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Hydrogeological Properties of Fault Zones in a Karstified Carbonate Aquifer (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria)

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Hydrogeological Properties of Fault Zones in a Karstified Carbonate Aquifer (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria) Hydrogeol J DOI 10.1007/s10040-016-1388-9 PAPER Hydrogeological properties of fault zones in a karstified carbonate aquifer (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria) H. Bauer1 & T. C. Schröckenfuchs 1 & K. Decker1 Received: 17 July 2015 /Accepted: 14 February 2016 # The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract This study presents a comparative, field-based impermeable fault cores only very locally have the potential hydrogeological characterization of exhumed, inactive fault to create barriers. zones in low-porosity Triassic dolostones and limestones of the Hochschwab massif, a carbonate unit of high economic Keywords Fractured rocks . Carbonate rocks . Fault zones . importance supplying 60 % of the drinking water of Austria’s Hydrogeological properties . Austria capital, Vienna. Cataclastic rocks and sheared, strongly cemented breccias form low-permeability (<1 mD) domains along faults. Fractured rocks with fracture densities varying by Introduction a factor of 10 and fracture porosities varying by a factor of 3, and dilation breccias with average porosities >3 % and per- Fault zones in the upper crust produce permeability heteroge- meabilities >1,000 mD form high-permeability domains. With neities that have a large impact on subsurface fluid migration respect to fault-zone architecture and rock content, which is and storage patterns (e.g. Agosta et al. 2010, 2012; Caine et al. demonstrated to be different for dolostone and limestone, four 1996;Faulkneretal.2010;Jourdeetal.2002; Mitchell and types of faults are presented. Faults with single-stranded mi- Faulkner 2012; Shipton and Cowie 2003; Shipton et al. 2006; nor fault cores, faults with single-stranded permeable fault Wibberley and Shimamoto 2003; Wibberley et al. 2008). In cores, and faults with multiple-stranded fault cores are seen shallow crustal depths, primary deformation mechanisms such as conduits. Faults with single-stranded impermeable fault as cataclasis, deformation banding, brecciation and fracturing cores are seen as conduit-barrier systems. Karstic carbonate are similar for crystalline, siliciclastic and carbonate rocks, but dissolution occurs along fault cores in limestones and, to a water–rock interaction in carbonates has the potential to gen- lesser degree, dolostones and creates superposed high- erate completely different permeability characteristics permeability conduits. On a regional scale, faults of a partic- impacting fluid flow in aquifers (e.g. Kim and Sanderson ular deformation event have to be viewed as forming a net- 2009; Micarelli et al. 2006). The present study investigates work of flow conduits directing recharge more or less rapidly the structural and hydraulic characteristics of fault zones in a towards the water table and the springs. Sections of low-porosity carbonate and their potential impact on regional aquifer systems charging springs of major importance. Faults reveal a wide range of hydraulic behaviours, acting Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article as conduits, barriers or mixed conduit-barrier systems (Aydin (doi:10.1007/s10040-016-1388-9) contains supplementary material, 2000; Bense et al. 2013 for full reviews; Caine et al. 1996; which is available to authorized users. Faulkner et al. 2010). The hydraulic behaviour of fault zones * H. Bauer is governed by initial host-rock composition, deformation [email protected] mechanisms working during fault-zone evolution, fault-zone architecture and alteration of fault zones (e.g. dissolution weathering). The standard fault core–damage zone model 1 Department of Geodynamics and Sedimentology, University of (Billi et al. 2003;Caineetal.1996; Chester et al. 1993; Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria Rawling et al. 2001) is still widely used, although it was Hydrogeol J demonstrated by many authors that it oversimplifies the actual 2008; Billi and Di Toro 2008; Billi et al. 2008;Stortietal. complexity of fault zones (e.g. Bonson et al. 2007; Childs 2003). In the damage zone, porosity and permeability are et al. 2009; Faulkner et al. 2010). Distribution, quantity, and expected to increase and are controlled by connectivity and connectivity of different fault components strongly influence anisotropy of fracture networks (Agosta et al. 2010;Billi permeability and may vary across and along fault strike, and 2005b) and/or breccia zones (e.g. Billi 2005a; Hausegger over time (Lunn et al. 2008; Petracchini et al. 2012; Schulz et al. 2010; Tarasewicz et al. 2005). and Evans 2000; Shipton and Cowie 2001). Processes like The quantification of this fracture-related porosity and per- fault-segment linkage and interaction explain some of these meability poses a major challenge, since individual fracture observed complex fault geometries (e.g. Bonson et al. 2007; characteristics such as length, spacing, aperture, orientation, Childs et al. 2009; Faulkner et al. 2010; Kim and Sanderson connectivity and distribution may vary over short distances, 2009;Lunnetal.2008). A long-lived history of progressive depth and time. Fault zones containing large volumes of deformation can be expected to lead to a more complex build- damage-zone rock and comparably small volumes of up of faults with potentially asymmetric permeability struc- cataclastic fault-core act as first-order permeability features tures (Wibberley and Shimamoto 2003). Fault-zone thickness within carbonate reservoirs (Guerriero et al. 2010). shows a clear positive correlation with displacement (Bense Statistical analysis of fractures using scan line techniques et al. 2013; Childs et al. 2009) but is strongly depending on the (e.g. Agosta et al. 2010;Billi2005b; Guerriero et al. 2010; overall deformation history (Savage and Brodsky 2011; Guerriero et al. 2013; Korneva et al. 2014) show that fracture Shipton et al. 2006 and references cited there). arrays in unfaulted host-rocks are usually more isotropic, Fault-zone hydrogeological properties in crystalline and whereas fracture arrays within fault damage zones are charac- siliciclastic rocks have been studied extensively (e.g. Bense and terized by anisotropies. Fracture aperture and fracture connec- Person 2006; Bense et al. 2013 forfullreviews;Faulkneretal. tivity is controlling the permeability in fractured media, 2008; Leray et al. 2013; Mitchell and Faulkner 2008, 2009), since resulting in either extremely channelized or more distributed these rocks host some of the world’s most active large faults or flow paths (e.g. de Dreuzy et al. 2002). Breccias, resulting important hydrocarbon reservoirs. In crystalline rocks, fault cores from various deformation processes like rock pulverization contain breccias and gouges of strongly reduced permeability (Dor et al. 2006; Mitchell et al. 2011), or hydro fracturing along the principal slip plane, whereas fractured rocks of the (Tarasewicz et al. 2005) may cause permeability enhance- damage zones form permeable conduits oriented parallel to the ments of up to 4 or 5 orders of magnitude (Walker et al. fault plane (Caine et al. 1996). Fault zones in high-porosity 2013), while, on the other hand, cementation due to the inter- siliciclastic rocks exhibit cataclastic fault cores with permeabilities action with fluids (e.g. Agosta et al. 2012;Baquésetal.2010; reduced by up to 2–3 orders of magnitude (Balsamo and Storti Micarelli et al. 2006) and/or shearing will result in a reduction 2010). Damage-zone permeability is influenced and governed by of permeability. deformation-band networks, that display zones of reduced perme- This study focuses on the hydrogeological characteri- ability (Rath et al. 2011;Stortietal.2003), and fractures that zation of inactive fault zones located in a carbonate karst enhance damage-zone permeability (Eichhubl et al. 2009). plateau (Hochschwab massif) of major hydrogeological There is vast literature on carbonate fault zones that are gen- importance, since the area supplies around 60 % of the erally characterized by wide zones of fractured rock (distributed drinking water for Austria’s capital, Vienna. Karst fea- strain) and narrow zones of fault rocks (zones of localized strain; tures and springs in the area have been investigated and Aydin 2000; Bense et al. 2013 forfullreviews;Faulkneretal. monitored intensely over the last years (see unpublished 2010). However, the subsurface hydrogeological behaviour of report by Decker in Table 1; Decker and Reiter 2001; faults in carbonate aquifers is very difficult to determine (e.g. Kuschnig 2009;Plan2002, 2005; Plan and Decker Celico et al. 2006) as water/rock interactions (dissolutional 2006; Plan et al. 2009, 2010). Surface karstification fea- weathering) produce transient, heterogeneous and anisotropic tures and caves are preferentially following fault zones of permeability structures (Agosta et al. 2007; Agosta 2008). a certain deformation stage (see unpublished report by Within high-porosity carbonates (Antonellini et al. 2014; Decker in Table 1; Plan and Decker 2006). The detailed Billi et al. 2003, 2007; Billi and Storti 2004; Billi 2005a; hydrogeological properties of fault zones are poorly Micarelli et al. 2006), pore collapse, grain crushing, rotation- known. The objective of this study is to characterize and enhanced abrasion and calcite precipitation within cataclastic classify a number of typical fault zones in this area with rocks in the fault core lead to a significant porosity reduction. respect to architectural build-up, fault-core and damage- In addition, deformation banding
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