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Yakoob and Zalayhar (Ayoob and Zuleikha Mohammed) Gender Negotiations among Indians in Trinidad 1917-1947

Patricia Mohammed Head and Senior Lecturer Centre for Gender and Development Studies University of the West Indies

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in association with Institute of Social Studies © Institute of Social Studies 2002

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ISBN 0-333-96278-8

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Cataloguing-in-publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

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Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire For my parents Ayoob and Zuleikha Mohammed and for Elisabeth Mulder This page intentionally left blank Contents

L ist of Tab les and Figures x i Glossary xiii Acknowledgements xx

1 Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Indian Migration to Trinidad 4 The Idea of an Indian Community in Trinidad 6 The Centrality of Gender in Identity Formation 9 The Concept of Gender Negotiation 12

^ Crossing the Black Water: 1 From to Trinidad, 1845-1917 17 Introduction 17 Ideological Hegemonies of Gender in India 19 Contestation of Ideological Hegemonies in India 23 Anti-colonial and Anti-patriarchal Struggles in India 25 The Context of Migration from India 29 The 'Indian Woman Question' 37 The First Negotiations 40 Caste and gender pollution 40 Female reproduction and production 42 Freedom and constraints within estate life 44 Interracial liaisons and violent retaliations 44 Female responses 46 The Twice Outcaste Sex 47

vn viii Contents

^ Gender in the Definition of Indian Identity in Trinidad 54 Introduction 54 The Colonial Order 55 Statutory Definitions of Difference within the Colonial Order 59 The Anti-colonial Discourse in Trinidad 62 The Indo-Trinidadian Nationalist Struggle 63 The Markers of Indian Ethnic Difference in Trinidad 69 Entrances and exits 69 Indian attitudes to the new society 73 Visual markers 75 Language and identity 77 Cultural Stereotypes 79 The Home versus the World: The Centrality of Gender 80 Preservation of the Race 83

4 Gender Dynamics in the Making of Community 92 A Steady Labour Force 92 From Estate Labour to Land Acquisition: Relocating Community 104 Family Strategies 115 Conclusion 125 Appendices 4.1 Map of lots sold to villages of Lengua Village and surrounding areas 127 4.2 Map of sugar and cocoa estates in Trinidad in the 19th and early 20th centuries 128 4.3 Map of main towns and villages in the 19th and early 20th centuries in Trinidad 129 4.4 Report of the Wages Committee of 1920 131 c The Reconfiguration of Masculinity and Femininity: Negotiating with Myth and Symbols 134 Introduction 134 Continuities and Correspondence 13 7 Transmitters of Myth and Symbol 142 Ritual religious occasions 142 Contents IX

Orality and transmission of gender ideology 149 Transmission through literary sources: Newspapers, lectures and debating societies 154 Heroes and heroines of the silver screen 159 Negotiating with Symbols of Patriarchy 165 Patriarchal Symbols 168 Conclusion 174

Renegotiating Sexuality 175 Introduction 175 Colonial Attitudes to the Sexuality of Indians 177 Christian Missionary Attitudes to Indian Morality and . _- Sexuality Colonial and Christian Morality 185 The Attitude to Indian Sexuality in Creole Trinidad 186 Negotiation of Sexuality among Indians 188 Violent confrontations 188 Village sanctions and control 190 Female Responses 194 Male Responses to a Subverted Patriarchy 202 Male Control of Female Sexuality 208 Conclusion 213

Family, Marriage and Love 215 Introduction 215 Nata Ke Bhai to Pariwaar: The Recreation of Family and Kinship Systems 217 Internal Affairs: Marriage Negotiations in the Indian Community 226 The arrangement of marriages 227 Negotiating intimacy and gender relations in child marriages 231 Breakdown in arranged marriages 233 Successful arrangements 234 Education and the deferral of arranged marriages 238 From Respect to Romantic Love 247 Compromises Between Parents and Children 258 Conclusion 260 x Contents

8 The Troubled Legacy of History and Love 262

Notes 270 Bibliography 299 Index 312 List of Tables and Figures

Tables No. Title Page 1.1 Main components of the population of Trinidad, 1911 and 1921 3 2.1 Percentages of male and female arrivals for each decade, 1840-1917 37 2.2 Sex ratio of males per 1000 females, 1891-1946 38 2.3 Proportion of women to every 100 men among emigrants from Calcutta to Trinidad, 1900-17 38 4.1 Birth, death and natural increase rates, per 1000 of population, 1921-45 101 4.2 Local and Indian-born Indian population in Trinidad 102 4.3 Settlement of free Indians on land and nature of cultivation (selected years) 117 4.4 Domestic and subsistence expenditure for single and married men per fortnight in Trinidad dollars 124 6.1 Prosecutions for crimes related to sexual misdemeanours (selected years) 180 6.2 Distribution of male and female Presbyterian, Hindu and Muslim Population, 1911 and 1921 197 6.3 East Indians and East Indian Creole population 206

XI Xll List of Tables and Figures

Figures No. Title Page 1.1 Distribution (as a percentage) of the Trinidad population and of the Indian sector, 1921 2 1.2 Postcard of Indian village hut and field in British West Indies circa early 20th century 5 2.1 Map of India in 1856 showing British Territory, major divisions and main towns and rivers 32 2.2 Areas of origin of Indian migrants in Trinidad 33 2.3 Love's New Victim and model of middle-class propriety 42 3.1 Examples of East Indian dress 76 5.1 - Stone phallus in front of a house in Felicity 135 5.2 Traditional Ohrni worn with western-style dress by the two women 138 5.3 Indian pundit 140 5.4 An Indian film advertisement 159 6.1 The control of female sexuality in the post-indenture period was effected by males as well as by older females 191 7.1 Traditional Indian 228 7.2 Indian couple married in the western style 235 Glossary

Aaja/Aja. Paternal grandfather. Ahir. Caste of gardeners. Anchar. Hot pickle. Anuloma. Refers to marriage between an upper-caste boy and lower-caste girl. Arya Samaj. A Hindu reform movement. Asubh. Inauspicious. Baigan. Eggplant. Bania. Hindu merchant caste. Barahi. Celebration observed on the 12th day after the birth of a baby. Barka. Husband's eldest brother. Bed. Daughter. Bhagwat. Colloquial reference to a series of public meetings in which the sacred text, the , is read and interpreted. Bhaji. Any cooked leafy vegetable, e.g. spinach. Bhai. Brother. Bhania. Hindu merchant caste. Barat/Baraat. Wedding procession. Bhowji. Wife of one's older brother. Bodi. Variety of string beans. . God of Creation. Together with (the God of Preservation) and Shiva (the God of Destruction) this trinity is known as the Trimur- thy. . Priestly caste. Brahministic mythology. On which metaphysical and ritual culture was built in India.

xin XIV Glossary

Carhi. Sauce made of gram flour. Caste endogamy. Marriage within one's caste. Caste system. An organization of social life which ranks individuals hier• archically according to an ascribed ritual status. Chachi. Father's sister. Chamar. Caste of leather workers, held in very low esteem since it was linked with the killing of the sacred animal, the cow. Channa. Chick peas. Chhatti Celebration observed on the sixth day after birth of a baby. Child Marriage Prevention Act. Passed in India in 1928, as a result of agitation by women at the first session of the All-India Women's Con• ference held in Poona in 1927. Chillum. Pipe in which cannabis is smoked. Chuhras/Sudras. Members of a lowly caste. Conchshell. Seashell used for ritual purposes. Coolie. In Trinidad, this was the colloquial, derogatory term of reference applied to Indians. Cuchela. A form of pickle. Dahi. Yoghurt. Datwan. A piece of strong vine (or twig) used as a toothbrush. Dayabhaga. Dated around the 12th century AD. Deyas. Small clay lamps filled with oil and a wick. Dal. Lentils cooked as a sauce to accompany rice. Staple food of Trinidad Indians. . Set of moral obligations set out in the Hindu scriptures, which lay out guidelines for caste-related behaviour. Dharmashastras. Ancient texts. Dhoti. Loincloth used by Indian males in place of trousers. Divali. Hindu festival of lights. Dougla. Person of mixed Indian and African descent. Dua. Prayer (Arabic-Islam). Duhsasana. Character from the sacred text, the , the most wicked of the Kaurava brothers. Dulaha. . Glossary xv

Dulahin. . Often used as a form of address synonymous with daugh• ter-in-law. . The Mother Goddess. Another name for , wife of the God of Destruction, Siva. Also called (Chaudhuri 1979: 237). EINA. East Indian National Association. Founded in 1897. EINC. East Indian National Congress. Founded in 1909. Eid ul Adha. Muslim festival of sacrifice. Eid ul Fitr. Muslim ceremony at end of month of fasting (Ramadan). Fakir. Travelling mendicants who carried news from one village to anoth• er of the families who had sons and daughters of marriageable age. Garbhadhana. Bringing about pregnancy. Custom of celebrating the con• summation of marriage at the time of a young girl's puberty. Ghee. Clarified butter. Goal. Caste of milk sellers. Hindi/Hindustani. General term for the language of the North Indians who came to Trinidad. Hypergamy. Islamic rules where a woman must always marry into her own class or a class above her own, though a man is permitted to marry a woman of any class to which he has access. Imam. Muslim priest. Izzat. Honour. Jati Occupational subdivision of castes. Jehaj. Ship. Jehaji. Related to the voyage from India to Trinidad. Jehaji bhai. Brothers of the ship: respectful/affectionate term between men who had endured that rite of passage together. Jehajin. Female companion of the ship journey. Jhimars. An agricultural and lowly caste. Juta/Joothaa. Pollution of food by the touch of another person's mouth. Kala pani Literally translated as 'black water', in India the word was ap• plied in the early 19th century Indian Penal Code when criminal and political outcasts were subjected to penal transportation to the Anda• man Islands, thus signifying their outcaste status by expulsion from their home territories across water. XVI Glossary

Kaikeyi. Female character in the . The jealous stepmother who causes the banishment of and . Kaka. Father's younger brother. Kali. Goddess (see Durga above). Often portrayed as black in colour, and linked with divine powers of destruction. Kangan. A piece of yellow cloth tied to the wrist of the bride by the pundit to protect her from harm during the wedding rituals. . Literally means 'gift of the virgin'. Central ritual of the ceremony. . An individual's fate as determined by their actions in past and present lives. Kapra. Indian shirt covering the upper male body. Word used by non-Indi• ans in a derogatory sense to indicate all Indian garb. Khatri. Higher-caste groups of the . Kilowni. The woman who looked after the children on the estate when their parents went to work. Kissas. Indian folk-tales derived from the old myths and stories but also indigenous to Trinidad. Koineization. The common tongue which resulted from a process and evolved from the fact that the majority of Indian immigrants must have been native speakers of the various dialects of Bhojpuri. Koran/Quran. Holy book of Muslims. . Incarnation in a human form of Vishnu (Chaudhuri 1979: 255). . Members of the warrior caste. Kumara-Sambhava. Kalidasa's long epic poem based on the mythological story of the marriage of Siva and Parvati and the birth of their son Kar- tikeya. Kurma. Simple sweets made of flour and sugar. Laija. Modesty, shame or bashfulness. Lanka Kand. The city to which Sita was abducted in the epic Ramayana. Lawa. Puffed, roasted rice. Laws of Manu. The most authoritative book of sacred law of the Hindus (Chaudhuri 1979: 153). Laxmi. Goddess of the hearth and of prosperity. Lingam. Phallus-shaped stone, symbolizing the God Shiva. Glossary xvn

Lookanee. Chaperon, to safeguard the interests of the child bride as she was initiated into life in her in-laws' home. Lotar. Brass jar. Madinga. Hindu term of reference for a person of the Islamic faith. Madrasis. People who recruited from or sailed from Madras in India. Mahabharata. Hindu sacred epic written between 400 BC and 400 AD (Kinsley 1982: 14). Mahase. Another name for Siva. Mahapater. Brahmin who performs rites related to death. Majira. Traditional percussion instrument. Mamoo. Mother's brother. Maticore. A ceremony held on the Friday night before the wedding. Massala. Spices combined to make curry dishes. Melee. Mixture. Mitakshara. A community of interests and rights was recognized in the joint family property, held jointly by four generations of male mem• bers. Dated around the 12th century AD. Moulvi. Muslim title for educated Imam. Mussulman. Muslim. Nana. Maternal grandfather. Nani. Maternal grandmother. Nata. Blood relation. Nataka. Folk theatre. Nata ke bhai. Relations arising through common, shared experience. Nau. For Hindus, travelling mendicants who carried news from one village to another of the families who had sons and daughters of marriageable age. Nazarana. Extra premium on rent. Ornie/orhnie. Veil. Panchayats/panch. A council of five male elders. Pariwaar. Blood relations. Pathan. Higher caste of the Muslims. Patidevata. Worship of the husband. Pativrata. Devotion to husband. XV111 Glossary

Patriarchy. Literally refers to 'rule of the father'. Peerha. Low rectangular stool. Pitch oil. Kerosene. Poopa. Informal term of reference for father. Prakti. Nature, the undifferentiated matter of the universe. Pratiloma. Marriage between women of ritually purer groups with men of lower-caste status. Pujas. Hindu ritual prayer meetings. Pundit. Hindu priest. Puphoo. Father's sister. Purdah. Women, either Muslim or Hindu, were to be kept in seclusion. This was practised only in the upper strata of society, among those who had means to afford such elite proclivities. . Consort of the god, Krishna. Ram/Rama. Heavenly king who dwelt in celestial Ayodhya (Kinsley 1982: 32). Ramayana. Hindu epic of Lord Rama. Ramayan yag. Series of readings from the Ramayana. Ramleela or Ramilla. Dramatization of the Ramayana. Ranghbar. Higher caste of the Muslims. Raja Dasarath. From the Ramayana: King of the Kosalas and father of Ra• ma. Rajput. Higher-caste groups of Hindus and Muslims. Ravan/Rawan. The gigantic black demon of Lanka. Roti. Bread in the form of a flat pancake. . Ascetic. Saffron. Colloquial reference to turmeric used instead of expensive and unavailable spices. Saga boy. Colloquial Trinidadian term used to refer to a man who dresses smartly and is a charmer of ladies. Sakuni. From the epic Mahabharata: uncle of the Kaurava princes. Sanskritization. Historical merging of disparate Hindu sects into one overarching system of belief guided by the ancient Sanscrit scriptures. These scriptures were only accessible to those who could read Sanscrit, Glossary xix

i.e. the , so this process established the hierarchical power relations within Hindu society. Satidaba. Campaign against widow immolation. . Goddess of Learning. Sari. Length of fabric wound around Indian women to form a modest gar• ment. Sayyad. Higher caste of the Muslims. . Energy, power. Sheikh. Higher caste of the Muslims. Shiva. God of destruction and regeneration. . Vermilion, daubed into the parting of a woman's hair during the wedding ceremony. Sirdars. Headmen appointed on the estates. Sita. Daughter of earth. Rama's wife (Kinsley 1982: 27). Streedham. Bridewealth. Stridhan. Literally meaning female property. Susu/Sou Sou. Informal system of savings. . Thread. Suttee/. Widow immolation/widow burning. Talkarie/Talcarry. Cooked vegetables. Taluqdars. Landlords. TWA. Trinidad Workingmen's Association. Founded in 1897. Under bamboo. Marriages carried out under the religious rites of Hindu• ism and Islam. . Hindu philosophical and mystical texts dealing with the quest to realize ultimate reality (Kinsley 1982: 11). Urdu. Language of Muslim Indians. Vaish/Vaishy. Caste of Hindus, third in system. Varna. System of caste categorization and caste hierarchy. Vishnu. God of Preservation. With Brahma and Mahase (Siva) they are known as Trimurthy (Trinity). Yagna. Series of readings from the sacred texts, usually performed over a period of several nights. Acknowledgements

Voluntary migrants who set out to work or live in new lands are coura• geous pioneers in their own right. My own history in Trinidad can only be told through the story of Indian migration to the West Indies from the 19th century. I am grateful to those Indian migrants who traveled to Trinidad on a long journey by ship, who worked the land, and who flourished in the new society, despite the early deprivations and ignominy of the colonial enterprise. They helped to shape a society in which I consider myself for• tunate to have been born. This book clearly owes its existence to the earlier migrants and their children, some of whom have entrusted me with their life stories. I hope I have recounted their truth. To the Institute of Social Studies (ISS) at The Hague and the Govern• ment of The Netherlands I am tremendously grateful, for funding the Ph.D. scholarship and dissertation from which this book is derived. The advice and guidance of supervisors and scholars in The Netherlands among them Professor Geertje Lycklama a Nijeholt, Dr Renee Pittin, Professor Ken Post, Dr Ineke van Halsema, Professor Rosi Braidotti, Professor Harry Hoetink, Professor Maitheyi Khrishnaraj, and at the University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Professor Bridget Brereton and Professor P.K. Misra remained with me in the writing of this book. The fundamental thesis around which this book is based, the idea of gender as a negotiated concept, I owe to Kim Nicholas Johnson. Our countless discussions on writing and theory cast the early foundations on which I have continued to build and expand my own intellectual thought. He remains forever in my debt. For both facilitating and morally supporting the project of this book for as long as it has been conceived, I thank Elisabeth Mulder, Head Projects and Planning, ISS, whose commitment to the Caribbean, where she was born, is indisputable. To Gary Debus, former editor, and to subsequent as• sistants in the Publications Office, ISS, my thanks for helpful suggestions and guidelines. To Niala Maharaj for her excellent editing skills, and to Joy

xx A cknowledgements xxi

Misa and Paula Bownas at the ISS who took charge of the final product, my gratitude. To my colleagues everywhere whose comments and ideas I have drawn on, perhaps in ways imperceptible to them - Purnendu and Shoba Kavoori, Ranjit Dwivedi, Jessica Byron, Lucia Nankoe, Keith Radhay (deceased), Vasanti Boochoon, Gaietry Pargass, Amina Mama, Gebru Mersha, Prabhu Mohapatra, Elizabeth Parsan, Joan Rawlins, Moira Fradinger, Niru Achar- ya, Rhoda Reddock, Eudine Barriteau, Sonia Cuales, Catherine Shepherd, Michelle Rowley, Linden Lewis, David Scott, Carolyn Cooper, Ken Par- masad, Kusha Haraksingh, Brinsley Samaroo, Kelvin Singh, Shaheeda Ho- sein, Elsa Leo-Rhynie and Rosabelle Seesaran - my sincere thanks. To the University of the West Indies, Centre for Gender and Develop• ment Studies, Kingston, Jamaica, for facilitating a fellowship to The Hague and for continued support. My thanks especially to Shakira Maragh, re• search assistant, for her valuable help which allowed this particular project of writing to come to an end. Relatives and close family are always last, not because they are least important, but perhaps because they are most crucial. My good-humoured husband Rex Dixon has provided me with friendship and encouragement throughout, affirming in practice that a theory of gender negotiation is premissed, at least in one instance, on solid ground. Most of all to my im• mediate family, my parents Ayoob and Zuleikha Mohammed, my siblings Ramona Lisa, Zaphura, Badura and Kamral, who in various ways are all inspirational to any project of writing that I engage in, but particularly to this one.

Patricia Mohammed Kingston, Jamaica 2000