese can be difficult to the past by merely saying, ‘At one time, Simultaneously, however, Japan stub- didn’t even appear. This reinforced the The author believes that the South translate or leave a lot of room for inter- there were unfortunate events between bornly denied maintaining second world outside world’s impression that Japan Korean government was ready to accept pretation. Yamazaki, therefore, not only our countries’. war ‘comfort stations’ with forced pros- had never apologised at all. Later prime Japan’s 1965 apology – its ‘hansei’ on details the history of Japan’s multiple titutes, most of them Korean. Cornered ministers, all of them conservative, the occasion of normalising relations – apologies; concentrating on the years In 1982 a controversy erupted over by Japanese historians, Cabinet Secre- restated Murayama’s apology almost but that the Korean public was not. The between 1984 and 1995, she also analy- alleged revisions of Japanese history in tary Katô Kôichi publicly apologised verbatim. Chinese government’s situation was ses their rhetoric and translates differ- school textbooks. Following what was to the ‘victims’ (‘higaisha’) in January similar, she says, but it later changed ent expressions. perceived by many as Japan’s less than 1992. Visiting Korea the same month, The politics of apologia: Why its attitude. Unfortunately, Yamazaki’s diplomatic handling of the situation, Prime Minister Miyazawa Kiichi even say sorry? study ends with the year 1995, after From ‘hansei’ to ‘chinsha’: violent reactions occurred in China called Japan the ‘aggressor/perpetrator’ Other nations also hate to apologise for which the Chinese repeatedly cam- how to say ‘sorry’ and South Korea. The rising tensions (‘kagaisha’). wrongdoings, the author writes, and paigned to blame Japan for its alleged Yamazaki begins her chronology of induced Japanese politicians to apolo- cites as an example the long overdue lack of sensibility. Japanese apologies with the 1965 gise more clearly, though they still used Prime Minister Hosokawa Morihiro’s American apology to Japanese-Ameri- normalisation of relations with South the rather lightweight ‘hansei’. In 1985, August 1993 apology resembled Kaifu’s cans for their internment during the Other Asian countries believe Japan Korea, when Foreign Minister Shiina for example, on the United Nations’ in 1990, but with one addition that other second world war. She finds Ameri- shouldn’t feel guilty or apologise at all. Etsusaburô expressed ‘true regret’ 40th anniversary, Prime Minister Naka- politicians later reiterated several times: can and British apologies are typically Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Burma (‘makoto ni ikan’) and ‘deep remorse’ sone Yasuhiro declared, ‘Since the end that Japan ‘will demonstrate a new deter- selective and ignore broader cases such and Indonesia have taken a neutral atti- (‘fukaku hansei’) over an ‘unfortunate of the war, Japan has profoundly regret- mination by contributing more than as slavery, the use of napalm in Viet- tude, holding that Japan should concen- period in our countries’ history’. Japan ted [kibishiku hansei] the unleash- ever before to world peace’. Hosokawa’s nam or the British Opium War. Indeed, trate on present and future problems later used the same term in a joint coming of rampant ultra nationalism and cabinet included three ministers of the when France passed a law, in February instead of wasting time and energy on muniqué when it normalised relations militarism and the war that brought Socialist Party, which had been calling 2005, requiring history education in historiographical reflection. They sup- with China in 1972: ‘The Japanese side great devastation to the people of many for reconciliation with other Asian peo- schools and universities to emphasise port the position of Japanese apolo- is keenly conscious of the responsibil- countries around the world and to our ples and ‘sincere Japanese apologies to the ‘positive role’ of the French colonial gists, who claim that the second world ity for the serious damage that Japan country as well’. While regretting past achieve that goal’. In Korea in Novem- presence on other continents, it spurred war was fought for the liberation of Asia caused in the past to the Chinese peo- wrongs, Yasuhiro stressed that Japan ber 1993, Hosokawa ‘apologised from harsh criticism by the French left and from white domination. Taiwan’s reti- ple through war, and deeply reproach- had suffered, too, a tactic repeated by the heart’ (‘chinsha’) for ‘Japan’s past vehement protests in the countries cence, meanwhile, probably reflects its es itself [fukaku hansei]’. ‘Hansei’ other politicians. colonial rule’, calling his country the concerned, above all in Algeria and the ambivalence toward its former coloniser (‘remorse’, ‘reflection’) is actually a aggressor/perpetrator (‘kagaisha’). The Antilles. (1895-1945), close economic partner and weak expression of apology. Even soft- The stronger ‘owabi’ (‘apology’) was Japanese public approved of his men- ally in its campaign for recognition as er was Emperor Hirohito’s reference to first expressed in 1990, by Prime Min- tion of ‘aggression’ and ‘colonial rule’, As for Japan, Yamazaki admits that its the legitimate government of China, at Japan’s treatment of China during the ister Kaifu Toshiki to South Korean but conservatives bristled. Having gone apologies are sometimes expressed least until Taipei lost that fight in 1972. second world war while visiting Presi- President Roh, and has been used regu- beyond what fellow party members and only in a general way concerning war- dent Ford in 1975: ‘The peoples of both larly since: ‘...the people of the Korean his coalition government were willing fare, aggression, war atrocities or colo- Though the author herself admits that countries...endured a brief, unfortu- peninsula experienced unbearable grief to admit, Hosokawa was at times forced nial rule, but she also provides several some Japanese apologies have been nate ordeal as storms raged in the usu- and suffering because of actions of our to backtrack. Nevertheless, the next examples of apology for specific violent insufficient, her evidence that they ally quiet Pacific’. Three years later, country...[we/I] are humbly remorse- Prime Minister, Hata Tsutomu, uttered events or practices, such as the Nanking have been expressed is convincing. when Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiao ful [hansei] on this and wish to note almost the same words in a May 1994 massacre, biochemical warfare, sexual But the period covered by Yamazaki’s Ping visited Japan, Hirohito referred to our frank feelings of apology [owabi]’. Diet speech. slavery, and mistreatment of allied sol- study ended over ten years ago. Since diers and civilians. Japan’s reasons for that time, regardless of any apologies apologising, according to Yamazaki, expressed, Prime Minister Koizumi’s are several: to repair relations with numerous visits to the Yasukuni Shrine Asian countries; to stimulate national and the Ministry of Education’s approv- self-reflection and a learning process al of controversial textbooks, (in 2001 leading to a new, improved identity; to and 2005), that present a ‘new view’ of affirm moral principles. She also cites national history, have renewed a per- the historian Yoshida Yutaka, who sees ception of Japan as unrepentant. Still, apologies and other conciliatory strate- Yamazaki’s book is a valuable response gies as motivated by the Japanese ambi- to the question of how Japan has dealt tion to assert leadership in Asia. But the with its own history and of how the domestic call for self-reflection is also world has, or has not, responded. < motivated by opposition parties or new administrations who wish to criticise Gerhard Krebs previous ones – most clearly demon- Berlin Free University strated by Prime Minister Hosokawa in [email protected] 1993.

Japanese left-wing groups, unlike conservatives, are vehemently antimilitaris- tic and see the second world war as an Prime Minister instance of Japanese imperialism. Advo- Koizumi still visits cating closer ties with China, Korea and the controversial other Asian countries, they consistently Yasukuni Shrine. demand a more remorseful stance and

3 6 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Review Parting the Mists

Wong, Aida Yuen. 2006. Parting the Mists, Discovering Japan and the Rise of National-Style Painting in Modern China. Series: Asian Interactions and Comparisons Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. ISBN 978 o 8248 2952 o

Lucien van Valen

ida Yuen Wong’s Parting the Mists in 1884’.2 Although Wong might be cor- Zhang Daqian Past: The Paintings of Chang Daichien. Aportrays Japan as having exerted a rect in her assumption that Zhang must Washington, D.C.: Arthur M. Sackler Gal- positive and dynamic role in the devel- have known Kano Hogai’s painting at lery; Seattle: University of Washington opment of ‘national-style painting’ in least in reproduction, her conclusion Press, p. 153. China. Using art, historical and lin- is mistaken. In the Sackler collection 2 Hogai, Kano. 1884. Gallant Steed under guistic sources, Wong focuses on the I have seen the original painting that a Cherry tree. Ink and color on paper, gradual transition to modernism in is identified as the model for Zhang’s 137.9 cm x 63 cm. Collection of Bansho traditional Chinese art circles in the painting: Tartare Horsemen and a Rolling Co. Japan. Source: Conant Ellen P. et al. late 19th and early 20th centuries, a Horse.3 If we compare Zhang’s painting Nihonga, transcending the past : Japanese- disturbing period of social and political with this 14th century work, it’s evident style painting, 1868-1968, St. Louis, MO, unrest in China, when its artists looked that this theme has been part of Chi- 1995, p. 135. to Europe and Japan. Foreign influ- nese imagery for centuries, and long 3 Tartare Horsemen and a Rolling Horse. ences in technique and imagery were before the Hogai painting. Wong must 14th-15th century. Silk on panel, 120 cm x used by some and despised by others. have overlooked this painting in her 46.3 cm; Acc. No F 1916.526. In Wong’s vision Japanese influence is comparison. 4 Beerens, Anna. 2006. Friends Acquaint- responsible for the emerging guohua ances, Pupils and Patrons, Japanese Intellec- (‘national-style painting’) as a style of This leads to another flaw. China always tual Life in the Late Eighteenth Century: a modern Chinese painting. Coupling art had a strong tradition of artists follow- Prosopographical Approach. Leiden: Leiden and politics, she takes the discourse to a ing the great Chinese masters of the China, while hua, 画, means painting. University Press. another level: ‘Despite its imperialistic past, which have been discussed and But Wong argues that guohua, 国画, is ambition in China, Japan emerges…as honoured in traditional Chinese paint- adopted from the Japanese kokuga, 国 Lucien van Valen a critical ingredient in China’s imagi- ing manuals. To illustrate her argument 画. A mere comparison of the written is a sinologist and painter. She trained at nation of “the nation”…the forging of a that modernism in Chinese art history characters makes Wong’s argument dis- the Gerrit Rietveld Academy in Amster- nationalist tradition in modern China books must be ascribed to Japanese appear into the mist. < dam. Later she studied Chinese Language was frequently pursued in association influence, Wong sometimes turns to and Cultures at the University of Leiden. with, rather than in rejection of, Japan’ ‘facts’ that are not solid. For example, in She finished her PhD with the thesis ‘The (p. 100). chapter two, ‘Nationalism and the writ- Matter of Chinese Painting, Case studies ing of new histories’, Zheng Wuchang Notes of 8th century Murals’ in 2005. It is very likely that the Chinese were (1894-1952) is presented as an ‘art- 1 Daqian, Zhang. 1946. Horse and Groom. She currently researches chinese paint- influenced by their oppressor during ist-cum-art teacher’ and a promoter of Ink and color on paper, 94.5 cm x 46.3 ing materials. that dramatic period in history, but I guohua. Zheng wrote several books on cm. Private collection. Source: Shen C.Y. [email protected] doubt the Chinese will ever be able to Chinese art and, according to Wong, Fu with Jan Stuart. 1991. Challenging the accept Wong’s concept. (It’s a starting ‘was determined to prove that Chinese point I myself find hard to digest). That were more than capable of writing their said, the book reveals many interesting own history of art’ (pp. 49, 50). Yet on [advertisement] personal meetings and well document- the next page she writes, ‘Although ed anecdotes, for example, about the Zheng Wuchang was not beholden to exchange of works of art. Fukuzawa, Taguchi, or any single Japa- nese scholar in particular, he must have Overlooked evidence known the two surveys by Omura Sei- To support her theory Wong analyses gai and Pan Tianshou.’ Wong repeated- several aspects of the artistic discourse; ly uses ‘must have known’ to establish she addresses the education of Chinese facts to prove her argument. intellectuals and artists in Japan and meetings between artists and entrepre- Japanese ‘Chinese-ness’? neurs, and provides rich information on In her concluding chapter, ‘Six Exhibi- early 20th century Chinese histories of tions and Sino-Japanese Diplomacy’, art written by Chinese or Japanese con- Wong presents a string of events and noisseurs. At the beginning of the 20th meetings between Chinese artists and century large numbers of Chinese art- their Japanese colleagues as a final ists and intellectuals travelled to Japan, proof of her theory. But for at least two as Wong writes, ‘to be educated’ (p. centuries before this period, in certain xxiv), language that suggests the trend circles Japanese intellectuals had been was the equivalent of Japanese develop- copying ‘Chinese-ness’.4 Giving parts of ment aid to the Chinese. She provides this tradition back to China can hardly a detailed overview of the early art his- qualify as ‘Japanese influence’. Rather, torical surveys published in Japan and mutual influence between Japanese China, basing her argument on her and Chinese art has been indisputably analysis and comparison of their struc- present over a long period of history. ture and content. Few European examples are mentioned and she focuses I enjoyed reading the book for the over- mainly on Japanese written sources. all impression it presented of a time of great change and moments of contact Wong presents several paintings as evi- between two great Eastern traditions, dence of her theory. Of Horse and Groom but I am not persuaded by the writer’s by Zhang Daqian (Chang Dai-qian, theory that Japan was ‘the critical ingre- 1899-1983, p. 19), which was exhib- dient in China’s imagination of “the ited in a Zhang retrospective at Wash- nation”’. I want to come back to the term ington, D.C.’s Sackler Gallery, Wong guohua in connection to ‘nationalism’. writes, ‘The animals twisted torso and Wong writes, ‘The binome guohua was dancing hooves, as well as the groom’s derived from the Japanese kokuga’ (page strained posture, were not taken from 12). In fact, traditional Chinese painting the Tang dynasty or the Song dynasty, as was, and still is, called Zhongguohua, 中 stated in the catalogue, but from Meiji 国画, in contrast to Yanghua, 洋画, ‘for- Japan.1 Zhang’s painting closely resem- eign painting’. The term guohua, 国画, bles Kano Hogai’s Gallant Steed under a can be taken as short for Zhongguohua. Cherry Tree, a work shown at the Second Guo, 国, means country and Zhong- Domestic Painting Exhibition in Tokyo guo, 中国, is the chinese name for

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 3 7 > Review Lucknow: City of Illusion

Llewellyn-Jones, Rosie. ed. 2006. Lucknow: City of Illusion: New York, London, New Delhi: Prestel and the Alkazi Collection of Photography. 296 pages, ISBN 3 7913 313o 2

Felice Beato, albumen print 1858. Panorama of the Husainabad Imambara, Lucknow. The Alkazi Collection

Gerda Theuns-de Boer Monumental grief into a city of severe grief. The albumen sepoys, (Indian soldiers who served in records of human and monumental Architecture is the focus of the book prints of the Greek-British photographer the British armed forces), he decided to disaster. His photographs of the human his beautifully produced and print- as it is the only means to express not Felice Beato (1834-c.1907) are the main come down from the Crimea, where he remains of the slaughter of around Ted book presents a visual and his- only the city ‘s former wealth, but also source for studying the city‘s architec- had been photographing, among other 2000 sepoys in Lucknow‘s Sikandar toric record of the development of the the effects of general decay and the par- ture and design in the direct aftermath things, the fall of Sebastopol in Sep- Bagh are renowned, but it is his images city of Lucknow, (Uttar Pradesh, India), tial destruction caused by the ‘1857-58 of the mutiny and are well represented tember 1855. He arrived in Calcutta in of the ruined city which are featured in from its establishment as the Nawabi Uprising‘, (a mutiny by Indian soldiers in the book.2 Beato is regarded as one of February 1858. In March of that same this book. capital in 1775 until its annexation by serving under the British Army), in the first war photographers, document- year he was licenced by the East India the British East India Company in 1856. which ‘large sectors of a once radiant ing army campaigns and their devastat- Company to photograph in Lucknow, The prints evoke the oppressive atmos- The main visual source of the material and sparkling city were reduced to rub- ing effects. The moment he heard of Cawnpur and Delhi.3 His photographs phere of a city in ruins, with its ‘sounds used is the fabulous Alkazi photo col- ble’, (p.7). Lucknow was transformed the British campaigns against the rebel have become landmark visual historic of silence’. The absence of people in lection.1 This naturally brings the focus the compositions and the limited tone of the book on the second half of the scale of 19th century photography, add a 19th century. A time when photogra- Felice Beato, albu- sense of drama. The eight enlargements phy developed from pioneering activi- men prints 1858. Four of Beato‘s 360 degree panoramic views ties into professionalism and advancing albumen photographs taken from the minarets of the Asafi photomechanical techniques resulted from a set of eight Mosque within the Great Imambara in the birth of the postcard, around views taken from one Complex, have great historic value and 1895. A selection of photographs dat- of the minarets of the also bear witness to the British efforts ing from the 1850s to the 1920s testify Asafi Mosque, Great to hastily dispose of any references to to the original context of the buildings, Imambara, Lucknow. the city‘s former glory by general clear- their alterations and decay or even their ance. disappearance. The book successfully merges, (and therefore strengthens), a From Kothi to country house number of different sources. The qual- But the book is not meant to commem- ity of both the research by its seven con- orate the Uprising. Its seven contribu- tributors and the careful selection of tors construct a contextual background the imagery, originating from 15 early to the many photographs and other photographers, makes this book a treat. illustrations which are rendered to For too long the written and the visual sketch Lucknow‘s development from record were explicitly separated, as if a Nawabi capital into a spatial organi- its respective scholars missed the drive sation influenced by European styles to look beyond their self-constructed and programmes of decorations, testi- walls. Historical books were sparsely fying to the growing political pressure illustrated, which resulted in readers on the indigenous rulers, the Awa- having to put their own, not always dhi nawabs. Whereas Sophie Gordon accurate, interpretation on the text; focuses on the nine royal palaces which whereas photo books still had a strong constituted the dream world of Nawabi album format, predominantly stressing culture from 1739 onwards, E. Alkazi the picturesque, but seldom contextual- and Peter Chelkowski focus on Luc- ising their historical content. know‘s number one monument - the

3 8 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Review

Bara Imambara or the Asafi Imambara. cussed by Nina David. It is a tribute to catalogue part of the book in thumbnail- Notes 4 To catch some more glimpses see Sophie Built by Kifayutaullah between 1784- the French military man, educationalist, format and the short descriptions of 1 The privately owned Alkazi Archive is Gordon‘s article ‘A city of mourning: The 1791, this is the world‘s largest complex ‘engineer-architect’ and businessman, Lucknow ‘s buildings up to 1856, which available for scholars in New York, Lon- representation of Lucknow, India in nine- devoted to the rituals and cult of Shia Claude Martin (1735-1800). The cen- includes details of their current state. don and New Delhi and comprises 75,000 teenth-century photography’, in History of Imam Husain, who was massacred tral building of the complex, known as photographs of South Asia, North Africa Photography 30:11, pp. 80-91. by Sunni muslims in Karbala (Iraq) ‘Constantia’ was turned into a college in In brief, a marvellous book of serious and the Middle East. in 680. Alkazi presents Beato‘s 360 1845 and still functions as such today. scholarship and perfectly reproduced 2 The book also includes a few 1858 views Gerda Theuns-de Boer degree photographic survey of the com- Martin‘s skeletal remains are kept in the prints, which brings out the techni- by Alixis de la Grange, Captain J. Milleken, Art historian for South and Southeast Asia plex - a cluster of buildings and open basement of the building; a tangible ref- cal characteristics of each photograph. P.G. Fitzgerald, Ahmad Ali Khan and Rob- Photography manager, Kern Institute collec- spaces formed by mosques, gateways, erence to a period in which Nawabs and Revealing the splendours of Lucknow‘s ert and Harriet Tytler. tions, University of Leiden tombs and bazars; Chelkowski provides Europeans could live side by side. past, and to some extent, its present, 3 For a selection of his Delhi views see Jim [email protected] a religious and cult framework. The still was a must. If its architecture had not Masselos & Narayani Gupta Beato ‘s extant Husainabad Imambara, built by Although the book is clear in its aims, been the victim of such a monumental Delhi 1857, 1997. Delhi, 2000: Ravi Dayal Muhammad Ali Shah in 1837-78, is the strict focus on architecture results disaster, it would surely have become Publisher. another example of an Islamic‘ monu- in a somewhat ghost-like image of the one of India‘s most beautiful cities. < ment of grief ‘. In Neeta Das‘ contribu- town, in which photographic portraits tion ‘The country houses of Lucknow’, of its inhabitants are seriously missed. we witness the process of acculturation As the Scottish essayist, Thomas Carlyle between Nawabi and Western architec- once wrote ‘portraits are the candle to tural styles. Das discusses fourteen ‘villa history’. The ‘sounds of silence’ of the type’ houses (kothis) made by and for Uprising‘s aftermath dominate the book the European and Indian elite between in this respect. The only photograph the late-18th and early-19th century. which catches a glimpse of street life is a The oldest kothi dates back to 1775 and print of a shopkeeper by Edmund Lyon. was built by Captain Marsack for nawab In all the other photographs people are Asaf-ud-daula, whereas nawab Saadat depersonalised and merely serve the Ali Khan, who commissioned several purpose of stressing the architecture‘s houses and roads, showed a strong pre- monumentality by their limited size.4 dilection for ‘things European’. Rosie Also, the book barely touches upon Llewellyn-Jones traces the history of the early photography as such. How did its Residency complex, the symbol of colo- photographers manage to create these nial power, which started as a modest photographic jewels in a tropical, pho- bungalow, but was replaced in 1786 by tography-hostile environment and by a more impressive series of buildings. what means did they, each in their own After the final siege of the British, the way, succeed in rendering Lucknow‘s demolished, but much photographed, overpowering monumentality and aes- residency became an object of obses- thetics? Thanks to a valuable appendix sive public interest, not least because by Stéphanie Roy, which includes short of its cemetery containing the graves biographies of the various photogra- of British victims. Another intrigu- phers, we at least get to know some of ing monument, La Martinière, is dis- their background. Equally useful is the

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 3 9 > Review Eyes on the Prize

Lovell, Julia. 2006. The Politics of Cultural Capital : China’s Quest for a Nobel Prize in Literature. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 248 pages, ISBN 978 0 8248 3018 2.

Kerry Brown very specific problems, between China unprincipled career of Wang Shuo), and and the West. Lovell gives a very good keep well clear of politics. ack in the mid-1990’s, I was based overview of the huge differences in Bin Inner Mongolia in China. In a understanding on both sides. The con- A celebration of obscurity medium-sized book shop in a small pro- sensus in the West, at least until very Lovell looks too at the careers of those vincial town, I remember coming across recently, was simple: Chinese classical Chinese writers who left China and a multi-volume edition of the main literature, of course, contained some of tried to articulate positions in exile. Peo- works of all of those awarded the Nobel the great works of human culture. But ple like Bei Dao and Yang Lian and the Prize in Literature, translated into Chi- in the last half century, its literary prod- Misty Poets. While they certainly found nese. The series fascinated me because, ucts have been a ‘busted flush’, poleaxed an audience of sorts, as Yang Lian noted, even with the English version supplied, by Maoist realism, and politico-literary they ended up being branded wholly on I was unable to work out who many of constraints. This perception has been their being exiles, expected to produce the Laureates were. Julie Lovell’s study compounded by the generally lamen- further proof of the unending horror Soul Mountain, more introspection than declara- of China’s particular experience of table quality of translations available of the Beijing regime for their western tion of a political manifesto. aspiring to, and winning, Nobel Prizes, in the West. There is nothing on a par audience; commodifying and promot- makes clear that, especially in the field with the excellent products published ing their own pain to get on. This limit- prominent dissident. Choosing poet of Literature, the decisions of the Stock- in Japan, (by, among others, Kodansha ed the ways in which they were received, Bei Dao, perhaps, or other higher pro- holm-based committee have sometimes Gao Xingjian, China’s first, and so far only, Press), disseminating the best that con- and meant that they worked within a file exiled writers would have sparked been palpably political – choosing Win- Nobel Prize winner. temporary Japanese culture can offer. straight-jacket that was placed on them even more umbrage from the cultural ston Churchill as Nobel Laureate in Lit- For many years the best Westerners as soon as they were seen as Chinese apparatchiks in Beijing. Gao Xingjian erature in 1953 – or deliberately strate- more recent writers like Wang Meng. could expect from China were yellowed, poets working outside China. simply baffled most people inside and gic. Exiled playwright and novelist Gao An obscure, exiled writer and painter bulky, stolid tomes issued from the For- outside China. Xingjian was awarded the prize in 2000. whose most significant work in China eign Languages Press in Beijing. These The constellation of competing prob- As Lovell explains, he ticked a number had been a Beckettesque performance lengthy attempts to articulate a Chinese lems, and desires and ambitions was There was an extra dimension to all of useful boxes: he was Chinese; wrote art piece about people waiting for a bus cultural position, (in the hope of it being unlikely to have a good ending. In fact, of this, and though Lovell doesn’t deal experimental, obscure literature; he was in Beijing that never turns up, (Bus seen as credible by Westerners), more the Committee’s choice of Gao Xingjian with it in any detail, it impacted on an émigré and had attracted a small but Stop, 1981), was certainly not what they often than not ended up with works in 2000 was probably less political than the whole issue of awarding the Nobel devoted band of academic followers in felt represented the best their literary that came across as slightly bastardised it might at first appear. Gao was some- Prize to China. That was the internal the West who vouched for his intellec- culture had to offer. The People’s Daily – neither Chinese nor Western – using one who celebrated his obscurity (creat- workings of the Nobel Committee tual authenticity. Despite his relative greeted the announcement of the prize narrative devices and techniques from ing his own ideology of ‘Not I-ism’), took itself, where only one of the members, obscurity, Gao Xingjian was to become in 2000 with a sniffy ‘this is politically one culture and characterisation and few public positions on political issues, Goran Malmqvist, was a Chinese spe- China’s first, and so far only, winner of motivated’ statement. To this day, Gao’s context from another. This was hardly and whose main work, Soul Mountain, cialist. Lovell alludes to the fact that in the Prize. works are not available in mainland helped by a ten year shut down during (first published in English in 2001) the last few years, the Committee have China and his profile there is mini- the Cultural Revolution in which hardly was primarily a narrative of self-explo- almost been seeking out ‘non-Western’ ‘Nobel Prize fever’ mal. It would be interesting to see if an anything was published. In the 1980s, ration – what Lovell amusingly calls recipients. But there is a big question ‘The Politics of Cultural Capital’captures updated version of that series I came the great market reforms introduced a a ‘spermatic tour’ of modern China; mark about how much these decisions an interesting cluster of issues, and it across in the mid-1990’s has a gap cov- similar phenomenon in literature – fol- more introspection than declaration of are almost gestural, or based on any is surprising it has taken this long for ering Gao’s period. low the market, go where the money a political manifesto. He had a devoted general principles of literary judge- someone to look at the subject more can be made, (witness the honourably but small following in Europe, had ment. In its early years, the Commit- closely. The Nobel Prize, in whichever Literature, more than the sciences, was not been part of any distinctly ‘exiled’ tee sought for works which affirmed discipline it is awarded, is in some sense an area of particular aspiration, but also groups, and was unconnected to any ‘universal values’. That meant ignor- an expression of Western commenda- ing writers like James Joyce, Joseph tion, and perhaps even an imposition Conrad and Henry James for a swathe of Western standards and ideals. But its of others whose names are now hardly allure has been reciprocated. Since the remembered. Such ‘universal values’ 1950s, six ethnic Chinese have received have more complex currency these Prizes, however, all of them were based days, and in trying to accommodate abroad. As a result, there’s been a sus- other cultures the Committee has tained attempt in China over the last been pushed into making some mav- two decades to campaign for and secure erick choices. There is also the final Nobel Prizes for mainland scientists, question of just how meaningful these economists and artists, (what Lovell calls prizes ever are. That, however, should ‘Nobel Prize fever’). This odd synergy be the subject of another study. between the Nobel Committee, (implic- itly representative of Western cultural Lovell has picked a good pressure point values), and the PRC (half loathing, half between Chinese and non-Chinese desiring this recognition from outside), understanding. Like the awarding of the captures many of the paradoxes of mod- 2008 Olympics to Beijing, the symbolic ernism in China. The recurring issue of import of a Nobel Prize and the ‘cultur- how much China can, in its transforma- al capital’ it brought was to be judged tion and reconstruction, ‘use foreigners worthy of a long hard campaign. While for China’s good’ (weizhong liwai). Find- the Olympics seem to have paid off, (we ing the balance between maintaining will have to wait until the summer of elements intrinsic to its own identity 2008 to see if it really is the case), the while also exploiting the advantages of Nobel Prize in Literature awarded in foreign-inspired modernisation without 2000 put paid, at least temporarily, to being overwhelmed by them. The ten- aspirations in that direction. The big- sion between these competing urges ger question remains: just how far, in has run throughout China’s history in the 21st century, the PRC can translate the last two centuries. its immense economic growth and soft power into hard power and a positive Gao Xingjian, while being most defi- cultural influence that is recognised nitely Chinese (despite now being a and understood outside of China. That resident of France, he lived in China till involves the issues of nation branding he was 47) was certainly not what the that most other nations are also grap- Chinese cultural apparatchiks and lead- pling with. < ers had in mind during their years of lobbying as a suitable recipient. They Kerry Brown would have desired someone like the Associate Fellow, Chatham House, UK great Qian Zhongshu, or Ba Jin, or Nobel Prize medal. © The Nobel Foundation. [email protected]

4 0 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Review Negotiating the state in Mughal India

Hasan, Farhat. 2004. State and Locality in Mughal India: Power Relations in Western India, c. 1572-1730. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 144 pages, ISBN 0 521 84119 4

Karuna Sharma themselves reinforcing and perpetuat- action are examined through the lens of ing the system of rule. Hasan calls this the locality. Local evidence pertaining to tate and Locality in Mughal India process the ‘ritualised participation’ of marriages, property transactions, and Sattempts to study the nature of subaltern society in the political system. resistance is analysed and interpreted in power in early modern South Asia and Other forms of resistance included vio- such a way that the notion of a contested the relationship between imperial sov- lent actions (as in the khutba episode, yet shared sovereignty stands justified. ereignty and local networks of power. which appears to have challenged the The book’s underlying assumption that The initial overview of the historiog- legitimacy of imperial sovereignty) and the state and the locality represented raphy of the Mughal state outlines the social crimes and banditry, which were two distinct political entities, however, ‘structural-functionalist state’ model acts of popular retribution for infringe- belies the fact that the state itself was of the so-called Aligarh School and ments of the shared normative system, fluid. Like the normative system, the the ‘patrimonial-bureaucratic state’ as namely the sharia. The mode of resist- Mughal state was not a rigid and fixed well as the ‘processual’ models as the ance employed by merchants, analysed edifice. Depending upon circumstances, major approaches to date. The present here in detail, differed from other forms it adopted different approaches towards book is a critique of these models since, since the presence of corporate mer- accommodation or exclusion at differ- in the author’s view, they ‘isolate the chant bodies made it easier for both ent times and places. In the same way, state from social forces and overlook merchants and the state to contain areas the locality was quite fragmented in its the extent of interconnectedness’. The of potential conflict within the existing articulation of power and influence. The author engages with various theoretical political framework. Mumtaz Mahal, second wife of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan I. Her name means ‘beloved ornament of state did not approve of acts of trans- frameworks in which power has been the palace’. gression and was quick to act to main- conceptualised (by Foucault and many The normative system assumes central tain its system of rule. Contestation or other social theorists) to locate accom- importance in Hasan’s analysis of resist- in the town was integrated with the local local gentry and merchant classes. The resistance thus took place within the modation of local interests within the ance since all contestations necessarily system of power, functioning through reorganisation of fiscal administration framework of the state, not outside it. system of rule to illuminate the actual took place within this framework. He networks of alliances with local power by integrating local structure of levies Whatever reservations one might have functioning of the Mughal state. Cull- notes that people would often appropri- holders (such as merchants). The con- within imperial system further aug- about the author’s theoretical approach, ing information from extant Persian ate the sharia in articulating resistance, solidation of sovereignty in the towns mented the perquisites and privileges of the book is a brilliant attempt toward documents pertaining to two important irrespective of their religious affilia- thus entailed a growing and more rooted the local power holders. Thus in a bid to an understanding of the nature of the commercial towns of Gujarat, Surat and tions, and reiterates the subalterns’ use redistribution of the state’s resources. wrest cooperation from local social and Mughal state as it functioned in certain Cambay, the author tries integrating the of ambiguities present in the sharia to political elites, the state created its own localities of Gujarat. < contestations from the weaker sections their advantage. In order to stress the Hasan’s study brings to light various circuits which checked or curtailed pow- of society to emphasise that imperial ‘plasticity of sharia’ he shows how one ways through which the local power ers of the state. Karuna Sharma specialises in medieval power was constantly in a state of nego- subordinated group, women, manipu- holders and their customary practices This book is a solid piece of research Indian history, particularly aspects of labour, tiation. lated it. Using local Persian documents impacted upon imperial sovereignty, and the author has culled information sexuality, and culture. concerning marriage transactions and showing the negotiated character of from hitherto neglected Persian sourc- [email protected] Hasan argues that negotiations, forg- property transference, Hasan demon- Mughal rule and its empowering of the es. The dynamics of local-imperial inter- ing alliances and winning allegiance strates that women were able to defend were more important factors in Mughal their symbolic and material interests. [advertisement] political success than military fastidi- For example, ordinary women quite ousness. Through these processes, the often exploited the sharia’s ambigui- local power holders could be incorpo- ties to get certain terms and conditions rated within the imperial structure of included in their marriage contracts. rule and won over by the state as necessary adjuncts and co-sharers of power Property and revenue in mutually reinforcing relationships. That the imperial system was at times They shared honours and perquisites, vulnerable and that it co-opted pre- but without actually appropriating the existing beliefs is again shown through rituals and symbols of imperial sover- an analysis of documents relating eignty. All of this led to a widening of to the sale and purchase of property. the base of Mughal rule in Gujarat. The The buyers and sellers and the proc- devolution of imperial power was not ess of approval and confirmation of confined to local elites but permeated the important residents, who stood as down to the common people as well. surety to the property transactions, sig- This aspect of interconnectedness is nified a perpetual control of community already relatively well accepted in the and social units of residence which the historiography of the Mughal state, but author calls the ‘community-muhalla Hasan’s analysis of the attitudes and compact. The complex power relations responses of subordinated social groups involved in property transactions and to the state, through the examples of dif- the fusing of the domestic sphere with ferent socially disadvantaged groups, the larger system of rule is illustrated represents a crucial departure from the by an analysis of how the office of the conventional history. qazi (an official appointee to settle disputes and punish offenders) functioned Subaltern contestation in close collusion with local structures The system of rule based on alliance of power. This office, which was rooted with the local intermediaries was con- in local power relations, could be appro- tested by subordinate sections of the priated by social actors to preserve their society. To the latter, this ‘compact of interests. An understanding of the rule’ was an undifferentiated oppressive qazi’s role in property transactions system and popular resistance was in sheds further light on the participatory, fact articulated against this. Resistance shared nature of the Mughal state. in any form, the author suggests, was a political means by which the common The imperial fiscal system is yet another people interacted with the state and par- sphere that was regularly modified and ticipated in the system of rule. Through reshaped by local power holders, mer- social protests, they could make those chant bodies, and subordinate groups. in power aware of the limits to their In addition to this system, there were authority. Yet by constantly drawing local customary levies which, though this to their attention, through sym- officially illegal, nevertheless had to be bolic protests and other forms of resist- co-opted into the system of rule. The ance, subordinate groups were in fact imperial system of revenue realisation

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 4 1 > Announcements

Independence and after in • Economic reforms and inequality trends: Shippensburg PA 17257 BACS promotes scholarship on all disci- of John Gaddis and others. But scholars Southeast Asia: Old and the politics of measurement and percep- [email protected] plines relating to China, both traditional in the Asia region and around the world new interpretations tion and modern, and including China proper, have just begun to explore its Asian vari- • Growth and inequality under reforms: other Chinese-speaking areas and the ations as archives have slowly become APRU School of Humanities conference political causes and consequences Thai societies in a diaspora. We welcome papers across the available. The Cold War in Asia was dif- 14-15 August 2007, Penang, Malaysia • Political-Economic institutions of gov- transnationalised world whole spectrum. ferent than in Europe because it became ernance and growth a hot war with real conflict in Korea and 2007 marks the 50th anniversary of • Social and regional inequalities: does 10th International Conference on Thai The BACS Annual Conference welcomes Vietnam. As Chen Jian has argued, Asia, Merdeka (independence) for Malaysia. faster growth help of hurt? Studies international and UK based participants, and specifically, China was at the centre Malaysia attained political independence • Social policies for re-dressing social ine- 9-11 January 2008, Bangkok, Thailand both members and non-members, to of the Cold War. The Asian theatre was from British colonial rule in August 1957 qualities: the politics of principles and Call for papers. offer papers or just attend the conference. complex and dynamic as geopolitics and through constitutional means. This led to practices Deadline 30 September 2007 There will be distinguished keynote speak- ideological differences were intertwined a smooth handing over of power to Tunku • What constrains redistribution under ers in plenary sessions, specialist panels with historical links and cultural ties. Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj - the prime unequalising growth: politics or eco- The 10th International Conference on Thai and postgraduate student sessions. For Since Akira Iriye pioneered the field, too minister and architect of Merdeka. Other nomics? Studies intends to bring together scholars further details visit www.bacsuk.org.uk few scholars have explored the Cold War countries in the region endured years of from all disciplines and intellectual per- in Asia from Asian perspectives and more conflict and bloodshed before independ- The theme demands trespassing across spectives to discuss the transformation importantly the “soft” side of this global ence from colonial rule was achieved, the disciplinary boundaries and so ISA of Thai Societies in a Transnationalised CESS 2007 as well as regional conflict. The goal of most recent being Timor Leste in 2002. extends a special invitation to scholars World: how transnationalism affects the this conference is to challenge the con- The notable exception is Thailand which in economics, sociology, anthropology, nation’s life, prospects and identities; Central Eurasian Studies Society ventional wisdom on the Cold War and escaped the shackles of colonial domina- political science and geography. what kind of challenges awaits Thai soci- 8th Annual Conference launch the study of the Cold War in Asia tion by remaining the only independent, ety; how traditions could be modified 18 - 21 October 2007, Seattle, USA from an Asian perspective first with a sovereign nation-state in Southeast Asia. * probable dates for the conference. and new mechanisms devised to cope conference that will include the following with current and emerging challenges; The 8th annual conference of the Cen- major themes: The discourse of nations achieving politi- For information about ISAS and updates and how Thailand can contribute to the tral Eurasian Studies Society (CESS) will • the propaganda and print war, anti-com- cal independence and the characterisation on the conference visit world’s peace and prosperity. The dead- be held at the University of Washington, munist and anti-imperialist of the years that followed as the ‘postco- www.isas.nus.edu.sg line for abstract and full paper submission hosted by the Ellison Center for Russian, • the ping pong and other styles of “soft” lonial’ period has long been a mainstay of is September 30, 2007. East European and Central Asian Stud- diplomacy the academic agenda in studies of South- Or contact the organising committee: ies. • the social and material legacy, civilian east Asia, particularly in the disciplines of Institute of South Asian Studies For more information please contact web- The conference aims to raise topics and mobilisation for example history, political science, economics, lit- 469A Tower Block, site http://www.thaiconference.tu.ac.th discussions relating to all aspects of • the ideological war/alliance, the Band- erature and language, anthropology, and Bukit Timah Road #07-01 or e-mail [email protected] humanities and social science scholar- ung conference for example sociology. The road to independence was Singapore 259770 The Tenth International Conference on ship on Central Eurasia. The geographic • Americanisation/Westernisation of Asian often long and arduous. The years follow- [email protected] Thai Studies domain of Central Eurasia extends from popular culture, movies for example ing the attainment of national sovereignty The Thai Khadi Research Institute the Black Sea and Iranian Plateau to Mon- • the continuing Cold War in Asia, contin- were equally troublesome with seemingly Thammasat University golia and Siberia, including the Caucasus, ued American presence in the region insurmountable challenges. Whilst Malay- Rapid urbanisation in Asia Bangkok 10200, THAILAND Crimea, Middle Volga, Afghanistan, Tibet, sia faced the sensitive issue of managing Tel 662-6133201-5 ext 22 and Central and Inner Asia. Practitioners The conference is organised by the Centre race relations, the Philippines struggled 9th Asian Urbanisation Conference Fax 662-2262112 and scholars in all humanities and social for Chinese Studies, University of Man- with a leftist insurgency, Thailand ‘see- 18-23 August 2007, Chuncheon City, science disciplines with an interest in chester; East Asian languages and Civili- sawed’ with weak civilian governments South Korea Central Eurasia are encouraged to partici- sation, Harvard University and the School and military juntas. Meanwhile Myan- China: Evolution or pate. of Humanities, Zhongshan University. For mar was secluded under a military dic- Rapid urbanisation and city growth in revolution? There has been a huge growth in inter- more information, please contact Miss tatorship, and Cambodia experienced a Asian countries have followed different est in the CESS conference as our society Catriona Dobson: nightmare following the establishment of processes that have given rise to a variety British Association for Chinese Studies has become more established. Over the [email protected] a genocidal regime. The ups and downs of social, economic and political prob- Annual Conference past three years, attendance has averaged of nation-building, the maintenance of lems. With a view to promoting research 6-7 September 2007, Manchester, UK about 500 per year, with dozens of coun- political stability and economic sustain- on these problems, of which the geo- tries and all major fields of scholarship Emotions and East Asian ability are just some of the major issues graphical and economic characteristics The British Association for Chinese Stud- represented. We expect a similar number social life that faced post-independent nation-states are particularly emphasised, the Asian ies (BACS) is pleased to announce that its to attend in 2007. of Southeast Asia. Urban Research Association is holding 2007 Annual Conference will be held in For more information visit: Summer School the 9th Asian Urbansiation Conference. conjunction with the Centre for Chinese http://cess.fas.harvard.edu/ 3 - 8 September 2007, The Isle of Procida, For more information visit www.usm.my/ The conference, hosted by Kangwon Studies at the University of Manchester on CESS_conference.html Naples, Italy APRU/index.html National University, hopes to attract 6-7 September 2007. BACS will be joined or contact: or contact [email protected] highly qualified and active scholars in the in Manchester by their sister organisa- Allison Dvaladze Due to increasing economic and social field from various parts of the world, and tion, the British Chinese Language Teach- Ellison Center for Russian, East European links between Europe and the East the expand the network of international pro- ing Society, holding their second BCLTS and Central Asian Studies cross-cultural understanding of emotions The political economy of fessional contacts. The aim of the confer- International Symposium. 203B Thompson Hall, Box 353650 is becoming a highly-valued and sought- growth,inequality and ence is to encourage dialogue and allow University of Washington after skill. Understanding emotions is as conflict participants an opportunity to exchange The conference theme emerged from a Seattle, Washington 98195 important as language in the success of views and experiences. There will also be ‘China Rising’ discussion. After decades USA cross-cultural communication. For this ISAS 3rd International Conference on an opportunity to analyse the situation of underestimating China’s contribution [email protected] reason the University “L’Orientale” of South Asia of Asian urbanisation and the policies of to world culture and its place in the world, Naples – an institution with a strong back- 29 – 30* November 2007, Singapore different countries for their urbanisation in the last few years we have witnessed ground in East Asian emotion research processes, grasp new trends of research, a Zhongguo re ‘China fever’, certainly in The Cold War in Asia – has developed a topic-related summer Economic, social and regional inequalities evaluate urban and regional planning Europe. We have also seen a counter-reac- school, the first of its kind in Europe. constitute major sources of political fric- approaches and the processes per se, and tion with some people claiming China is Workshop tion, conflict and even violence. With the to present research papers for discussion over-hyped, that it lacks creativity and that Zhongshan University Emotions in East Asian Social Life: Theory rapid socio-economic and political tran- and selection for publication. the impressive progress China has made 1-2 November 2007, Guangzhou, China and Practice will offer an excellent oppor- sitions underway throughout South Asia, in recent years is all down to Western tunity for students and professionals to there is pressing need to research inter- For more information visit: investment and models. The United States and Soviet Union carved gain expertise in all aspects of East Asian relationships among economic growth, http://webspace.ship.edu/aura/ What has China’s contribution to world out their respective spheres of influence emotion management. The courses, given inequality and conflict and to draw out or contact: culture been? Does China offer alterna- at the end of the Second World War. The by an international team of experts, will be their implications for public policy. The Principal Organiser tive models? Are we witnessing a para- contest of these two global powers was a invaluable not only for students of East 3rd International Conference on South Dr. Nakhun Song digm shift in the 21st century? Is our dis- matter of ideological conflict, intermittent Asian studies, but for anyone interested Asia will provide a forum for presenting Kangwon National University course on China capable of capturing the with arms race and economic warfare, in improving their intercultural commu- and discussing results of fresh research 9, Joongang-ro 1ga Chun-cheon-si, immense complexity and challenge China rather than direct military confrontation. nication skills. on this vital subject, for comparing and Gangwon-do, 200-041 presents? Are we still trapped in modes The invention of nuclear weapons made learning from national experiences within Republic of Korea of understanding that belong to the past many believe that the arms race could For further information visit the region and for promoting future col- [email protected] and hamper our ability to comprehend escalate into another world war. This did www.iuo.it/emotion_summer_school laboration among scholars of the region. the China of today? not materialise and the contest ended or contact: Under the broad rubric of Political Econo- AURA Secretary These are the questions the central theme with the dissolution of the Soviet Union Professor Paolo Santangelo: my of Growth, Inequality and Conflict, top- Dr. George Pomeroy seeks to address, critically evaluating the in December 1991. [email protected] ics for discussion will include: Shippensburg University claims of both traditional and contempo- The study of the Cold War has flourished or Dr. Dániel Z. Kádár: 1871 Old Main Drive rary China to creativity and originality. in the West as we can see from the works [email protected]

4 2 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > Announcements

Societies in transformation mentally unchanged over the past two Tel: 604-6533369 An important book that deals with many of Important dates: decades? Fax: 604 6570918 these issues is Elite Cultures, Anthropologi- • 15 September 2007: deadline for sub- 8th Conference of the Asia Pacific Socio- The 8th conference of the Asia Pacific E-mail: [email protected] cal Perspectives (Routledge, 2002), edited mission of abstracts (max. 400 words) logical Association Sociological Association (APSA) aims to by Cris Shore and Stephen Nugent. This including brief CV of author(s) (max. 100 19-22 November 2007, Penang, Malaysia explore the various dimensions of the collection contains several highly relevant words) Call for papers rapid social transformation of the Asia Call for Papers methodological and theoretical angles • 15 November 2007: deadline for submis- Deadline 22 October 2007 Pacific. Papers that empirically or theo- and interesting ethnographic examples. sion of papers (max. 8.000 words) retically address the themes of social Conference However, there has been little occasion Abstracts and papers should be written in Rapid globalisation, coupled with eco- transformation, in its diverse forms, are for in-depth discussion on the matters English. nomic liberalisation and financial dereg- particularly welcome. raised in Shore and Nugent’s book since. ulation, has opened up the economics of Deadline for registration : 22 October 2007 Therefore, to further our ethnographic Please forward your submission to: the Asia Pacific region. Increasing wealth Submission of full paper : 22 October knowledge and deepen methodological The organising committee: Professor Dr. generation is heralded as a sign of great 2007 Call for Papers and theoretical debates on elites we wish Jon Abbink, Dr. Sandra Evers, Tijo Sal- personal and notional success, while Anthropology ofConference Elites to create a platform of discussion in the verda large numbers of people remain margin- The conference is co-sponsored by the MethodologicalAnthropology and of Theoretical Elites form of the conference: Anthropology of E-mail: [email protected] alised in poor paying and insecure jobs. School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains ChallengesMethodological and Theoretical Challenges Elites, Methodological and Theoretical 24-25 January 2008 Youth are under extreme pressures in Malaysia (USM), and the Centre for Asia Amsterdam, The Netherlands Challenges’. The conference will address Any further queries or requests for infor- How do structures of power shape our society? This question lies at the core terms of successful education and gain- Pacific Social Transformation Studies 24-25of many of Januarythe social sciences. 2008Within anthropology, an understanding of the following themes: mation on the conference should be sent power is central to many theories; however, the study of those groups which hold significant power (i.e. elites) is far less central within the discipline. ing secure employment. The media glo- (CAPSTRANS), University of Wollongong, Amsterdam,Our conference explores anthropological The Netherlands approaches to studying elites. to the above e-mail address. An important book that deals with many of these issues is Elite rifies the consumer revolution, and we Australia. Cultures, Anthropological Perspectives (Routledge, 2002), edited by Cris 1) Methodological questions regarding Shore and Stephen Nugent. This collection contains several highly relevant methodological and theoretical angles and interesting ethnographic see increasing use of new technologies Howexamples. do However, structures there has been little of occasion power for in-depth shape discussion our on the study and ethnographies of elites. the matters raised in Shore and Nugent’s book since. Therefore, to further which are changing forever the very fab- For more information visit www.asiapa- society?our ethnographic Thisknowledge questionand deepen methodological lies at andthetheoretical core As Shore states, elites do not always rec- Rising China in the age of debates on elites we wish to create a platform of discussion in the form of the conference: Anthropology of Elites, Methodological and Theoretical ric of work, family life, health and culture cificsociology.org or contact: ofChallenges’. many The conferenceof the will social address the sciences.following themes: Within ognise themselves as elites. It is a term globalisation in the countries of the Asia Pacific. The The Secretariat anthropology,1) Methodological questions an regarding understanding the study and ethnographies of powerof elites. of reference rather than self-reference As Shore states, elites do not always recognise themselves as elites. It is a th term of reference rather than self-reference (Shore 2002: 3). How, region is seemingly now more integrat- The 8 Conference of the Asia Pacific istherefore, centraldo we todeal manywith this problem theories;when studying however,elites? Moreover, the (Shore 2002: 3). How, therefore, do we International Conference of the UCD elites are allegedly difficult to research. What are the different experiences ed, with unprecedented levels of tour- Sociological Association studyregarding thisofmatter? those Finally, groupsin anthropology whichthe main holdresearch signifimethod is - deal with this problem when studying Confucius Institute for Ireland / ethnographic fieldwork based on intensive participant observation, something that is often not feasible in the study of elite groups. How can we ism, migration, and economic and cul- School of Social Sciences canttackle these power methodologi (i.e.cal shortcomings? elites) Does is anthropologyfar less have central the right elites? Moreover, elites are allegedly dif- Irish Institute for Chinese Studies tural linkages. But, are the nations of the Universiti Sains Malaysia within the discipline. Our conference ficult to research. What are the different 16-18 August 2007, Dublin region, and their populations, becoming 11800 USM explores anthropological approaches to experiences regarding this matter? Finally, more divided, united or are they funda- Penang, Malaysia studying elites. in anthropology the main research meth- China’s rapid growth over the last quarter od is ethnographic fieldwork based on of a century has propelled it to become the intensive participant observation, some- world’s fourth largest economy in 2006 [advertisement] thing that is often not feasible in the study and potentially it’s largest in the foresee- of elite groups. How can we tackle these able future. This development has seen methodological shortcomings? Does China’s 1.3 billion people begin a process anthropology have the right tools for stud- of integration into the global economy ying elites? And furthermore, what ethical and become a major driving force in the questions arise when studying elites? process of globalisation, particularly since joining the World Trade Organisation in 2) What can the anthropology of elites 2001. There has been increasing interest contribute to elite studies in general? and speculation as to the rising China and Shore notes that elites have been of its cultural, social, political and legal prac- much concern to sociologists, historians tices today which have to be recognised and political scientists, but anthropolo- and reconsidered within the context of The first worldwide ethnographic collection about Japan, the Siebold Collection, gists have hardly studied them at all (ibid globalisation. in a historical Dutch canal house. 2002: 10). However, an anthropological approach is important for understand- This two day conference will be co-organ- The SieboldHuis in Leiden offers the best from the old and new Japan in a house of historical stature; prints, lacquer ing elites from ‘within’. In order to get a ised by University College Dublin and Ren- ware and ceramics, fossils, herbaria, prepared animals, coins, textiles, old maps and hundreds of other treasures. All better grip of power structures in socie- min University of China and sponsored is has been collected in Japan between 1823 and 1830 by the Bavarian physician Philipp Franz von Siebold. Siebold was ties we have to understand the dynamic two day conference will be co-organised sent as a physician to the Dutch trading post in Japan by the Dutch government, with the special assignment to collect of elite cultures, and how elites employ by University College Dublin and Renmin as much information as possible about this mysterious country. Siebold collected a magnitude of objects in a wide their influence and power. We would like University of China and sponsored by the range of fields: botany, zoology, mineralogy and geography, as well as daily objects, artefacts, models, industrial raw to pursue this debate at the conference Office of Chinese Language Council Inter- materials and semi manufactured products. He returned in 1830 and bought the house at the Rapenburg to live in and by focussing on ethnographies of elites. national (Hanban). to show his Japanese collection. Siebold was known for decades as the Japan specialist in Europe. In 2004 the magnifi- Further, our aim is to deal with this mat- cent building was restored to its old splendour and nowadays, it houses seven exhibition rooms, each which their own ter in a debate with other social scientists The conference aims to provide a forum atmosphere. In addition, it offers a varied program of temporary exhibits and numerous Japan-related activities. involved in studying elites, in order to for researchers, academics, practitioners stimulate a multi-disciplinary approach and government officials and business TEMPORARY EXHIBITIONS in the study of elites. executives to share up-to-date findings and developments in the fields of Chinese Calligraphic arts of Ogawa Toshu and students from the University of Leiden 3) What can ethnographies of elites con- culture and language, Chinese economy 20 juni 2007 – 29 juli 2007 tribute to anthropology in general? Shore and business, and the Chinese political argues that studying elites ‘provides a and legal system in the era of globalisa- Summer in the SieboldHuis – Okinawa, the other Japan, prints from Yuusuke Namihira useful focus for addressing important tion. 3 August 2007 – 9 September 2007 anthropological and sociological concerns including language and power; For more information: Fleeting Instant – Photos by Lucienne van der Mijle leadership and authority; status and www.ucd.ie.china 28 September 2007 – 9 December 2007 hierarchy; ideology and consciousness; [email protected] social identities and boundary-mainte- ACTIVITIES nance; power relations, social structure and social change’ (ibid 2002: 9). One Leiden Film Festival – Japanese movies in the SieboldHouse of the most renowned ethnographies of 31 Oktober 2007 – 4 November 2007 elites Abner Cohen’s Politics of Elite Cul- ture (University of California Press, 1981), Siebold lecture series – Thursdays 11, 18 and 25 November 2007, 6 p.m. for instance, addresses a range of these concerns. However, since the publication SieboldHuis of Cohen’s work there have been devel- Rapenburg 19 opments, such as increasing modernisa- P.O Box 11007, 2301 EA Leiden tion, globalisation and transnationalism Tel: +31(0)71 5125539 that have become core in anthropological Fax: +31(0)71 5128063 research. Thus, we would like to establish E-mail: [email protected] what the variety of recent ethnographies Website: www.sieboldhuis.org of elites might contribute to understanding how elite studies relate to larger anthropological debates.

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 4 3 > International Institute for Asian Studies Beyond binaries: sociological discourse on religion in South Asia

The interface of religious identities, with state and politics is creating communal, ethnic and sectarian conflicts in South Asia. In spite of its geographical vastness and thousands of communities, the region remains conceived by sociologists in terms of religious identities. By continuing to discuss religious experiences, identities and conflicts in majority-minority terms, sociological discourse has become a tool of power and domination.

Sujata Patel tion occurred in response to the colo- religious community. Subsequently, American tradition, to assess Hindu- sion, and legitimation, can be traced nial government’s objectification of British officials tried to place jatis ism. In America, religious pluralism is back a hundred years, when it emerged ociological discourse on South Asia identities. British officials and anthro- among the four varnas or in ‘catego- loosely defined as being peaceful rela- as the voice of the majority. Today it is Shas not grasped the complexities of pologists studied India as a pre-modern ries of outcastes and aborigines’. These tions between religions and the nego- being reconceived, but its core princi- religion as it faces modernity. Seminal civilisational society. Their initial task officials recognised the difficulties and, tiated accommodation of differences. ples remain the same as those conceived assumptions of colonial modernity and was to classify groups and communi- Cohn adds, the ‘absence of a uniform This process of conflict and dialogue, it in the late 19th century. knowledge created a matrix of binaries ties in order to rule over them. Cohn system of classification’, but ‘it was is hoped, leads to a common good and – West and East, modernity and tradi- argues that British officials thought widely assumed that an all-India sys- implies it is not given as an a priori; the Historian Romila Thapar (1996:3-4) has tion, materiality and religiosity – that ‘caste and religion were the sociological tem of classification of castes could be common good’s scope and content is argued that Hinduism was ‘a juxtapo- represented the project of modernity keys to understand the Indian people. developed’ (1987:243). As this system found only through negotiation (a pos- sition of flexible religious sects’ before and were a colonial means of domina- If they were to be governed well then assumed the point of view of Brahmins terior) and does not, according to plu- colonialism attempted to homogenise tion. Anthropologists and sociologists it was natural that information should and other savarnas, it codified their priv- ralists, coincide with any one entity’s them. Hinduism does not affirm a sin- accept these binaries, constructing the- be systematically collected about caste ileged perspective. position. gle God, prophet, founder, church, holy ories of imminent and continuous reli- and religion’ (1987:243). As a result, book, religious symbol or centre; faith is gious traditions without realising that Nandini Sundar argues, census ‘statis- Finding religion Madan’s position, then, only makes difficult to apply to its inherent diversity what they consider traditional is actu- tics on identities became important as Madan’s position reflects this perspec- sense if it interrogates the binaries of beliefs, deities, schools of thought, ally a modern process. Binary language communities demanded entitlements tive and remains etched in the discourse and abandons theories of power that practices, rituals and organic cultural prevents them from penetrating the on the basis of numbers, in a politics of binaries. For example, he considers construct the majority and minority as links. Hinduism has no fewer than six opaqueness that binaries themselves which conflated representation (stand- ‘four out of five Indians’ Hindus, using instruments of objectification. How can schools of philosophy, an idea of God construct (Patel 2006). ing on behalf of) with representative- numerical superiority to define the major- common good be negotiated between that ranges from monism to dualism ness (coming from a particular com- ity (2004:1). Like earlier indologists, he groups who are objects of the politics to polytheism, and rituals from the In India, the binary of majority and munity)’ (2000:113). consults the scriptures and Manusmriti to of knowledge construction? And those individual Dhyana to the social ‘yagna’. minority is not merely a discourse: cre- identify religious constituents. Later he who have formed their self-identities Denominations like Vaishnavism, ating group classifications highlights Dirks (1997:121) argues colonialism was collapses all Indians into being Hindus as a majority? Whose identities have Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism try differences and structures power. Soci- sustained not only by superior arms, when he states that ‘many components been defined by the colonial state and to organise Hinduism around a specific ologists play into this: cultural differ- military organisation, political power of culture and aspects of social structure savarnas who benefit from these defini- deity or philosophy. ences are dissolved into a master nar- and wealth, but also through ‘printing of the non-Hindu communities…have tions? When self-identities accept the rative of majority and minority in order and the standardisation of languages, either been borrowed from the Hindus hierarchy? This diversity was reorganised in the to empirically study groups. Such lan- self-regulating and autonomous legal or are survivals from their pre-conversion colonial period. Religious groups called guage associates the same groups with systems, official histories of the state Hindu past…’ (2004:1). Madan and many of his contempo- sanghathanas (literally, ‘organisations’ the politics of constructing a major- and people and the celebration of raries who uphold ‘traditions’ don’t or ‘associations’) formed around gurus, ity based on upper caste perceptions of national shrines, symbols and pilgrim Madan was profoundly influenced by seem to recognise that ‘traditions’ are who framed a group’s objective within religious practices. Since the late 19th centres’ that were part of the British Louis Dumont, who reconstructed a construct of modernity. In their logic, the national narrative. Sanghathanas century, attempts have been made to colonial elite’s larger political project binaries in an elaborate theory of hier- South Asia is a world steeped in ‘native’ aimed to mobilise a new majority of organise India’s Hindu majority as a of imposing the nation state. Colonial archy in the East and contrasted it with resources that mitigate religious con- believers in Hinduism against the colo- nation under upper caste, or savarna, conquest enabled ways to construct the theme of equality in the West. While flicts. By being critical of secularism, nial state and its religion, Christian- hegemony. Today, in a context of global what colonialism was all about: its own sociologists like Srinivas (2002) used the Madan questions modernity and how ity. Mobilisation entailed proselytising change, this project continues to define self-knowledge (2001:13). empirical method to debunk received secularism interfaces with politics to through a set of practices, called seva, Indian society and politics. assumptions and distinguished between create religious conflicts. As he states, combined with allegiance to a guru. Documenting community social behav- varna and jati, Dumont criticised this ‘…it is the marginalisation of religious Sociologist T.N. Madan has written the iour, customs and mores became a empirical position, insisting not only faith, which is what secularisation is, Sanghathanas, seva and gurus all had most on this topic, using descriptive major project for the British, who used that ‘a sociology of India lies at a point that permits the perversion of religion’ a pre-colonial existence, when they and indological methods to understand not only enumeration but age-old scrip- of confluence of sociology and indology’ (1991:396). formed around sects and temple towns, India’s religions, pluralism, diversity tural and indological methods to natu- (1957:7), but that ‘[t]he very existence and but their late 19th century form was rad- and secularism in terms of equality-hier- ralise indigenous complexities. Ind- influence of the traditional higher San- But is secularism the source of religious ically different, attempting to reflect and archy binaries. He questions the process ologists built an extensive repertoire skrit civilisation demonstrates without conflict? Or is the source the processes replicate the structure and culture of of modernity, but his language does not of knowledge on Vedic and post-Vedic question the unity of India’ (1957:10). by which religion and religious affilia- organisations established by the coloni- reflect the distinction between its domi- scriptures and translated ancient Indian Madan echoes this: ‘South Asia’s major tion have become part of the politics of al state in the western tradition (Copley nant forms, such as colonial modernity texts from Sanskrit into European lan- religious traditions…are totalising in identity construction? Surely, we possess 2000, 2003). Thus sanghathanas emu- and non-western modernities. Thus, guages. British officials relied on ‘native character, claiming all of a follower’s life the sociological language to assess these lated the Christian tradition of building Madan uncritically integrates the bina- informants’, generally Brahmins, to so that religion is constitutive of society’ processes and explain how knowledge a congregation around a church – some ries of West and East, materiality and codify practices and classify castes. The (2004:399). Thus he argues that ‘the construction helped build the identi- were even named missions, such as one religiosity. Such a position cannot differ- Brahmins had already elaborated the religious domain is not distinguished ties articulated through them. Andre of the first, the Ramakrishna Mission entiate cultural practices among jatis and varna four-fold classification theory, from the secular, but rather the secu- Betille (1994) appraises Madan’s use of – but they were instead built around ethnic groups, and fails to assess how but manipulated it to capitalise on new lar is regarded as being encompassed’ the concept of secularisation as related gurus, who were considered the authen- these differences are subsumed under opportunities presented by the British. (2004:2). to secularism and indicates the need to tic interpreters of Hindu religion. At an upper caste perspective on Hindu- dissociate these two terms. On Madan’s first, sanghathanas were revivalist, ism. His latest book, India’s Religions. The census also created spatial-cultural What is this holistic notion that uni- use of scriptures to develop a position on seeking to either defend one particular Perspectives from Sociology and History differences, which implied two assump- fies all religious activity in India? For India’s religions, Betille reminds us that Hindu tradition or denounce parts of (2004), cites census statistics to suggest tions: group distinction based on the Madan, it’s Dharma, which to him con- theology alone is not enough to assess it in order to posit a less recondite but that Hindus form the largest religious West’s spatial-cultural structures and notes the sustenance of moral virtue. religion in sociological terms. socially oriented religion. Eventually community, followed by Muslims, Chris- the creation of spatial-cultural zones; This self-sustaining cosmo-moral order they were organised around seva, which tians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains. Two and the boundedness of these groups runs through all India’s religions, espe- Madan’s ideas on India’s religions included guru discourses (pravachanas), issues must be considered here: using defined by numbers and now called cially Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, exemplify how colonial binaries were prayers (satsangs) and work as sevaks numbers to determine the strength of castes and tribes, which were placed in which incorporate subtly nuanced imposed on the language of the soci- (volunteers), for instance, teaching in religious communities, and using the a structured hierarchy and identified Hindu principles. Thus he asserts a ologist, who naturalised not only the schools and helping in disaster relief. census to identify religious groups. by a cultural attribute of ‘spirituality’ long tradition of Hinduism that was concepts of majority and minority but Some sanghathanas also established emanating from Hindu civilisation. never a source of conflict, because its also various theories that homogenised medical help centres, hospitals, colleges The trouble with numbers Hinduism became organically linked ‘scope of inter-religious understanding them. Knowledge alone cannot play a and universities. The census depends on individuals to to the caste system in the new language is…immense and it is in no way con- role in hegemonisation; social move- identify their religious affiliation. G.S. of hierarchy devised by colonial census tradicted by the holism of the religious ments and intellectuals must mobilise The guru has been defined as a spir- Ghurye and M.N. Srinivas have com- officials. A religion came to define a ter- traditions of mankind’ (2004:385). Hin- the populace through ideas. This was itual teacher, ‘one who brings light out mented on how the census in colonial ritory: India and Hinduism became one, duism’s internal differences are part of how the Hindu majority was created. of darkness’ (Copley 2000:5). Colo- and independent India was used to establishing Hindus as the majority and this long history. nial period gurus whose sanghathanas mobilise groups by defining identities. all other groups as the minority. Sanghathanas, seva endured were distinctive. Most were B.S. Cohn (1987) has suggested that the In India’s Religions, Madan character- and gurus English-educated, from savarna upper census was a tool not only for construct- Cohn shows that the first census, in ises Hinduism as inherently plural Hinduism as an ideology formed during castes and experienced teachers. Their ing self-identity but that self-identifica- 1871-72, classified castes within each and uses ‘pluralism’, as defined in the colonialism. Its contemporary aggres- writings were mainly in English and

4 4 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > International Institute for Asian Studies Beyond binaries: sociological discourse on religion in South Asia

oriented toward the emerging upper selfless service, and sadhana, ‘spiritual triya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), trace these actions by its belief that India is a Sangh’s “Tradition of Selfless Service”’. and middle classes. Copley argues penance’, and insisted on the material their ideologies to Vivekananda’s notion Hindu, not a secular, state. Zavos, J., A. Wyatt and V. Hewitt, eds. The that dominance rather than friendship poverty of sevaks. of seva and his dream of making Hin- Politics of Cultural Mobilisation in India. and equality defined the relationship duism a world religion (Beckerlegge The discourse of colonial modernity and Delhi: Oxford University Press. between the guru and his disciples, as Vivekananda’s dominant principles 2003, 2004; Copley 2000, 2003; Sarkar the creation of the Hindu majoritarian - Betille, A. 1994. ‘Secularism in Place’. Eco- gurus encouraged obedience and loyalty were humanitarianism and physical 1997). As Sarkar states, ‘More relevant movement are organically linked. Both nomic and Political Weekly 29-10. and were considered elitist and authori- morality. In the Ramakrishna Mission, today, ominously so, is the image of the elided the different cultural practices of - Cohn, B.S. 1987. ‘The Census, Social Struc- tarian (2000:6). seva represented humane and ethi- Swami as one of the founders of 20th jatis and ethnic groups and subsumed ture and Objectification‘. An Anthropologist cal religiosity that would forge a new century “Hindutva”, of a unified and them under an upper caste perspective Among the Historians and Other Essays. While the tradition of seva is as old as Hindu community united around the chauvinistic Hinduism’ (1997:291). of Hinduism. Brahminical and savar- Delhi: Oxford University Press, 224-254. Hinduism itself, its traditional notions principle of selfless social duty. The na male interests were consolidated - Copley, A. 2000. ‘A Study in Religious Lead- of performing service to oneself, family community’s strength would be its spir- Like colonial officials, Vivekananda used and their authority legitimised. Thus, ership and Cultism’. Copley, A., ed. Gurus and god in the fours stages of life incor- itual and physical fitness; its objective indological sources to reconstruct a cod- majoritarianism fuels aggressive inte- and Their Followers. New Religious Reform porated new, socio-political dimensions was to help the downtrodden by improv- ified Hindu set of principles, operated gration of Hindu identity, reclassifies Movements in Colonial India. Delhi: Oxford during the colonial period. Earlier texts ing their material condition and social within the caste hierarchy and present- group distinctions into religious major- University Press. defined seva in terms of life’s personal position, and by spreading the social ed a Brahminical upper caste male view ity and minorities, and legitimises daily - ----. 2003. ‘Introduction’. Copley, A., ed. aspects and gave it religious overtones. awareness and spiritual enlightenment of Hinduism. Thus his sanghathana, caste- and gender-related violence based Hinduism in Public and Private. Reform It belonged to the private sphere, within that encouraged the wealthy to aid the organised through principles of hierar- on its justification of overt and covert Hindutva, Gender and Sampraday. Delhi: the figurative walls of karmic isolation. In less fortunate. chy, made the guru Hinduism’s main religious discrimination. Hindus are Oxford University Press, 1-27. the late 19th century, seva was redefined interpreter and demanded the congre- encouraged to interact with each other - Dirks, N. 1997. ‘The Invention of Caste: Civil as the individual sevak’s pride in a new Most scholars see Vivekananda’s ideas as gation’s complete loyalty. His mission and avoid minorities. Hindu authorities Society in Colonial India’. Seneviratne, H.L., religio-political identity born of an imag- radical and revolutionary, arguing that by became a model for other gurus. deprive minorities of services and mobi- ed. Identity, Consciousness and the Past. Forg- ined Hindu nation defined by gurus. At focusing on the masses – the deprived, lise Hindu citizens to do the same. This ing of Caste and Community in India and Sri the time, Hinduism was threatened by under-privileged, weak, exploited and But there is a caveat. Given Indian public attitude leads to violence where employ- Lanka. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Christian missionaries converting lower diseased – Vivekananda modernised a life’s richness and diversity, and the con- ment, services and infrastructure are - ----. 2001. Castes of Mind: Colonialism and castes, and the colonial state’s new west- very old religion steeped in fatalist tradi- tinuous reorganisation of traditions in limited. Majoritarianism subtly divides the Making of Modern India. Princeton: ern ideas. Hinduism confronted them tions and empowered Hindu society to diverse forms, it’s incorrect to argue that communities, who are then mobilised Princeton University Press. by developing a new public identity be confident, self-sufficient, strong and Hinduism constructed one uniform nar- during communal clashes to burn, loot - Dumont, L. 1957. ‘For a Sociology of India’. through mobilisation of the populace fair. Some interpret his focus on individ- rative and model. Seva, sanghathanas and and kill each other. Contribution to Indian Sociology 1. as a Hindu nation. The ideas of seva, ual human joy, suffering, achievement gurus simply became the means through - Madan, T.N. 1991. ‘Introduction’. Madan, the guru and the sanghathana incorpo- and failure as Hinduism made ‘human- which Hindu communities mobilised, Sanghathanas not only legitimised colo- T.N., ed. Religion in India. Delhi: Oxford rated non savarna groups into a majority centric’, and his dislike of contemporary which is not a process of Hindu revival- nial modernity’s project, they codified University Press, 1-22. Hindu community. Hindu revivalism as reformist. Others ism or reform but rather an upper caste and systematised Hinduism in terms of - ----. 1991. ‘Secularism in Place’. Madan, consider his ideas universal, given his intervention to create a Hindu nation a savarna reading of tradition and pro- T.N., ed. Religion in India. Delhi: Oxford The Swami and Hindu stance that Hinduism is what the world based on religion. It was a political vided a model of maintaining savarna University Press, 394-412. chauvinism needs to solve its social, economic and process reflecting many of the assump- and patriarchal domination that the - ----. 2004. ‘India’s Religions: Plurality and Swami Vivekananda standardised Hindu spiritual crises. tions colonial modernity had articulated RSS still follows. Sociologists must rec- Pluralism’. Madan, T.N., ed. India’s Reli- principles by excavating ‘traditions’ and regarding ‘Hindu traditions’. ognise how colonial modernity’s insti- gions. Perspectives from Sociology and His- explicating a savarna reading of Hindu- Indeed, his sensitivity to the ‘masses’, tutions, processes and structures were tory. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1-36. ism. In the late 19th century, his ideas inclusion of ‘untouchables’ in mission An alternate language renewed after independence and are - Patel. S. 2006. ‘Beyond Binaries. A Case for became the fountainhead of majoritar- activities and criticism of mindless The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh reflected in the way majority-minority Self Reflexive Sociologies’. Current Sociol- ian Hinduism. Driven by his quest to ritualism in sanatana dharma (ortho- (RSS), mentioned above, formed in binaries continue to be reconstituted. ogy 54-3. understand the reasons for India’s colo- dox Hinduism) makes Vivekananda 1925 as ‘an organisation of the self- - Sarkar, S. 1997. ‘Kaliyuga, Chakri and Bhak- nial subjugation, Vivekananda declared a radical, democratic social thinker in motivated’ and its parivar (family). Religiosity, ethnicity and communalism ti’. Sarkar, S., ed. Writing Social History. the concept of seva as ‘organised service some eyes. But he advocated that his RSS founder Dr Keshav Hedgewar, define everyday South Asian life. Reli- Delhi: Oxford University Press, 282-357. to humankind’ (Beckerlegge 2000:60). sevak disciples train themselves to be like Vivekananda, believed in the seva gion provides ideological legitimacy for - Srinivas, M.N. 2002. Collected Essays. Unlike his own guru Ramakrishna, who pure, noble and discerning souls who of education, discipline, organisation extreme social and economic exclusion. Delhi: Oxford University Press. attempted to synthesise and universal- rise above superstitions and appreciate and instilling pride in Hinduism to While communal violence is an overt - Sundar, N. 2000. ‘Caste as a Census Cat- ise Hinduism’s many popular traditions Hinduism’s true character. He empha- create a band of (celibate) male sevaks manifestation, covert communalism is egory: Implications for Sociology’. Current (Sarkar 1997), Vivekananda was unique sised physical strength and endurance who undertake humanitarian service. bred by converting everyday practices Sociology 48-3. in that his project remained simultane- to withstand any challenge, as a nation After Hedgewar’s death in 1940, new into majoritarian projects through inte- - Thapar, R. 1996. ‘The Theory of Aryan Race ously social – to reform Hinduism – and comprised of weak people would be con- RSS leader Madhav Sadashiv Gowalkar gration with the language of caste. Social and India: History and Politics’. Social Sci- political – to displace colonial suppres- trolled by outsiders, both spiritually and integrated his predecessor’s notion. At science language must not become part entist 24-272. sion – by mobilising new groups into an physically. Through seva and sadhana, the time, the RSS had 500 shakhas and of this language. To study the religious institutionalised structure of Hinduism. sevaks were to overcome the ignorance a structure whose leader had absolute fault lines governing today’s South Asia, Sujata Patel is Professor in the Department To create this constituency, he recon- that impoverished and subjugated Hin- decision-making power. Gowalkar’s sociological discourse on religion must of Sociology at the University of Pune, India. structed Hinduism’s defining princi- dus (Sarkar 1997), and to appreciate the message ‘to worship God through serv- understand the discourse that created Presently, she is researching on two themes: ples by blending two distinct traditions: Vedas in order to understand Hindu ing society’ became the motto that still the majority-minority binary. Libera- Colonial Modernity and Making of Sociologi- orthodox Hinduism, incorporated in the principles, what Hinduism represents unites the RSS and its parivar. He creat- tion from the language of domination cal Traditions in India and Cosmopolitanism earliest Hindu religious texts called the and cleanse it of its ritualism. ed many small sanghathanas for special inherited from colonial modernity, and and Identities in Bombay/Mumbai Her pub- Vedas and the religion’s contemporary seva activities; by 1997, RSS operated the creation of an alternate language, lications include The Making of Industrial socially sensitive and reformist aspects, In reality, Vivekananda is interested in 2,866 such units in India and the world are required to accomplish this daunt- Relations, (Oxford, 1987). She is co-editor with its principles of charity and service the salvation of the sevaks, not of the (Beckerlegge 2004:116). These units ing but necessary task. < of Bombay. Metaphor for Modern India, as embodied in Christianity. masses. His ideas are not radical. He have exacerbated religious and com- (Oxford, 1995), Bombay Mosaic of Modern merely reiterates the early meaning munal conflicts because for the RSS Bibliography Culture, (Oxford, 1995), Thinking Social Sci- Vivekananda did not stray from vedan- of seva as practices performed by the seva activities are meant to help Hindus - Beckerlegge, G. 2000. ‘Swami Akhandan- ence in India (Sage, 2002), Bombay and tic metaphysics. Of the four yogas, he individual. I agree with Sarkar (1997): alone. Schools, medical centres and anda’s sevavrata (vow of service) and the Mumbai The City in Transition (Oxford, emphasised Karma, which he redefined Vivekananda not only distilled Hin- hospitals are established under various earliest expressions of service to human- 2003), Urban Studies (Oxford, 2006) as ‘traditional caste-based rituals and duism’s diverse traditions, but also sanghathanas but serve only Hindus. ity in the Ramakrishna Math and Mission’. [email protected] obligations with humanitarian service. diluted his personal appeal to society’s This divides the populace according to Copley, A., ed. Gurus and Their Followers. The jnana of Vedantic monism was underprivileged. By asserting Hindu- religious identities. The RSS argues it Delhi: Oxford University Press. The above essay is an abridged version of sought to be transformed…into a mes- ism’s vedantic orientation mainly to a is forced to do this because state edu------. 2003. ‘Saffron and Seva: The Rashtriya the author’s keynote address at the 19th sage of strength and strenuous help to literate English-educated upper caste cation and health programmes mainly Swayamsevak Sangh’s Appropriation of European Conference on Modern South others’ (Sarkar 1997:347). This fusion audience, Vivekananda distinguished benefit minorities. Generations of Swami Vivekananda’. Copley, A., ed. Hin- Asian Studies. The conference, held in influenced a generation of religious upper castes from the rest of Hindu Hindus have grown up to believe this duism in Public and Private. Reform, Hindut- Leiden, 27-30 June 2006, was organised and political thinkers and continues society in new and subtle ways and yet falsehood; sanghathanas even mobilise va, Gender and Sampradaya. Delhi: Oxford by IIAS and the European Association of within Hindu sanghathanas. He applied preached for their reform. Today, com- vigilantes to prevent minorities from University Press. South Asian Studies. traditional Hindu concepts of seva, munal organisations, such as the Rash- using state resources. The RSS justifies - ----. 2004. ‘The Rashtriya Swayamsevak

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 4 5 > International Institute for Asian Studies The Generosity of Artificial Languages

A revolution in language heralded the birth of modern science. Latin was replaced by formal languages, such as algebra, born of artificial notations and practical devices like new numerals. Frits Staal argues that some of the roots of that revolution lie in Asia.

Frits Staal her forthcoming book on the history of Frits Staal explained how the surpris- trees we can make the plural plants. f = ma, but their spirit survives in the Indian mathematics, Kim Plofker refers ingly early development of an artificial Children pick it up soon but may go famous diagrams that the self-confessed Still ignored by the majority of Asian to this discovery as the Madhava-Leib- meta-language for linguistics in India too far as in mans or sheeps. Philoso- Babylonian Richard Feynman invented scholars who should know better, the niz series of pi. is explained by early Vedic ideas about phers, European as well as Indian, have for doing calculations in quantum phys- Euro-American idea that ‘science’ is a hierarchy of languages of which the always done it – claiming, for exam- ics. ‘Western’ has long been discarded. The accompanying illustration depicts, lowest is our common spoken language. ple, that the world may be explained Long before the modern period, Asian on top, the infinite power series that He wondered “to what extent the innate in terms of substances and qualities Most of the works of the Kerala school contributions to ancient and medieval expresses the circumference of a cir- faculties of language and number may because sentences consist of subjects of mathematics are in Sanskrit, but one science were expressed through classi- cle with diameter D (i.e., two times the be dissociated from each other and from and predicates. is composed in a Dravidian language. cal languages such as Old-Babylonian, radius R) in Sanskrit. It is followed by a other features of civilisation?” During Panini’s grammar is very generous. The In “The First Textbook of Calculus: Chinese, Sanskrit, Greek, Arabic, and translation into English by Kim Plofker. the preceding workshop (of which the techniques he uses to refer to groups of Yuktibhasa,” P.P.Divakaran examined Latin. In their scientific uses, some At the bottom is the series in its mod- Proceedings are now published in The sounds, called “condensation” (pratya- a Malayalam work of the mid-16th cen- of these languages were formalised to ern form which is basically the same as Journal of Indian Philosophy, Vol.34: hara), are also used to refer to groups of tury which describes the development some extent, but they were not designed what was written by Leibniz. 2006), Karine Chemla and Charles Bur- nominal and verbal endings. of infinitesimal calculus for the geome- to express abstract relationships in a nett demonstrated that the Chinese and try of the circle and the sphere, together systematic manner. They were inti- Rarity of artificial notations and absence Latin written traditions led to greater John Kadvany’s “Positional Notation with all proofs. These proofs are written mately linked to different civilisations of an artificial language go far towards separation between natural and artifi- and Linguistic Recursion” compared almost entirely in natural Malayalam, and lacked universality. What happened explaining why modern science did not cial expressions but not to greater clar- ancient relationships between linguis- without the help of a formal notation next and culminated during the 17th originate in India or China. Old-Baby- ity. Does an oral tradition like the Vedic tics and mathematics to modern ones. or even diagrams. Divakaran presented and 18th centuries was a revolution in lonian, Indic, Chinese and other early maintain a closer connection between He used Sanskrit positional number translations of two passages to illustrate language. The construction of formal forms of Asian mathematics inspired the two innate faculties of language and words and the formal techniques of the point that the lack of an artificial lan- languages grew out of natural language, the algebra of the Arabs, but to what number? Do artificial languages result Panini’s grammar to explain how mod- guage did not hinder the communica- artificial notations and special devices extent was that an artificial language? from a fusion of the two faculties? ern mathematical computation is con- tion of the subtle reasoning involved in such as numerals. The replacement of India developed a formal or artificial structed from linguistic skills and lan- this new mathematics. He then argued Latin by such universal languages, in language for linguistics. It is now a sci- Generosity guage structure. that, nevertheless, an efficient artificial particular the languages of algebra, was ence worldwide, but how could it have The French mathematician d’Alembert language is a prerequisite for abstrac- a greater revolution than the so-called originated earlier by more than two mil- wrote: “algebra is generous: she often The distinction between tion and greater generality and that its European scientific revolution. lennia? gives more than is asked of her.” It natural and artifical absence may have played a role in pre- means that notations and equations Joachim Kurtz supplemented Jeffrey venting the Kerala work from realizing The birth of artificial or Jeffrey Oaks answered the first question achieve far more than that for which Oaks’ contribution with an account its potential. formal languages in “Medieval Arabic Algebra as an Arti- they were originally designed. A simple of the surprising adventures of Some of Newton’s laws provide simple ficial Language.” It provides our account example is the expression (a + b) = (b European Syllogistics - medieval The story of generosity has not come examples. They were not, at first, writ- with an important missing piece: a his- + a). It applies to integers, but also to reformulations of Aristotelian logic to an end. One afternoon in Bangalore, ten in an artificial form. Newton formu- torical survey of algebra applicable to rational, real and complex numbers, – in Late Imperial China. Since it at the time of writing this report, the lated his law of motion in cumbrous, Arabic and European languages. Start- then to vectors, various geometric and involved the introduction of some author had a long conversation with ambiguous and obscure Latin. Less ing in the 9th century with systematic other figures, etc. It also applies to nat- 800 unintelligible new terms, it relied Roddam Narasimha and P.P. Divaka- than a century later, it was disambigua- verbal solutions of equations, it reached ural language, though there are excep- on Kanji characters found in logic ran, both primarily physicists, and ted, clarified and formalised by Euler by a symbolic form in the 12th century in tions as philosopher Gilbert Ryle point- textbooks imported from Japan. Vidyanand Nanjundiah, who started making use of an artificial language. It the western part of the Islamic world. ed out: “She took arsenic and died.” out as a physicist but is now respon- is now taught to children as f = ma. Martin Stokhof’s “Hand or Ham- sible for Molecular Reproduction and Brendan Gillon’s “Panini’s Ashtadhyayi An example of generosity from modern mer?” discussed ‘grammatical form’ Development Genetics. He declared A more dramatic example provides a and Linguistic Theory” gave a brief logic started in 1942 with J.C.C. McKin- and ‘logical form’ in early 20th century and illustrated that “Every structure is demonstration of the thesis that some overview of Panini’s grammar, showing sey coming to Berkeley to study intui- Euro-American analytical philosophy. generous.” It’s a good place to stop and of the roots of modern science lie in that it could address all of the central tionistic logic with Alfred Tarski. Tarski Adding linguistics and the philosophy think again. Asia. Madhava of Kerala, Southwest concerns of a formal grammar, includ- had already seen that the work would of language, he wondered whether the India, who lived around 1400 CE, ing what pertains to not only the syntax best be reformulated in algebraic terms, distinction between natural and formal Robbert Dijkgraaf referred to “the invented infinite power series that are of Sanskrit but also its semantics. He and so the two of them tied three topics languages can be maintained. great little meeting in Amsterdam” and expansions of pi and the trigonometric then showed that three concerns that together in “The Algebra of Topology.” added: “it was a gem.” The event owed functions sine, etc. by using methods are central to currentAn linguistic example theory of generosity In the from 1970’s, modern the logic computer started in scientist 1942 with J.C.C.In “Can McKinsey the world coming be captured to in an much of its success to the lively rulings that led to the infinitesimal calculus. - compositionality, implicit arguments Edgar F. Codd developed a method for equation?” Robbert Dijkgraaf discussed of the chairs who included Henk Baren- Berkeley to study intuitionistic logic with Alfred Tarski. Tarski had already seen that the work Similar developments led to similar and anaphoric dependence - figure cen- dealing with relational databases. Later a variety of examples, some of them dregt, Kamaleswar Bhattacharya, Dirk findings by Leibniz and other European trally in Panini’s grammar.would best be reformulatedit was in shown algebraic that terms,that was and another so the notatwo of- themsuggesting tied three that topics physics together benefits in from van Dalen, Fenrong Liu, Kim Plofker mathematicians three centuries later. In “The Algebra of Topology.”tional Invariant. the 1970’s, Such thunexpectede computer gener scientist- Edgarthe generosity F. Codd developed of mathematics, a others and Bram de Swaan. Like the Proceed- osities explain that Dirac declared of (especially in the quantum theory of ings of the first, the papers will again be method for dealing with relational databases. Later it was shown that that was another notational his own equation: “it is smarter than I strings) that they develop simultane- published in the Journal of Indian Phi- variant. Such unexpectedam.” generosities explain that Dirac declared ofously, his own others equation: again “it that is reductionism losophy. The present report owes much vyse vridhinihate rpahte vysasgarbhihate smarter than I am.” plays a role or that a sense of playful- to conversations with Roddam Narasim- Over-generosity ness or beauty is decisive. ha and P.P. Divakaran, strenghtened by triardiviamasakhybhaktama sva pthak kramt kuryOver-generosityt Jens Hoyrup examined several examples emails from Kim Plofker. The author of over-generosity. One is the extension The Indic contribution thanks them all and expresses his sin- labdha paridhi skmo bahuktv haraato’tiskma sytJens / Hoyrup examinedby several a 14th examplescentury Italian of over-generosity. mathematician One isThe the Indicextension approach by a 14 to ththe exact sciences cere gratitude to Shri K.S. Rama Krish- century Italian mathematicianof rules oflike: rules like: has generally preferred computation to na of the National Institute of Advanced theory, and so assigns a role to language, Studies at Bangalore for his generous Add or subtract alternately the diameter multiplied by four and divided in 4 natural or artificial, different from that computer and general IT assistance. order by the odd numbers like three, five, etc., to or from the diameter a 2 < a in European science. Roddam Narasim- multiplied by four and divided by one. 2 a ha showed how the best example of this Frits Staal The result is an accurate circumference. If division is repeatedto many rules times,like: it to rules like: approach is the Bakshali Manuscript of http://philosophy.berkeley.edu/staal will become very accurate. a 2 around 800 CE. Here computational a tasks are displayed in an artificial lan- a 4 guage that is written with the help of symbols for arithmetical operations D D D Such generosity is unwanted. The same holds for Cantor’s unrestrictedthat acceptanceforetell the of algebraic sets as equations of D − + − +     members of other sets. modern science. These displays did not Such generosity is unwanted. The same lead to equations like the Newton/Euler holds for Cantor’s unrestricted accept- Infinite Series Expansion of the Circumference ofThese a Circle over-generosities ance correspond of sets as to members over-generalis of otherations sets. in natural language. If we know the English plural trees we can make the plural plants. Children pick it upThe soon above but essay may is go based too onfar a as workshop “The Generosity of Artificial Languages in an Asian ****************************************************************************** These over-generosities correspond Perspective”. The workshop was part of a series of academic events on the history of science in in mans or sheeps. Philosophers, European as well as Indian, have always done it – claiming, for to over-generalisations in natural lan- Europe and Asia, organised by IIAS in May and June 2006. With thanks to Marloes Rozing. example, that the worldguage. may be If explained we know in the terms English of substances plural and qualities because sentences consist of subjects and predicates.

4 6 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007  Paninis grammar is very generous. The techniques he uses to refer to groups of sounds, called “condensation” (pratyƗhƗra), are also used to refer to groups of nominal and verbal endings.

John Kadvany's "Positional Notation and Linguistic Recursion" compared ancient relationships between linguistics and mathematics to modern ones. He used Sanskrit positional number words and the formal techniques of Panini’s grammar to explain how modern mathematical computation is constructed from linguistic skills and language structure.

4 > ASEF The EU through the eyes of Asia: Media perceptions and public opinion in 2006

In 2006, a study initiated by the Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF) of media and public opinion perceptions of the European Union was undertaken in six Asian locations - Thailand, South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and mainland China. This article summarises the findings from the daily analysis of three newspapers and one prime-time television evening news in each location for the period 1 January – 31 October 2006 as well as from an online public opinion survey conducted in November 2006 (400 respondents in each location).

Martin Holland and Natalia Chaban anced: Europe’s image is no longer just Table 1 Public Opinion “Dominant EU Images” that of ‘Fortress Europe’; rather the EU o summarise, 7,850 news items as a benign, international actor is being 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Trelated to the European Union reported more often and more accu- (EU) were identified in the 18 news- rately. Provided that this media trend Korea European union, Euro Individual countries Exceptionalism/ papers surveyed demonstrating that continues (and the EU’s global role con- integration problems coverage of the EU is modest. Where tinues to expand) new opportunities for the EU is reported, it is predominantly matching Asian needs and objectives Thailand Individual countries Economic power trade Euro described as Europe as an external actor with what the EU might be in a position elsewhere in the world (interacting with to provide are possible. Hong Kong Euro trade European union, Individual countries a third party), and not as necessarily integration locally relevant. Compounding this, the What then of public opinion? importance of the EU angle to a story Although for all the locations studied Singapore European union, Euro Economic power Individual countries was typically minor although the tone of the EU constituted a major economic integration the reports were generally neutral-posi- player this reality was not reflected tive. The EU’s economic prowess is still when respondents were asked to rank Japan Euro European union, Individual countries Disparities/ recognised but this is now balanced by the EU. The EU was given significantly integration unfairness recognition of an emerging active politi- less emphasis and importance and cal international role, even when that nowhere ranked higher than fourth, and role is with a third country elsewhere. in Japan and in Singapore only the sixth undermining the notion of a collective lacks profile and needs to be popular- for a positive spill-back effect that might Against these common themes regional most important current partner. Opin- group of 27 and reducing the EU to the ised through a more active and directed influence Europe’s public. Were Euro- differentiations were also evident with ions on the EU’s future importance EU3, for example. Thailand presented public diplomacy. pean citizens informed about the EU’s mainland China the most noteworthy reflected a similar pattern. Evaluations the most extreme case and was unique wider agenda and that it is more valued case. of the current state of relations with in predominantly presenting the EU in Conclusions externally than it is perhaps internally, the EU were overwhelmingly viewed economic and country terms. This not- Persisting stereotypes can be promoted there could be positive outcomes for On television, the EU appears almost as positive everywhere (on average in withstanding, the images expressed by and maintained where the media fails the construction of European identity. invisible (just 185 news items in total), excess of 85% describing it as steady or the majority suggest that Asian publics to provide informed news and accu- Consequently, how the EU’s external except perhaps on CCTV-1 in China improving). Only Thailand displayed have a supranational appreciation of rate portrayals of actors. Such misper- image is represented and conveyed can where an average of 11 news items a any meaningful level of discontent the EU rather than one based around ceptions based on inadequate knowl- play an important dynamic in the inter- month mentioned the EU as either (with 6.8% of respondents describing antagonistic images of ‘Fortress Europe’ edge can lead to inappropriate policy nal integration process. The success of a major, secondary or minor actor (a the relationship as worsening). How- or national imagery. choices. The general low level of news that enterprise, however, depends upon total of 129). The findings for television ever, the relatively high percentages in reporting on the EU in Asia heightens the portrait of the EU as painted in the coverage across the six locations were both Thailand (31.4%) and South Korea Can EU visibility in the Asian this risk. While the data does provide global media. < broadly consistent with those for the (30%) that viewed the relationship as media be raised? some grounds for limited optimism popular press: third party and a minor “improving” may also suggest that the A starting point would be to build on (the changing recognition that Europe Martin Holland and Natalia Chaban focus on the EU and generally neutral past was somewhat more negative. what Mr Solana has achieved. Here, the is more than ‘butter mountains’ and National Centre for Research on Europe in tone, yet with a strong awareness European constitution plays a crucial ‘tariff quotas’), and even conceding (NCRE), of Europe as an international political One specific EU event common to all role. The more the EU can have a sin- that the EU is still punching below its University of Canterbury, New Zealand actor (perhaps reflecting the nature of Asian locations was the 6th Asia Europe gle external personality, then the more weight as a global actor, the media’s [email protected] television, where foreign affairs gen- Meeting (ASEM) held in Helsinki in understanding in the media and public perception of the EU’s importance for [email protected] erate images that are more audience September 2006. When respondents opinion is likely to follow. Second, the Asia and its level of coverage is lower appealing. But clearly the EU is now were asked about the extent to which Euro was a significant dominant image than is justified. There is a paradoxical visible as a political actor and it appears they followed this news item divergent which, while not created for reasons of challenge too: the EU has to be careful, widely recognised in the popular media patterns were evident. Singapore (43%) external perceptions, is now a symbol if it enhances its profile it must ensure that there is at least a face (Javier Sola- and Japan (48.8%) were similar – this that the general public in the Asia-Pacif- that it can meet renewed and higher na) if not a single phone number that time in their shared disinterest towards ic region associate with the EU. Increas- expectations. If the EU promotes itself former US Secretary of State Mr Kiss- ASEM – while South Koreans were the ing the visibility of Euro as an interna- and raises expectations of being a seri- inger could now contact! most actively engaged with ASEM devel- tional currency in the region could be ous political actor, there needs to be the opments (with 85.7% following news of a way of raising visibility in general for capacity to deliver, otherwise the project So, if the EU is largely peripheral in the the meeting). the EU. Third, the positive interpreta- becomes self-defeating. mass media is that necessarily prob- tion of Europe’s integration project as lematic? The data suggest that there is Perhaps the most significant findings a reference point (not a model) could More broadly, the analysis presented a potential ‘expectations deficit’: if the relate to the images of the EU. The sur- be developed more assertively within here is not disconnected from the wider EU is not given prominence and its role vey asked respondents: “When think- ASEM, again increasing the profile and debate on the nature and direction of in the region under-reported, reduced ing about the EU what thoughts come relevance of the EU among Asian citi- the integration process. What happens expectations of Europe’s involvement to mind?” There were some remark- zens. externally does have important internal may be an inevitable consequence. A able similarities across the locations implications for integration. If there is self-fulfilling logic – lower demands (see Table 1). Firstly, the Euro is now Increasing EU public diplomacy consti- a supportive external view concerning leading to reduced media interest lead- widely associated with the EU even if tutes a fourth mechanism for address- the purpose of the EU, if integration ing to lower demands… - could ensue. this symbolic linkage distorts the real- ing Asian perceptions of the Union. per se can provide benefits externally for Given that the EU is a major economic ity that just 13 of the 27 member states While greater financial resources may Thailand, South Korea, Japan, China, partner for all the areas covered in this have currently adopted the single cur- be part of the solution, a better strategy Singapore and Hong Kong (whatever research and has growing political and rency. It featured in first or second place rather than just more money may be the those may be) then the potential exists security relationships, misperceptions in the minds of Koreans, Japanese, Sin- more effective approach. Lastly, in terms based on media choices pose significant gaporean and citizens of Hong Kong. of comparative advantage and distinc- policy challenges, such as a possible Secondly, for these four regions the tiveness, Europe’s global development The “EU through the Eyes of Asia” is the pilot project of the European Studies in Asia (ESiA) undervaluing of the EU-ASEAN/ASEM notion of the EU as a positive exam- role appears to have been under-utilised network initiated by the Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF). This ongoing two-year trans-national relationship. Any such downgrading ple of integration was also prevalent in the EU’s public diplomacy. The com- study is a collaboration between ASEF and the National Centre for Research on Europe (NCRE) runs the risk of missed opportuni- cementing a somewhat benign and bined Official Development Assistance and an unprecedented mobilisation of six European studies centres in the Asian region, Chu- ties for both the EU and Asia. While unified image of the EU from an exter- (ODA) of the EU and the member states lalongkorn University (Thailand), Korea University, National University of Singapore, Keio under-reported, the positive develop- nal Asian perspective. But thirdly, and represents over half of the world total. University (Japan), Hong Kong Baptist University and Fudan University (China). The project ment unearthed by the findings is the perhaps paradoxically, in all locations Yet, both in public opinion, and in the will be completed later this year. This article is a summary of the second interim report. Please emerging perception of an EU that is the EU was also represented through Asian media, the notion of Europe as visit http://esia.asef.org to view the full report. more economically and politically bal- individual Member States potentially a ‘Development Superpower’ largely

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 4 7 > Alliance

Asia Alliance The European Alliance for Asian Stud- Technology and culture: ies is a cooperative framework of Euro- pean institutes specializing in Asian Studies. Its partners are: Genetics and its ethical and social NIAS - Nordic Institute of Asian Studies implications in Asia and Europe Director: Jørgen Delman Leifsgade 33 DK 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark Soraj Hongladarom the group that he was born into a poor T +45-35-32 9500 family and had experienced first hand F +45-35-32 9549 enetics has become a prodigious the horrors of the Vietnam War. He then [email protected] Gforce in today’s world. After became a scientist and believed that www.nias.ku.dk the success of the Human Genome science and technology could indeed Project, which sequenced the entire deliver his people from poverty. But he IFA genomic structure of humans, genet- added, for people in poverty, there is Institute of Asian Studies ics has become much more powerful. little room for ethical considerations. Director: Günter Schücher Not only is genetics of importance to Such discussions were the provinces of GIGA German Institute of Global professional scientists, it, and the dis- the rich who had the leisure to ponder and Area Studies ciplines it has spawned have had an them as their basic needs have been Rothenbaumchaussee 32, impact on wider society, religions, cul- met. This reflects the viewpoint that sci- 20148 Hamburg, Germany tures and traditions. Since the genetic ence and technology are to be seen as T +49-40-428 8740 make up of human beings can be said instruments for economic development. F +49-40-410 7945 to define what it actually is to be human, Le Dinh Luong’s view was not shared [email protected] the social and ethical implications are by the other members of the group, www.giga-hamburg.de profound. Moreover, as the sciences though everyone shared his sentiment. and technologies that make up these Perhaps ethics should be seen, not just EIAS new fields have become part and parcel as a perk for the rich, but as a necessary European Institute for Asian Studies of the current globalising trend, there is part of a regulatory framework which Director: Willem van der Geest a growing enthusiasm for genetics and would make it possible for science and 67 Rue de la Loi, its related disciplines. Countries, deter- technology actually to become poverty- 1040 Brussels, Belgium mined not to be left out, are ‘jumping reduction instruments. Without such T +32-2-230 8122 on the genomic bandwagon’. It is not a framework, it is entirely conceivable F +32-2-230 5402 surprising then to see genetics at the that, instead of science and technology, [email protected] forefront in Asia too. (genetics included), becoming a tool for www.eias.org poverty reduction, exactly the opposite On 17-18 March, 2007, the Center would occur - science and technology CERI - Sciences Po for Ethics of Science and Technol- could become tools of the rich to further Fondation Nationale des Sciences ogy (CEST), Chulalongkorn University, exploit the poor. The problem, then, is Politiques Thailand, (in collaboration with the how to institute such a framework so they, in turn, accept a certain degree of Director: Christophe Jaffrelot European Academy of Environment that global justice is achieved and genet- restrictions for the sake of public order 56 rue Jacob, 75006 Paris, France and Economy, Germany), organised an ics and its related disciplines becomes a and stability. As an alternative the group T +33-1-58717000 international workshop on “Technol- friend of the poor rather an enemy. To discussed the concept of ‘solidarity’ F +33-1-58717090 ogy and Culture: Genetics and its Ethi- find a solution, a clear understanding of which does not presuppose the hier- [email protected] cal and Social Implications in Asia and the social, ethical and cultural implica- archical or paternalistic attitude which www.ceri-sciencespo.com Europe.” The workshop was part of the tions of genetics is crucial. seems to be implicit in the concept of Eighth Asian Bioethics Conference, and reciprocity. ‘Solidarity’ is a concept that CEAO also part of the Asia-Europe Workshop The group also discussed how different has roots within the Western tradi- Centro de Estudios de Asia Oriental Series 2006/2007 organised by the norms and values, such as those appar- tion, but it can also be seen as ‘typically Director: Taciana Fisac Asia Europe Foundation and the Euro- ent in the East and the West, could be Asian’ too, given the the sense of whole- Centro de Estudios de Asia Oriental pean Alliance for Asian Studies. reconciled. Margit Sutrop was criti- ness felt within communities in Asia. Universidad Autonoma de Madrid cal of the notion that these values are Campus de Cantoblanco The key question of the workshop was: simply too different to be reconciled Having travelled from far away places 28049 Madrid, Spain what are the ethical and social implica- under one system. According to her, to Bangkok, the members of the work- T +34-91-397 4695 tions of this introduction of the new values that are typically associated with shop came to an agreement that there F +34-91-397 5278 field of genetics in Asia and Europe? the East, such as putting more empha- are perhaps more similarities than dif- [email protected] Around twenty scholars from more than sis on the community rather than the ferences between them. Any differences www.uam.es/otroscentros/ ten countries gathered together for two individual, downplaying individual pri- can indeed be exposed, that is not to say asiaoriental/especifica/ days to search for an answer. The schol- vacy in favour of public order, etc., are that all differences would, or could, ars came from a large variety of disci- also to be found in the West. Privacy, be washed away. Be that as it may, the SOAS plines. There were philosophers such of course, was an important concept in members became much closer and after School of Oriental and African Studies as myself, Margit Sutrop from Estonia, the discussion of genetics because there two days of intensive meeting there a Director: Paul Webly Leonardo de Castro and Peter Sy from was a natural concern about the genetic solidarity emerged among the mem- University of London the Philippines, and Ole Döring from data of a population being manipulated bers which, I am quite sure, will spur Thornhaugh Street / Russel Square, Germany. There were lawyers such as in such a way that the rights of the peo- on more intensive and varied collabora- London, WC1H 0XG, United Kingdom Jürgen Simon from Germany, Carlos ple are undermined (this was the main tions in the future. < T +44-20-7637 2388 Maria Romeo Casabona from Spain, focus of the lawyers who attended the F +44-20-7436 3844 Terry Kaan from Singapore, Jakkrit workshop). When the issue was raised Soraj Hongladarom [email protected] Kuanpot from Thailand, and Cosimo about how privacy is justified, then the Director, Center for Ethics of Science and www.soas.ac.uk Mazzoni from Italy. Moreover, Anna different belief systems became appar- Technology Cambon-Thomsen from France is a ent. My colleague Somparn Promta, Chulalongkorn University, SSAAPS medical doctor; Minakshi Bhardwaj, also from the Philosophy Department Bangkok, Thailand The Swedish School of Advanced representing the UK but originally from at Chula, and Chanroeun Pa from [email protected] Asia Pacific Studies India, represented both biology and sci- Cambodia are Buddhists, and are natu- Director: Thommy Svensson ence policy studies; Le Dinh Luong from rally concerned with how the Buddhist The STINT Foundation, Skeppargatan Vietnam is a geneticist, and Chan Chee teachings can be interpreted so that we 8, 114 52 Stockholm, Sweden Khoon is an epidemiologist. Despite the gain further insights on the problem of T +46-70-6355160 group’s diversity, there were no discipli- privacy. Nonetheless, it was agreed that F +46-8-6619210 nary barriers. We were determined to there are certain values that should be [email protected] search for common ground. upheld no matter what cultural tradi- www.ssaaps.stint.se tion one originates from. The group also Among the topics discussed during the discussed the Singaporean proposal of IIAS workshop, one or two stood out. Le Dinh ‘reciprocity.’ This is an implicit agree- (secretariat Asia Alliance) Luong asked a very pertinent question: ment between the government and its www.asia-alliance.org What use is ethics in science and tech- citizens where the government expects nology to people who are poor? He told certain loyalty from the citizens and

4 8 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > ICAS update ICAS at TEN

In ten years of existence the International Convention of Asia Scholars (ICAS) has brought more than 5,000 academics from 60 countries together at five conventions where four thousand papers were presented during more than a thousand panels. Behind these figures lies a world of multiple interactions across borders and disciplines which has resulted in new long term international research partnerships. ICAS is established as one of the largest gatherings of Asia scholars in the world. In the run up to ICAS 5 in Kuala Lumpur, it’s a good time to both reflect on the last decade and look to the future.

Josine Stremmelaar & Paul van der Velde awarded for the first time and the ICAS Publication Series was announced. International Convention of Asia Scholars Since 1995 the Association for Asian Studies (AAS) and the International The ICAS Book Prize Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) was The bi-annual ICAS Book Prize (IBP) Year Place Participants Panels Papers Countries Institutions looking for ways of internationalising is a global competition which provides Asia Studies. The main goals were to an international focus for publications 1998 Leiden 1000 130 640 40 350 transcend the boundaries between dis- on Asia. The book prizes are awarded ciplines, between nations and regions for: (1) best study in the humanities; (2) 2001 Berlin 800 100 500 35 280 studied and between the geographic best study in the social sciences. Fur- origins of the scholars involved. This thermore there is a prize for the most 2003 Singapore 1100 250 940 54 400 concept acquired a name: International outstanding PhD dissertation in the Convention of Asia Scholars (ICAS) field of Asia Studies. The 2005 win- 2005 Shanghai 1200 270 1020 58 420 and it became a platform on which Asia ners in the social science category were: scholars from across the globe could Elizabeth C. Economy (Institute for For- 2007* Kuala Lumpur 1400 350 1400 60 500 study problems of interest to all. eign Affairs, New York) with The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge * Estimated figures ICAS was officially launched in 1997 to China’s Future and Christopher Reed and IIAS became the host of ICAS 1. (Ohio State University) for Gutenberg The announcement of the convention in Shanghai: Chinese Print Capitalism, brought enthusiastic responses from 1876-1937. Sam Wong (University of icassecretariat.org which will be open every corner of the world. Nearly one Leeds) was awarded Best Book Disser- until 15 July 2007. thousand participants from 40 coun- tation for his thesis on Community par- tries attended ICAS 1 in Leiden, the ticipation of Mainland Chinese migrants ICAS publication series Netherlands. More than 350 univer- in Hong Kong – rethinking agency, institu- Recently ICAS signed a contract with sities, institutes, and organisations tions and authority in social capital theory. the Amsterdam University Press (AUP) were represented. In 2001 the Freie Wong’s thesis is published as part of the to produce an ICAS Publication Series Universitat Berlin hosted ICAS 2. Two ICAS Publication Series (AUP) and will consisting of monographs, edited vol- key decisions were taken in Berlin: 1) it be launched at ICAS 5. umes and Proceedings. Five volumes was agreed that future editions of ICAS of Proceedings are currently being pro- should, (for obvious reasons), be held Eighty new publications (46 humani- duced. The contents include 65 out of a in Asia; and 2) the ICAS Secretariat was ties and 34 social sciences) and 10 total of 130 papers submitted to ICAS. founded to safeguard the continuity of PhD theses have been submitted for The ICAS 4 Proceedings are planned the ICAS process. The main tasks of the 2007 ICAS Book Prize. This is for publication in the course of this year the Secretariat are: assessing new ideas 50% more entrants than IBP 2005. and beginning of next year. concerning ICAS; publicising ICAS and The Reading Committee - consisting its activities; organising the ICAS Book of six respected scholars in the field The first edited volume appeared in Prize; monitoring the ICAS Publication of Asia Studies - has been particu- 2006 and is entitled Multiregionalism Series and keeping an up-to-date data- larly impressed by the high quality of and Multilateralism. Asian-European base of participants, institutions, exhibi- the PhD theses and calls upon PhD Relations in a Global Context (Sebastian tors and advertisers. The Secretariat is supervisors to stimulate our young col- Bersick et al eds.). More titles are in the hosted by the IIAS. leagues to submit their doctoral theses pipeline. The first volume to appear in for the next IBP in 2009. The long lists, the monograph series will be the re- Following the Berlin decision, ICAS 3 (consisting of 10 books in both catego- worked thesis of the IBP prize winner was hosted by the Faculty of Arts and ries), were announced in March 2007 Samuel Wong. (The prize is the publi- Social Sciences and the Asia Research at the AAS Annual Meeting in Bos- cation of his thesis). ICAS 5 also sees Institute, National University of Singa- ton. (For details see ‘The ICAS Book the launch of Marleen Dieleman’s The pore. The attendance was much higher Prize: A Showcase for Asia Studies’ p Rhythm of Strategy: A Corporate Biogra- than in Berlin both in terms of partici- 4-5 ICAS supplement to IIAS Newslet- phy of the Salim Group of Indonesia as pants, (in particular those from Asia), ter 44). The 2007 IBP sees the launch part of the ICAS Monograph Series. and papers presented. Two years later, of the Colleagues Choice Award. This All friends and sponsors of ICAS will or more sessions), and 45 institutional audience about new developments and in 2005, ICAS 4 was held in China host- new award has been established fol- receive a free copy of one of these books panels (sponsored by various organi- activities. Participants can explore new ed by the Shanghai Academy of Social lowing numerous requests to give the or the aforementioned Multiregionalsim sations studying Asia in the broadest developments by visiting the exhibition Sciences. It was equally as succesful academic community the opportunity and Multilateralism at ICAS 5. The hall- sense), have been accepted. A further hall where personal and virtual presen- as ICAS 3. At the opening ceremony to voice their choice. To cast your vote mark for all books in the ICAS Publica- 168 panels have been formed on the tations will alternate. Presentations will of ICAS 4 the ICAS Book Prizes were visit the virtual polling station at www. tion Series is sound academic work that basis of individual submissions. This be between five and 15 minutes. appeals to a wider public. combination of organised and individual panels is an ideal mix and also ICAS 6 and beyond Sharing a future in Asia a confluence of various paradigmatic The venue for ICAS 6 will be announced At ICAS 4 in Shanghai it was announced approaches which typify the multidisci- in the course of this year. At the time of that the Institute of Occidental Studies plinary and border transcending charac- writing, the secretariat is finalising the (IKON) and the Institute of the Malay ter of ICAS. The wide variety of themes, negotiations with the future hosts of World and Civilisation (ATMA) at Uni- disciplines, and regions covered prom- ICAS 6. We can confirm that it will be versiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) are ises an intellectually challenging con- an institution in East Asia. In coopera- to host ICAS 5. It takes place 2-5 August vention. tion with the local host we are striving to 2007 in the Kuala Lumpur Convention widen the platform in order to involve Center and will be the largest gather- One of the new features at ICAS 5 will representatives from applied sciences ing of Asia scholars in the world. ICAS be the ICAS Institutions’ Carousel: To and the field of innovative technology 5 has the theme ‘Sharing a Future in showcase the different institutions that in particular. We are convinced that Asia’ and the programme offers more are participating, while at the same the ICAS activities will solicit strong than 300 sessions with 1500 active time (re)acquainting scholars with support from Asia scholars and others participants from 60 countries. In their activities, academic organisations worldwide and hope that as many as total 185 panels have been submit- have been invited to represent their possible will become friends of ICAS ted of which 136 organised panels, institutions in the exhibition hall or enabling us to make ICAS stronger for (panels formed by a group of scholars have virtual presentations. In the ICAS the sake of all Asia scholars. < who will present their papers within one Carousel, institutions will inform the

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 4 9 > IIAS fellows - - - - -

NetherlandsOrganization for Scientific NationalScience Council, Taiwan NetherlandsInstitute Documentation for War Indo-DutchProgramme onAlternatives in EuropeanScience Foundation LeidenUniversity Medical Centre BureauofInternational Cultural and Educa ChineseScholarship Council RoyalNetherlands Academy ofArts and Sci AcademyofKorean Studies NetherlandsFoundation for the Advancement AmsterdamSchool for Social Science SchoolofAsian, African, and Amerindian Stud Research,the Netherlands tionalRelations, Ministry ofEducation, Taiwan ChineseAcademy ofSocial Sciences ies,the Netherlands Development ences Research RoyalGovernment ofBhutan Asia-PacificStudiesAdvanced of SchoolSwedish Researchof Tropical ShanghaiAcademy ofSocial Sciences

NWO: NSC: IDPAD: NIOD: ESF: LUMC: BICER: CASS: CNWS: CSC: KNAW: AKS: RoGB: SSAAPS: WOTRO: Dr Wang Yi(China) Dr Wang ChineseAcademy ofSocial Sciences Affiliatedsponsored Fellow, byCASS Femaleroles inChinese Novels, 15th-18th Cen tury 20April 20–October 2007 (China)Yongping DrWu University,Tshinghua School ofPublic Policy andManagement Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, byKNAW ThePolitical Economy ofRent Seeking and Eco nomicPrivilege inChina 20June 20–September 2007 ZhengYing Ping, MA(China) InstituteofInternational Information Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, byCSC StrengtheningAsia-Pacific Multilateral Security Cooperation:European Experience 15February 31–December 2007 (China) Yake Prof.Yu Stationedatthe Amsterdam Branch Office Academy Yunnan ofSocial Sciences Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, byCSC Theoryand Practice ofRegional Integration: ComparativeA Study onthe Cases ofEU and ASEAN August1 2007 31–January 2008 IIASpartners and fellow sponsors: ASSR: SASS: DrLi(China)Yunbing ShanghaiNormal University InstituteofEthnology and Anthropology, CASS Affiliatedfellow Trans-Himalayandatabase development: China andthe Subcontinent July1 31–August 2007 Prof.Liu Guangkun (China) ChineseAcademy ofSocial Sciences (CASS)] InstituteofEthnology and Anthropology (IEA) Affiliatedfellows Trans-Himalayandatabase development: China andthe Subcontinent July1 31–August 2007 DrLiu Zhengai (China) PekingUniversity Affiliatedfellow (vrouw van WU) HistoricalMemory and Identity: HistoricalA AntrhopologyStudy ofManzu 20June 20–September 2007 Prof.Minohara (Japan)Toshihiro Affiliatedfellow PathEuropean-Japanese toWar: Relations from theManchurian Incident and 1931-1941SIGINT, October1 2006 30–September 2007 Prof.Sakamoto Hiroko (Japan) Stationedatthe Amsterdam Branch Office HitotsubashiUniversity, Graduate School of SocialSciences Affiliatedfellow ResearchonIntellectual History and Culture of CartoonsinModern China: the From PointsofView ofMulticultural Linkage, Media andGender August1 2007 31–January 2008 Prof.Sun Hongkai (China) ChineseAcademy ofSocial Sciences (CASS)] InstituteofEthnology and Anthropology (IEA) Affiliatedfellow Trans-Himalayandatabase development: China andthe Subcontinent July1 31–August 2007 (Taiwan) Yen-zen Prof.Tsai IIASProfessor, holder ofthe European Chair in ChineseStudies Chinesereligion 28August 2006 September1– 2007 (China)Feng DrWang Affiliatedfellow Trans-Himalayandatabase development: China andthe Subcontinent July1 31–August 2007

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) ‘Ethnolinguistics ofEast Indonesia’ Prof.Lawrence Andrew Reid (USA) UniversityofHawai’i Affiliatedfellow ReconstructionofSouthern Cordilleran “Phrase Markers” 1 December1 2006 30–November 2007 Prof.Hein Steinhauer (the Netherlands) IIASProfessor SpecialChair atthe Radboud University Nijmegen September1 1998 September1- 2008 EAST ASIA Prof.Chiu Hei-Yuan(Taiwan) InstituteofSociology, Taipei IIASProfessor September1 2007 31–August 2008 DrHuang Chenglong (China) Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, byCASS/ KNAW Trans-Himalayandatabase development: China andthe Subcontinent July1 31–August 2007 DrHong-chih Huang (Taiwan) NationalScience Council Affiliatedfellow studyA ofasset adequacy and retirement finan cialplanning for aging society inTaiwan August1 31–October 2007 DrMyungshin Kim (Korea University, Yonsei Seoul VisitingLecturer, sponsored byAKS Thecorrelation ofaesthetics and politics; North Koreanliterature 16January 2007 20–January 2008 DrKato Masae (Japan) Researchfellow within the ASSR/IIAS/NWO programme‘Socio-Genetic Marginalization inAsia’ comparativeA study onsocio-genetic marginali sation:Japan inrelation in“Asia” tothe “West” asreferencea group April1 2005 April1– 2008 DrKoChyong-Fang (Taiwan) NationalScience Council Affiliatedfellow BringBack?Family The impact ofcross-border marriagesonhost societies. 20August 20–November 2007 DrJan-Eerik Leppänen (Finland) PhDstudent within the ASSR/IIAS/NWO programme‘Socio-Genetic Marginalization inAsia’ Socio-geneticmarginalisation and vulnerable ethnicgroups inSouthwest China February1 2005 February1– 2009 - - DrSaraju Rath (India) Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, byGonda Foundation Cataloguecollection Sanskrit texts January5 2004 January5– 2009 DrKaruna Sharma (India) Affiliatedfellow reverence From todevaluation: andWomen labourinMedieval India c.1200- c.1800 January2 2006 January2– 2008 DrSuhnu Ram Sharma (India) Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, byGonda Foundation grammarA ofManchad language May1 31–September 2007 SOUTHEAST ASIA DrJet Bakels (the Netherlands) Affiliatedfellow Researchingtribal traditions inchanginga society March1 2006 March1– 2007 DrGreg Bankoff (UK) Affiliatedfellow Culturesofcoping: Community and natural hazardinthe Philippines September1 2004 31–August 2007 Whah DrChin(Malaysia) Yee Stationedatthe Branch Office Amsterdam Affiliatedfellow Chineseentrepreneurship inMalaysia May1–31 July 2007 MarianneHulsbosch (Australia) UniversityofSydney Affiliatedfellow PointyShoes and Pith Helmets: Dress and Iden tityConstruction inAmbon from 1850 to1942 15August 15–November 2007 Prof.Mashudi Kader (Malaysia) IIASProfessor, holder ofthe European Chair of MalayStudies Themorphology and the movements ofconstitu entsinthe syntax ofclassical Malay October1 2006 September1– 2008 DrRitsuko Kikusawa (Japan) NationalMuseum ofEthnology, Osaka Affiliatedsponsored Fellow, byNWO Anexamination ofthe genetic affiliation ofthe Malagasylanguages: their internal and external relationshipinthe Austronesian language family December1 2006 30–November 2007 - - - - CENTRAL ASIA DrMehdi Parvizi Amineh (the Netherlands) StationedatLeiden and the Branch Office Amsterdam Projectcoordinator, within the IIAS/Clingen dael‘Energy Programme Asia’ (EPA) July1 2002 31–December 2007 DrAlex McKay (New Zealand) Affiliatedfellow Thehistory ofTibet and the Indian Himalayas October1 2000 May1– 2008 DrIrina Morozova (Russia) StationedatLeiden and the Branch Office Amsterdam Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, bythe Alexander vonHumboldt Stiftung Thetransformation ofPolitical Elites inKyr gyzstanand Mongolia, 1924-2006: ComparaA tiveHistorical Analysis 31March 2006 1September- 2008 SOUTH ASIA DrSekhar Bandhyopadhyay VictoriaUniversity ofWellington Affiliatedfellow MeaningsofFreedom: Decolonization and Poli ticsofBengal,Transition in West 1947-1952 October1 31–December 2007 DrJyotsna Agnihotri Gupta (the Netherlands) Researchwithinfellow, the ASSR/IIAS/NWO programme‘Socio-Genetic Marginalization inAsia’ Reproductivegenetics and counselling inIndia: Decision-makingregarding genetic screening and prenataldiagnosis September1 2004 31–August 2007 DrDipika Mukherjee Affiliatedfellow NegotiatingLanguages and Forging Identities: Surinamese-IndianintheWomen Netherlands 15January 2007 15–January 2008 NathanPorath (U.K.) Affiliatedsponsoredfellow, byUSIP Islamiceducation, secular education and civil societyinSouth Thailand March1 2007 September1- 2008 Prof.OmPrakash (India) Seniorsponsoredfellow, den Berchby Van vanHeemstede Foundation Thetrading world ofthe Indian Ocean, 1500-1800 15June 15–September 2007

fellows ------

‘Asian History’ ‘Asian rans-Himalayandatabase develop IIAShosts several categories ofpost doctoral researchers(fellows) inAsian Studies. Spon sorshipofthese fellows contributes tothe institute’saim ofenhancing expertise and encouragingthe exploration ofunderdevel opedfields ofstudy. Moreinformation and IIAS fellowships appli cationforms are available at: www.iias.nl/iias/fellowships specific For information, please contact: [email protected] Fellowshipcategories fel Seniorfellows, Researchfellows, Affiliated Residence. in Artists andProfessors IIAS lows, IIASfellows can choose tobe based inLeiden oratthe Branch Office Amsterdam. Allfellows currently engaged atIIAS are listed belowselected byregion ofspecialty and in alphabeticalorder. GENERAL DrKatia Chirkova (Russia) Programmecoordinator, within the pro grammeT ment:China and the Subcontinent, sponsored by CASS/KNAW(see Chenglong) September1 2005 April1– 2008 MelodyLu, MA(Taiwan) Researchfellow Intermediatedcross-border marriages inEast and SoutheastAsia February1 2006 September9– 2007 DrPrasanna Kumar Patra (India) Researchwithinfellow, the ASSR/IIAS/NWO programme‘Socio-Genetic Marginalization in Asia’(SMAP) Cross-culturalcomparative study ofgenetic researchinIndia and Japan 15December 2005 15–November 2008 DrEllen Raven (the Netherlands) Projectcoordinator, within the network ‘South andSoutheast Asia Art and Archaeology Index’ (ABIA)sponsored, byGonda Foundation June1 2003 June1– 2008 Prof.Henk Schulte Nordholt (the Netherlands) IIASProfessor SpecialChair atthe Erasmus UniversityRotterdam, October1 1999 October1- 2007 > IIAS fellows IIAS

5 0 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > IIAS research

[advertisement] IIAS research programmes, Announcement networks & initiatives

Programmes nate words in Tibeto-Burman languages, maintained by the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology (Chinese Academy Catalogue of Sanskrit manuscripts of Social Sciences) with language data of the George van In 1929, two crates of 17th and 18th century Sanskrit manu- Driem Himalayan Languages Project (Leiden University) to During the 21st century it is projected that there will be more scripts arrived at the Kern Institute, University of Leiden. This create a joint, online database of Tibeto-Burman languages Gonda/IIAS project is preparing a scientific catalogue of the with a mirror-site in Leiden. The project’s second objective than one billion people aged 60 and over. This will actually roughly 500 South Indian Sanskrit manuscripts written on is to continue documentation of endangered Tibeto-Burman palm leafs in ancient Indian scripts such as Grantha, Telugu, languages in China in cooperation with the Institute of Eth- reach nearly two billion by 2050, of whom three-quarters Malayalam, Nagari and Nandinagari. nology and Anthropology. Coordinator: Saraju Rath Coordinator: Katia Chirkova will live in the less-developed world. The bulk of the ageing [email protected] [email protected] population will reside in Asia. Ageing in Asia is attributable Networks Cross-border marriages in East and Southeast Asia to the marked declines in fertility shown over the last 40 The past decade has seen a rapid increase in the intra-Asia ABIA South and Southeast Asian art and archaeology flow of brides, particularly between Southeast and East Asia. index years and the steady increase in life-expectancy. In West- While in Europe intermediated marriages continue to be seen The Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology is an anno- as a form of the commodification of women, recent schol- tated bibliographic database for publications covering South ern Europe, where the development of ageing populations arship in intra-Asia cross-border marriages challenges this and Southeast Asian art and archaeology. The project was dominant view. launched by IIAS in 1997 and is currently coordinated by the came at a slower pace and could initially be incorporated into Coordinator: Melody Lu Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology of the University of Kel- m.lu @let.leidenuniv.nl aniya, Colombo, Sri Lanka. The database is freely accessible welfare policy provisions, governments are currently aim- at www.abia.net. Extracts from the database are also available as bibliographies, published in a series by Brill. The project ing to trim and reduce government financed social welfare Energy programme Central Asia receives scientific support from UNESCO. This programme on the geopolitics of energy focuses on Chinese, Coordinator: Ellen Raven and Gerda Theuns-de Boer and health-care, including pensions systems, unleashing Indian, Japanese and South Korean strategies to secure oil and [email protected] natural gas from the Caspian region (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, www.abia.net substantial public debate and experienced insecurity. Many Turkmenistan, Iran, and Russia) and the Persian Gulf. The programme is institutionally supported by IIAS and the Clingendael Asian Governments are confronted with comparable chal- International Energy Programme (CIEP), Den Haag. Islam in Indonesia: the dissemination of religious Coordinator: Mehdi Parvizi Amineh authority in the 20th and early 21st centuries lenges and dilemmas, involving both the State and the fam- [email protected] Forms and transformations of religious authority among the Indonesian Muslim community are the focus of this research ily, but which - comparatively - need to be addressed within programme. The term authority relates to persons and books Illegal but licit: transnational flows and permissive as well as various other forms of written and non-written ref- a much shorter time-span. In short, both sets of nations are polities in Asia erences. Special attention is paid to the production, reproduc- This research programme analyses forms of globalisation- tion and dissemination of religious authority in the fields of reviewing their social contract with their people. from-below, transnational practices considered acceptable four sub-programmes: ulama (religious scholars) and fatwas; (licit) by participants but which are often illegal in a formal tarekat (mystical orders); dakwah (propagation of the faith); sense. It explores limitations of ‘seeing like a state’, and and education. instead privileges the perspectives of participants in these Coordinator: Nico Kaptein illegal but licit transnational flows. [email protected] Private and public old-age security Coordinator: Willem van Schendel [email protected] arrangements in Asia and Europe Initiatives

Socio-genetic marginalisation in Asia Earth monitoring and the social sciences Joint conference organised by The development and application of new biomedical and The space age has dramatically impacted all nations. In Asia, National Science Council (NSC), Taipei, Taiwan genetic technologies have important socio-political implica- the ‘space-faring nations’ of India, China and Japan have International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS), tions. This NWO/ASSR/IIAS research programme aims to successfully developed space technologies and applications. Leiden, the Netherlands gain insight into the ways in which the use of and monopoly Other Asian nations have readily adopted these applications, over genetic information shape and influence population poli- including satellites for telecommunications, for gathering cies, environmental ethics and biomedical and agricultural data on the weather, and environmental and earth resources. Convenors practices in various Asian religious and secular cultures and IIAS has initiated a series of workshops on the topic. Prof. CHENG Li-Chen, Department of Social Work, across national boundaries. Coordinator: David Soo National Taiwan University Coordinator: Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner [email protected] Prof. Carla Risseeuw, Department of Anthropology, [email protected] Leiden University, the Netherlands

Piracy and robbery on the Asian seas Date and venue Syntax of the languages of southern China Acts of piracy loom large in Asian waters, with the bulk of all 5-8 September 2007, Campus The Hague, This project aims to achieve a detailed description and in-depth officially reported incidents of maritime piracy occurring in Leiden University at The Hague, the Netherlands analysis of a limited number of syntactic phenomena in six lan- Southeast Asia during the 1990s. This is of serious concern guages, both Sinitic and non-Sinitic, spoken in the area south to international shipping, as the sea-lanes between East Asia, of the Yangtze River. The project will systematically compare the Middle East, and Europe pass through Southeast Asia. For further information these descriptions and analyses to contribute to the develop- IIAS and the Centre for Maritime Research at the University Martina van den Haak, IIAS, [email protected] ment of the theory of language and human language capacity. of Amsterdam are currently identifying issues and concerns, The conference programme is available on www.iias.nl Coordinator: Rint Sybesma and are delineating core elements of an interdisciplinary [email protected] research programme on piracy and robbery at sea in Asia. Coordinator: John Kleinen [email protected] Trans-Himalayan database development: China and the subcontinent For more information on IIAS research: www.iias.nl The project’s main goal is to combine the database of cog-

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 5 1 > International arts agenda - - - - -

August 2007 6 Pakistan MohattaPalace Museum Hatim7 Alvi Road Clifton,Karachi 75600 +(92-21)T 583 7669 www.mohattapalacemuseum.com Until30September 2007 ofthe Tile: Tale the Ceramic Traditionsof Paki stan TheMohatta Palace Museum presents a panoramicview ofthe ceramic traditions of Pakistanfrom c.2800 BCE tothe present day. Themore than 400 historical objects consist ofarchitectural elements, tiles, and vessels fromMehgarh, Multan, Uch, Lahore,Sitpur, Sehwan,Kamarro Sharif, Thatta, Hala, and Hyderabad.Highlights include stunning calli graphicpanels ofPersian verses byBahauddin Zakaria. Singapore AsianCivilisations Museum Empress1 Place Singapore179555 +(65)T 6332 7798 www.acm.org.sg/exhibitions Until31August 2007 AsianBeauty: 200 BCE toToday Thisexhibition examines the many interpreta tionsofbeauty across Asian cultures. NUSCentre for the Arts Museum NationalUniversity ofSingapore LeeKong Chian Art Museum, UCC Annex 50Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore +6874T 4616 6874/ 4617 6874/ 4618 www.nus.edu.sg/museums/exhibitions.htm Until1December 2007 Respondingtothe Divide David: Kwo landscapes From and figures toflowers and birds,David painted Kwo varietya ofsubjects interpretedthrough traditional Chinese brush techniquesand Westernstyles. Heis most famousfor his portrayal ofsmall animals, especiallycats and dogs that became his hallmark.Ondisplay are over 50paintings, includingsome influenced byFauvism, the Bauhaus,Cubism and Abstract Expression ism. Spain FundaciónTelefónica GranVia 28 28013Madrid T+91552 6645 www.fundacion.telefonica.com July9 2 – PHotoEspana2007: Zhang Huan PHE07will beoffering more than 60exhibi tionswith work byphotographers and visual - Courtesy of National Museum of Indonesia Venice BiennaleVenice www.labiennale.org 10June 21–November 2007 52ndInternational Art Exhibition Thinkwith the Senses withFeel– the Mind: Art inthe Present Tense Thecentral international exhibition, set upin theArsenale Corderie, insome spaces ofthe ArsenaleArtiglierie and inthe Italian Pavilion atthe Giardini, will present about hundreda artistsfrom all over the world with works including– site-specific and new productions created– inco-operation with the Venice Biennalefor this occasion. Asian pavilions include: China:Arsenale. ChinaHong- Kong: nearCalle della Tana Arsenale. CentralAsia: Spiazzi. Japan:Pavilion atthe Giardini. Korea:Pavilion atthe Giardini. Singapore:Palazzo Cavalli Franchetti. Palazzo Taiwan: delle Prigioni. Japan KyotoNational Museum 527Chayamachi, Higashiyama-ku Kyoto +075-541-1151T www.kyohaku.go.jp/eng/tenji/index.html August8 17–September 2007 ofTreasuresDaikaku-ji Commemorat Temple: ingthe 700th Anniversary ofEmperor Gouda’s AppointmentasAbbot Daikaku-jiunderwent Temple amajor revival in1307, when the retired emperor Gouda (1267-1324)became its abbot. This exhibition featurestreasures from Daikaku-ji, including thecloistered emperor’s calligraphic works andscreen paintings byKano Sanraku (1559- 1635)that adorned the temple quarters. ------14June 21–October 2007 ThermoclineofArt: New Asian Waves Theexhibition presents more than 100 con temporaryartists from twenty Asian countries. Theterm ‘thermocline’ refers todramatica changeinthe temperature ofocean water causingmaelstroma that has remained invis ibleuntil this point tosuddenly shoot out overthe surface. Insimilara fashion, this showexposes hugea continent ofart, which hasremained hidden below the surface of observation.The exhibition presents primarily emergingartists who still live intheir coun triesoforigin from- Kazakhstan toKorea, fromMongolia toIndonesia. Itis postmoda ernand post-ethnic art that shows the results ofglobalization and its effects onthe Asian region.This panorama ofart includes paint ings,installations, film, video, photography, sculpture,and objects which occasionally transgressthe borders ofWestern understand ingofart. Linden-MuseumStuttgart StateMuseum ofEthnology Hegelplatz1 D-70174Stuttgart +49T (0) 711/2022-3 www.lindenmuseum.de Until21October 2007 Inthe Sign ofthe Dragon on–the Beauty ofChi neseLacquer Art: Homage toLow-BeerFritz Thisexhibition presents the extensive col lectionformerly belonging toLow-BeerFritz (1906-1976),who isregarded aspioneera ofChinese lacquer art inThethe exhiWest. bitionoffers comprehensivea insight into thefascinating techniques for creating and decoratingChinese lacquer art. The collec tionfocuses primarily oncarved lacquer and archaeologicalfinds from the WesternHan period(202 BCE-9 CE). Italy MuseoContemporanea d’Arte Roma (MACRO) viaReggio Emilia 54–00198 Rome +39T 066710 70400 www.macro.roma.museum Until30September 2007 IntoMeOut/ ofMe IntoMeOut/ ofMe represents anexplora tionofthe art ofperformance since the 1960s. Theexhibition highlights the concrete and metaphoricalways inwhich humans interact witheach themselves, other, and material The matter.focus ison three primordial and radicalrelationships between the internal and theexternal: metabolism, reproduction, and violence.Nobuyoshiby Works Araki, Patty Chang,Zhen Chen, Noritoshi Hirakawa, Tracy Nakayama,and Rirkrit Tiravanija are included. ------August 2007 6 August 2007 5 Denmark LouisianaMuseum ofModern Art DK-3050Humlebaek 45+T42- 19 07 91 www.louisiana.dk Until MadeinChina Thisexhibition presents nearly hundreda worksfrom one ofthe world’s largest col lectionsofcontemporary Chinese art, the EstellaCollection. The selected works offer insightinto the many currents that are mov ingthrough contemporary Chinese art and provideanintroduction toart which israpidly attaininganimportant position onthe interna tionalart scene. France HalleSaint Pierre 2,rue Ronsard 75018Paris +33T (0) 42158 72 89 www.hallesaintpierre.org Until2 India:Nek Chand Jivya& Soma Mashe NekChand, born in1924, and Jivya Soma Mashe,born in1934, both create works that connectart and the landscape. This side-by- sideview oftheir works isfirst.a The exhibi tionisalso punctuated byother works oftribal andpopular art. Germany SparwasserHQ Offensivefor Contemporary Art and Commu nication Torstrasse161 10115Berlin +49T 3021803001 www.sparwasserhq.de Until31December 2007 Nyen Part–Ho Tzu of the Glowing Whistle Festival SparwasserHQis launching its new program calledThe Glowing Whistle Festival. The first artistinvolved Nyen iswhoHo Tzu presents hislast project Bohemian Rhapsody, filma recentlyproduced for the Singapore Biennal. Nyen’s HoTzu work issimultaneously courta roomdrama (young men being sentenced to death)documentarya, ofits own production, andvehiclea that incites the spectators’ par ticipationinan exercise ofmental karaoke. ZKMMuseum/ ofContemporary Art Lorenzstraße19 76135Karlsruhe +49T (0)721 8100-0 http://on1.zkm.de/zkm/e - - Haizhuqu,510300 Guangzhou +86 T20 84296760 www.vitamincreativespace.com Until31August 2007 Smile ChuYun: of Matter Thefirst solo exhibition ofChu Yun. HongKong Heritage Museum Man1 Lam Road ShaTin, Hong Kong +852T 2180 8188 www.heritagemuseum.gov.hk/english Until30July 2007 CamerasInside Out Whileexamining the evolution ofthe manu factureofcameras, the first part ofthis exhi bitionshowcases numbera ofcameras that dateback asfar as100 years. Italso probes thedevelopment ofthe photographic art ina displayofselected works bygroupa ofsenior localphotographers including Kan Hing- Fou-li,fook, Leo Tchan K.and K. Wong, Ngan Chun-tung.Inthe second part, the exhibitions presentsthe diversity ofmodern photography thourghthe works offive contemporary artists Almond– ChuSo Hing-keung, Tak-wah, Bobby ShamKa-ho, Lam Wai-kit, and Chow Chun-fai. Until24September 2007 ThePoetic Spirit The– Art ofYue-kee Henry Wo ChaoShao-an Student Exhibition Series 1 - - - - - August 2007 5 Australia MelbourneMuseum 11Nicholson St Carlton,Victoria 61+T83413 7777 www.melbourne.museum.vic.gov.au Until22July 2007 GreatofChina: Walls dynasties, dragons war& riors Over50,000 kilometres long, the Greatof Wall Chinaisnow majora international exhibition. Nationaltreasures tell the 2,000-year-old storyofthe building ofthe walls across China aspart ofsuccessive defensive and offensive strategies.Themes explored include the ori gins,construction, and function ofthe walls, thecultures ofthe peoples living thenearby, introductionofBuddhism that followed the SilkRoad trade routes along the course ofthe walls,and the significance of`The Great Walls ofChina’ asnationala symbol, precious cul turalheritage, and tourism icon. TheArt Gallery ofNew South Wales ArtGallery Road, The Domain SydneyNSW 2000 +02T 9225 1700 www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au 24May – IshiuchiMiyako: Mother’s Thisexhibition ofphotographs bynoted artist IshiuchiMiyako reconstructs the show she presentedatthe Japan Pavilion atthe Venice Biennalein2005, including seriesa ofmoving photographsofher deceased mother’s per sonalbelongings. Canada RoyalOntario Museum 100Queen’s Park M5SON Toronto, 2C6 +416T 586 8000 www.rom.on.ca/index.php June3 to12 August 2007 Dramaand Desire: Japanese Paintings from the Floating1690World 1850- Thisshow presents the world of17th to19th centurythrough Tokyo extraordinary master worksofukiyo-e painting ‘pictures– ofthe floatingworld’ that depict daily life inJapan. China VitaminCreative Space 301,29Hao, Hengyijie Chigangxilu > Arts agenda Arts agenda

5 2 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > International arts agenda

[advertisement] - ofthe pieces date from the Ming Until19August 2007 ChineseTextiles Thisexhibition presents selectiona ofrarely seenChinese textiles from the museum’s col lection.Most andQing periods dynasties with fine examples ofimperial and court attire; garments used inthe belief systems ofDaoism, Buddhism, andConfucianism; ceremonial costumes; and decorativehangings. Highlights include paira oflate Ming tapestry-woven chair covers with four-claweddragons and richly-coloureda red- and-greensilk Daoist robe. - - SanJose Museum ofArt 110South Market Street SanJose, 95113CA +1T408 2716840 www.sjmusart.org Until8July 2007 IlLee: Ballpoint Abstractions Thismid-career survey isthe largest showing ofIlLee’s work todate. Featuring well over a hundredworks, the survey isan unparalleled opportunitytoexplore Lee’s practice and see manynever before exhibited works. Highlight ingthe criticality ofworking onpaper toLee’s practice,speciala installation ofseventy-seven worksonpaper isgrouped together onone wall.This grouping offers rarea opportunity forviewers todirectly compare the disparate artresulting from Lee’s extensive experimen tationwith theme, surface, and technique. SaintLouis Art Museum OneFine Arts Drive ForestPark, St. Louis, 63110-1310MO +314T 721 0072 www.stlouis.art.museum/index.aspx?id=2 ------

August 2007 6 ArtSway StationRoad Hampshire Sway, SO41 6BA +44T 1590 682260 www.artsway.org.uk LateJuly Mid-September– 2007 PRODUCTION-Feng MaYong TherelatesworkFeng ofMa Yong to aspects ofanimal culture, specifically inrelation to man-madeenvironments and topographic modelling.Hebuilds artificial landscapes and thenphotographs them and hemakes films. Heaims tolook into ideas ofanthropocen trismand its effects onanimal habitiats, and howhumanity thinks itself asprogenitors of aestheticideas. United States MuseumofFine Arts Avenueofthe Arts, 465 Huntington Avenue Boston,Massachusetts +1-617T 267 9300 [email protected] www.mfa.org Until8October 2007 ofRenown:Women Female Heroes and Villains inthe Prints ofUtagawa Kuniyoshi (1797-1861) ArtistUtagawa Kuniyoshi combined the popu lartheme ofbeautiful women with his person alspecialty, warrior prints showing legendary heroicfigures from Japanese and Chinese the From historicalhistory. woman warrior tothe fictional Tomoe sorceress Takiyasha, fromancient empresses topresent-day crimi nals,Kuniyoshi’s dynamic portrayals show womenwho were not just passive beauties but strong,courageous, talented, and sometimes evenwicked. TheMetropolitan Museum ofArt 1000Fifth Avenue at82nd Street 10028-0198NY New York, +212T 535 7710 www.metmuseum.org/home.asp Until2 Journeys:Mapping the Earth and Mind inChi neseArt Thisexhibition, featuring 70works dating fromthe 11th tothe 21st century,explores thetheme ofjourneys both real and imag ined.Depictions ofreal journeys range from intimatescenes togrand imperially commis sionedpanoramas. But Chinese artists have moreoften been inspired byjourneys ofthe mind:roaming through the mountains or escapingtowilderness retreats orutopian paradisesthat can provide refuge, ifonly vicar fromiously, challenging realities. - December 2007 5 August 2007 5 Until2 GrandView: Sung Dynasty Rare Books Theprint industry prospered inthe Song dynastybecause ofadvances inpapermaking, inkproduction, and printing technologies. Theserare tomes carry historical significance inthe fields ofphilology, literary criticism, and theart ofprinting. This exhibition presents thearchetype printed Song book with respect tofour themes. Fine ArtsTaipei Museum 181ZhongShan N.Road, Sec. 3 10461 Taipei +02T 2595 7656 www.tfam.gov.tw Until OpenFUN International2007– Taipei Modern CalligraphyExhibition United Kingdom TheMuseum ofEast Asian Art 12Bennett Street BathBA1 2QJ +44-1225T 464 640 www.bath.co.uk/museumeastasianart Until12August 2007 BatikTransitions:Classic From toContemporary Incelebration ofthe British Batik Guild’s 20th anniversary,this touring exhibition captures theexquisite nature oftraditional batik art fromChina, Vietnam, Laos, and Indonesia. In additiontothe presentation offine examples oftraditional batik, the show also provides anopportunity tosee selected contemporary workfrom internationally known artists and Guildmembers. BruneiGallery SOAS,University ofLondon ThornhaughStreet, Russell Square London +44T (0)20 7898 4915 www.soas.ac.uk/gallery/home.html 11July 22–September 2007 Soho From Road tothe Punjab: Documenting theContribution ofBhangra and its Cultural Rel evanceinBritain today 50years ofBhangra, photographs, interviews, music,and artifacts. EdgeofArabia: Art Identity& inthe Land ofthe Prophet Throughthe work often contemporary artists thisexhibition explores the individual’s voice onthe Edge ofArabia. The work focuses on thedifferent ways artists are expressing their valuesand beliefs inclimatea ofchange. ------January 2008 6 artistsfrom 31countries. The Fundación Telefónicaismounting the largest ever exhibi tioninSpain byChinese artist Zhang Huan. It iscomprised ofhis work from the last seven years,taken both from Spanish collections andthe artist’s own anthology. previouslyA unseenvideo will bescreened depicting the creativeprocess ofcontroversiala artist whose workhas frequently been censored bythe Chi nesegovernment. Switzerland KunstmuseumBern Hodlerstrasse12 3000Bern 7 +41T 31328 0944 www.kunstmuseumbern.ch/ 21September 2007 – HornPlease: The journey ofthe narrative from the1980s tothe present inIndian art Thisexhibition follows the journey ofthe narrativefrom the 1980s tothe present by tracingcertain critical moments inIndian art moments– ofboth assimilation and interven tionthrough– which particulara kind ofnarra tivewas constructed. Byrepresenting scenes fromeveryday life, fictional happenings, mythology,and satire aswell asusing autobio graphical,societal, and historical material, the contributingartists reflect anIndia that has changedeconomically, politically, and socially. MuseumRietberg Zürich Gablerstrasse15 Zurich,Switzerland 41+T(0)44 206 3131 www.rietberg.ch Park-VillaRieter Until23September 2007 Courtlypaintings from India Masterpiecesfrom the Museum Rietberg col lection. 19August December2- 2007 AngkorSacred- Heritage ofCambodia Thisexhibition will bethe most comprehen siveofits kind yet seen inSwitzerland. The showoffers surveya ofCambodia´s culture, beginninginthe 6th century with stone sculp turesfrom the Pre-Angkor kingdoms of Funan andZhenla. The main focus isthe art and architectureofthe Angkor-Period (9th 13th– century).Factorscontributing tothe wealth ofthis culture such aswater management, ricecultivation, and trade relations will also be addressed. Taiwan TheNational Palace Museum 221Chih-shan Rd., Sec. 2,Taipei +886T 28812 2021 www.npm.gov.tw/index.htm

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 5 3 > International conference agenda -

- [advertisement] - November 2007 November2–1 2007 Guangzhou,China inAsiaThe ColdWar workshop organisedbyCentre for Chinese Studies, Man chesterHarvard/ Univ. University Zhong/ shanUniversity contact:Catriona Dobson [email protected] www.ccs.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/ research/index.html November9–7 2007 Lund,Sweden Cultureand the Configuring ofSecurity: Using AsianPerspectives toInform Theoretical Direc tion conference convenor:Alexandra Kent organizedbyNordic NIAS Council (NNC) contact:Alexandra Kent [email protected] http://www.asiansecurity.niasconferences.dk - conference contact:[email protected] orwpa07@ wpaf.org 1821–October 2007 Seattle,United States CentralEurasian Studies Society (CESS) 8th AnnualConference conference convenors:Ellison Center for Russian, East Europeanand Central Asian Studies organizedbyCentral Eurasian Studies Society University/ ofWashington contact:Allison Dvaladze [email protected] cess.fas.harvard.edu/CESS_conference.html 19October 2007 London,UK IndianMass Media and the Politics ofChange conference convenors:Sadmediacow Centre/ for Media andFilm Studies, School ofOriental and Afri canStudies (SOAS) contact:[email protected] www.sacredmediacow.com - September 2007 5 October 2007 6 121 – Ankara,Turkey EuropeanSociety for Central Asian Studies (ESCAS)Conference: Tenth Central Asia Shar- ingExperiences and Prospects conference organisedby: European Society for Central AsianStudies (ESCAS) www.escas.pz.nl 20–22September 2007 Kolkata,India TheSecond Critical Studies Conference on ”SpheresofJustice” conference organisedbythe Mahanirban Calcutta ResearchGroup contact:[email protected] www.mcrg.ac.in October 2007 –4 Ottowa,Canada 4thInternational Conference andonWomen PoliticsinAsia - - - September 2007 September 2007 5 5 – 7 September7– 2007 – 8 September8– 2007 September 2007 September8–3 2007 Naples,Italy Emotionsand East Asian Social Life: Theory and Practice summerschool convenor:Prof. Paolo Santangelo Naples of “L’Orientale” Universityby organised contact:Prof. Santangelo /Daniel Kadar [email protected]@yahoo.co.uk www.iuo.it/emotion_summer_school 5 Leiden,Netherlands Carefor the Elderly: Asia and Europe Compared conference convenors:Carla Risseeuw and Chen-Li Cheng organisedbyNSC-IIAS contact:Manon Osseweijer [email protected] 6 Manchester,United Kingdom TheBritish Association for Chinese Studies AnnualConference conference organizedbyBACS Centre/ for Chinese Stud ies,Manchester University contact:Catriona Dobson [email protected] www.bacsuk.org.uk 11–7September 2007 Rome,Italy 13thColloquium ofthe International Association ofLadakh Studies conference organisedby: International Association of LadakhStudies contact:John Bray, [email protected] www.ladakhstudies.org 101 – Ankara,Turkey InternationalCongress ofAsian and North Afri canStudies conference organisedbyICANAS http://www.icanas38.org.tr/icanas38en.html 121 – Naples,Italy EUROSEASConference conference convenor:EUROSEAS organisedbyEUROSEAS contact:Pietro Masina [email protected] http://iias.leidenuniv.nl/institutes/kitlv/euro seas.html - - - - - August 2007 6 August 2007 5 – 28–July 2007 – 18–August 2007 6 6

2 Singapore 2ndSingapore Graduate Forumon Southeast AsiaStudies Workshop Organisedby: The Asia Research Institute (ARI)ofthe National University ofSingapore (NUS) contact:[email protected] August 2007 –2 KualaLumpur, Malaysia ICAS5 convention organisedbyUniversity Kebangsaam Malay sia/ATMA-IKON contact:Institute ofMalay andWorld Civiliza tion(ATMA) [email protected] www.atma.ukm.my/icas5.htm 1218–August 2007 Stockholm,Sweden Week 2007 Water World conference convenor:Stockholm International Water Institute contact:[email protected] www.siwi.org 1 Dublin,Ireland RisingChina inthe Age ofGlobalisation conference convenor:DrLiming Wang organisedbyUCD Confucius Institute for Ire land,Irish Institute for Chinese Studies contact:Elva Hickey [email protected] www.ucd.ie/china 1823–August 2007 ChuncheonKorea,City, Republic of The9th Asian Urbanization Conference conference organisedbyAsian Urban Research Associa tion/KwangwonNational University contact:DrNakhun Song [email protected] http://webspace.ship.edu/aura 2 –4 Copenhagen,Denmark 7thconference ofthe Nordic Association for Japa neseand Korean Studies conference convenor:Marie Højlund Roesgaard organisedbyNAJAKS www.najaks.dk - - - - July 2007 July 2007 July 2007 6 5 5 July 2007 11–9July 2007 Leiden,Netherlands 5thUrban Language Survey Seminar seminar convenors:Marinus van deBerg and Vincent vanHeuven organisedbyLUCL/IIAS/NOW contact:Martina van den Haak [email protected] www.iias.nl/ilci 1214–July 2007 Leiden,Netherlands ChinaSummerschool: “The Spread ofPTH” convenor(s):Marinus van deBerg and Vincent vanHeuven organisedbyLUCL/IIAS/NOW contact:Martina van den Haak [email protected] www.iias.nl/ilci 131 – USA NewYork, 8thHindiWorld Conference 2007 Conference organisedbythe Government ofIndia incoop erationwith the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan and otherHindi organisations based inthe US www.vishwahindi.com 131 – Victoria,Canada NewCourts inthe Asia-Pacific Region conference convenors:The Centre for Asia-Pacific Initia tives(University ofVictoria) and the Asian Law Centre(University ofMelbourne) http://capiconf.uvic.ca/ocs/index.php?cf=2 1820-July 2007 Singapore,Singapore InSearch ofReconciliation and Peace inIndo nesia conference organisedbyAsia Research Institute/ National UniversityofSingapore contact:DrBirgit Bauchler [email protected] www.ari.nus.edu.sg 232 – Edinburgh,Scotland Mutinyatthe Margins’ New Perspectives onthe Indianuprising of1857. conference convenor:Crispin Bates, School ofHistory and Classics,University ofEdinburgh organisedbythe Centre for South Asian Stud ies,University ofEdinburgh contact:[email protected] > International conference agenda Agenda

5 4 IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 > International conference agenda - - - - - theBrookings Institution

December 2007 5 – 8 December8– 2007 Oslo,Norway ApproachingElections inSouth Asia: Perform ances,Principles and Perceptions workshop convenor:Political Culture inSouth Asia researchproject, Humanities Univer Faculty, sityofOslo contact:pamela G.Price orArild Engelsen Ruud [email protected]@ikos.uio.noor www.hf.uio.no/ikos/forskning/forskningspros jekter/south-asia/index.html 1 –1 Kolkata,India Annualwinter course onForced Migration OrientationCourse Organisedby: The Calcutta Research Group in cooperationwith the Government ofFinland, UNHCRand Contact:[email protected] / [email protected] www.mcrg.ac.in 6

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is an open platform for visitors to place inforplacevisitorsplatformto foropen an is portal www.iias.nl/portal mation on events, grants and funding, job opportunities, and websites. can You subscribe to the portal at the address above and stay up to date through regular RSS feeds. Event informa tion posted on IIAS portal will be considered for publication in thisnewsletter’s International Conference Agenda. IIAS 2729–November 2007 ButuMalang, Indonesia MuslimAsAgents Youth ofChange InIndonesia conference convenedby: Indonesian Leaders Young Programme organisedby: Leiden University, the Nether landsthe/ Ministry ofReligious Affairs, Indo nesiaUniversitas/ Islam Malang (UNISMA), Indonesia. Contact:M.R van Amersfoort [email protected] www.indonesianyoungleaders.org 2830–November 2007 Berlin,Germany OnlineEducation Berlin: 13th International Con ferenceonTechnology-Supported Learning and Training conference organizedbyICWE [email protected] www.online-educa.com December 2007 December1 2007 Guangdongand Macao, China Cantonand Nagasaki compared: 1730-1830 conference organisedbyZhongshan University, Guang dong,Cultural Institute ofMacao and Consu lateGeneral NL, Guangzhou contact:Evert Groenendijk [email protected] -

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November 2007 DMFBS GPSJOTUBODF GSPNUIFQSPNJOFOUSPMFPG .JEEMF&BTUBOE4PVUI4PVUIFBTU"TJB XIPEPOPU 5 ZPVUIJOUIFEFWFMPQNFOUTXIJDIMFEUPUIF IBWFSFTPVSDFTBWBJMBCMFGPSUIFDPWFSBHFPGUIFJS GBMMPG1SFTJEFOU4VIBSUPJO5IFQSFTFOU USBWFMBOEMPEHJOHFYQFOTFT5PRVBMJGZGPSBHSBOU Dunedin,New Zealand 17thNew Zealand Asian Studies Society (NZA SIA)International Conference conference convenor:University ofOtago, New Zealand contact: [email protected] www.nzasia.org.nz 2324–November 2007 Rotterdam,The Netherlands InternationalConference onPeaceful Coexistence conference convenor:Erasmus University, Rotterdam contact:[email protected] www.gulenconference.nl 222 – DPOGFSFODFBJNTUPJOWFTUJHBUFUIFSPMFPG QMFBTFTVCNJUBTIPSUMFUUFSPGNPUJWBUJPOUPUIF .VTMJNZPVUIBTBHFOUTPGDIBOHFJO*OEPOFTJB CFMPXFNBJMBEESFTT - XIFSF.VTMJNTDPOTUJUVUFUIFNBKPSJUZ BQQSPYJNBUFMZ BOEXIFSFBNBKPSJUZJT 'PSGVSUIFSJOGPSNBUJPO VOEFSUIFBHFPG .3WBO"NFSTGPPSU .4D ZPVOHMFBEFST!MFUMFJEFOVOJWOM 5IFDPOGFSFODFXJMMJOWFTUJHBUFVOEFSXIBU 0SWJTJUXXXJOEPOFTJBOZPVOHMFBEFSTPSH DJSDVNTUBODFT.VTMJNZPVUIIBWFCFDPNF BHFOUTPGDIBOHFCZMPPLJOHBUUIFJSQFSTPOBM BOEFEVDBUJPOBMCBDLHSPVOET FYQPTVSFUP /PWFNCFS NFEJB BOEUIFJOºVFODFPG*TMBN JOUIFGPSN PGEBLXBIBOEPUIFSNBOJGFTUBUJPOT JOPSEFS ,MVC#VOHB)PUFM #BUV.BMBOH UPFTUBCMJTIXIBUNPSBMWBMVFTIBWFCFFO USBOTNJUUFEBOEPSJODVMDBUFEUPQSPNQUUIF ZPVUIUPBDUJOUIFXBZUIBUUIFZIBWF PS IBWFOPU 2123–November 2007 Singapore EarlyIndian Influences inSoutheast Asia: Reflec tionsonCross-Cultural Movements conference convenor:Institute ofSoutheast Asian Studies (ISEAS) www.iseas.edu.sg 2224–November 2007 Lucknow,India 8thInternational Conference onAsian and Youth Childhoods2007 conference rganisedbyCircle for Child and Youth ResearchCooperation inIndia (CCYRCI) / JNPGDegree College, Lucknow contact:Vinod Chandra [email protected] http://ayc2007.com/contact.htm - - 1922–November 2007 Penang,Malaysia The8th Conference ofthe Asia Pacific Sociologi calAssociation conference organisedbyAPSA, Captrans, School ofSocial Sciences,Universiti Sains Malaysia, of Univ. Wollongong,Australia [email protected] www.asiapacificsociology.org 1922–November 2007 Georgetown(Penang), Malaysia AsiaPacific Region: Societies inTransformation conference organizedbyAsia Pacific Sociological Associa tion contact:Asia Pacific Sociological Association [email protected] http://www.asiapacificsociology.org - .VTMJN:PVUIBT"HFOUT PG$IBOHFJO*OEPOFTJB

TU*OUFSOBUJPOBM$POGFSFODF PSHBOJTFECZ-FJEFO6OJWFSTJUZ 'JSTU"OOPVODFNFOU XJUIJOUIFGSBNFXPSLPG UIF.JOJTUSZPG3FMJHJPVT"GGBJST BOE$BMMGPSQBQFST UIF*OEPOFTJBO:PVOH-FBEFST *OEPOFTJBBOE6OJWFSTJUBT*TMBN 1SPHSBNNF .BMBOH November 2007 6 – 19–November 2007 5 131 – Albion,Michigan, USA TheConference onthe Study ofReligions ofIndia (CSRI)Annual Meeting conference organisedbyCSRI, Albion College contact:Selva J.Raj [email protected] www.albion.edu/csri 1 Waikiki,Hawaii 3rdInternational Conference ofthe Social Capi talFoundation onEthnic Diversity and Social Capital conference convenor:The Social Capital Foundation contact: [email protected] www.socialcapital-foundation.org

IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007 Staff Board IIAS Extraordinary Chairs IIAS Main Office Leiden Max Sparreboom (Director) Peter van der Veer - Chairsman (Utrecht University) Henk Schulte Nordholt P.O. Box 9515 Manuel Haneveld (IT-Manager) Barend ter Haar (Leiden University) Special Chair at Erasmus University Rotterdam 2300 RA Leiden Jeroen de Kloet (Coordinator, Amsterdam) Janny de Jong (Groningen University) ‘Asian History’ the Netherlands Leonie Lindenbergh (Secretary) Marcel van der Linden (IISG/University of Amsterdam) 1 October 1999 - 1 October 2007 Visitors: P.J. Veth 5th floor Heleen van der Minne (Secretary, Amsterdam) Mario Rutten (University of Amsterdam) Nonnensteeg 1-3, Leiden Manon Osseweijer (Academic Affairs) Oscar Salemink (Free University, Amsterdam) Hein Steinhauer T +31-71-5272227 Anne-Marie Petit (Secretary) Ivo Smits (Leiden University) Special Chair at Radboud University Nijmegen F +31-71-5274162 Joost Postma (Database Programmer) Patricia Spyer (Leiden University) ‘Ethnolinguistics with a focus on Southeast Asia’ [email protected] Martina van den Haak (Seminars & Publications) 1 September 1998 - 1 September 2007 Saskia Jans (Fellowship Programme) Academic Committee IIAS Branch Office Amsterdam Josine Stremmelaar (Executive Manager) Gerard Persoon - chairman (Leiden University) Spinhuis Paul van der Velde (Senior Consultant) Touraj Atabaki (IISG/University of Amsterdam) Oudezijds Achterburgwal 185 Sikko Visscher (Project Manager, ASiA) Ellen Bal (Free University, Amsterdam) 1012 DK Amsterdam Thomas Voorter (WWW) Harm Beukers (Leiden University) the Netherlands Anna Yeadell (Editor) Chris Goto-Jones (Leiden University) T +31-20-5253657 Peter Ho (University of Groningen) F +31-20-5253658

> IIAS who & where Boudewijn Walraven (Leiden University) [email protected] Staff

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IIAS Newsletter | #44 | Summer 2007