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Citizen-Civilians: Masculinity, Citizenship, and American Military Manpower Policy, 1945-1975

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Citizen-Civilians: Masculinity, Citizenship, and American Military Manpower Policy, 1945-1975 ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: CITIZEN-CIVILIANS: MASCULINITY, CITIZENSHIP, AND AMERICAN MILITARY MANPOWER POLICY, 1945-1975 Amy Jennifer Rutenberg, Doctor of Philosophy, 2013 Dissertation directed by: Professor Robyn Muncy Department of History “Citizen-Civilians” argues that military manpower policies between the end of World War II in 1945 and the shift to the All-Volunteer Force in 1973 separated military service from ideals of masculine citizenship in the United States. Manpower policies, especially those that governed deferments, widened the definition of service to the state and encouraged men to meet their responsibilities for national defense as civilians. They emphasized men’s breadwinner role and responsible fatherhood over military service and defined economic independence as a contribution to national defense. These policies, therefore, militarized the civilian sector, as fatherhood and certain civilian occupations were defined as national defense initiatives. But these policies also, ironically, weakened the citizen-soldier ideal by ensuring that fewer men would serve in the military and equating these civilian pursuits with military service. The Defense establishment unintentionally weakened its own manpower procurement system. These findings provide context for the anti-war and anti-draft protest of the late 1960s and early 1970s. Vietnam exacerbated points of friction that already existed. The war highlighted assumptions about masculinity and citizenship as well as inequities in the draft system that had existed for a generation. This dissertation, therefore, explains the growth of the mechanisms that allowed men to avoid military service, as such avoidance became relatively simple to accomplish and easy to justify. Thus, when draft calls rose in order to support a war that many Americans did not agree with, men used the channels that the Defense establishment had already created for them to avoid serving in the armed forces. This work also demonstrates how policies and ideas about masculine citizenship affected one another. Competing visions of manhood as well as debates over the rights and responsibilities of citizenship influenced policy debates. Moreover, policies took on a social engineering function, as the Selective Service and Department of Defense actively encouraged men to enter particular occupational fields, marry, and become fathers. In this way, this project is an example of the “lived Cold War.” It suggests that individual men made career, school, and marriage decisions in response to Cold War policies. CITIZEN-CIVILIANS: MASCULINITY, CITIZENSHIP, AND AMERICAN MILITARY MANPOWER POLICY, 1945-1975 By Amy Jennifer Rutenberg Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2013 Advisory Committee: Professor Robyn Muncy, Chair Professor David Freund Professor Clare Lyons Professor Jennifer Mittelstadt Professor David Segal © Copyright by Amy Jennifer Rutenberg 2013 Acknowledgements A good friend of mine likens producing a dissertation to giving birth. While I’m not sure I would go that far, it is certainly true that it takes a village to write a dissertation. I have many people to thank. First and foremost, I must thank the community of academics I found myself a part of at the University of Maryland, College Park. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my adviser, Robyn Muncy, who went above and beyond the call of duty. Variously cheerleader, critic, sounding board, and mentor, she has played many roles in my life over the last eight years. I do not believe I could have completed this project without her wise counsel. My committee – David Freund, Clare Lyons, Jennifer Mittelstadt, and David Segal – gave the generous gifts of time and feedback. Their input helped me sharpen arguments I was not even aware I had been making. Additionally, Ira Berlin, Sonya Michel, and Jon Sumida all went out of their way to help me develop as a historian. Peter Albert taught me the importance of precision writing and some excellent research tools. Second, “Citizen-Civilians” exists because of the generous financial support I received from the Department of History and Graduate School of the University of Maryland. Grants from the Marine Corps Heritage Foundation in Dumphries, Virginia; the United States Army Military History Institute in Carlisle, Pennsylvania; and the Harry S. Truman Library Institute in Independence, Missouri, further made travel to archives possible. Once at these repositories, archivists at the National Archives and Records Administration in College Park, Maryland; the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison, ii Wisconsin; the Truman Library; the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library in Abilene, Kansas; the U.S. Army Military History Institute; the Swarthmore College Peace Collection in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania; the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.; and the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign offered invaluable help. David Clark at the Truman Library, Herb Pankratz at the Eisenhower Library, Richard Sommers and David Keough at USAMHI, and Wendy Chmielewsky at Swarthmore deserve special mention. Further, I must thank J.E. McNeil of the Center on Conscience and War, who I contacted with the generous help of Christopher Richmond, for granting me access to the restricted files of the National Service Board of Religious Objectors collection at Swarthmore. While my project evolved in such a way that I did not end up using documents from all of these archives, my findings at each influenced how I thought about my research questions. I must thank my colleagues in the graduate program at the University of Maryland, who pulled me through this crazy process. At times, I think I shared a brain with Kimberly Welch and Christina Larocco. Melissa Kravetz, Helena Iles Papaioannou, Andrew Kellett, Mary-Elizabeth Murphy, Stefan Papaioannou, Charles Reed, Reid Gustafson, and Stephanie Hinnershitz-Hutchinson deserve special thanks. Beyond College Park, Julie Mancine, Rachel Louise Moran, and the many scholars I met at conferences provided insight, sources, and support. All of these people prove that academia can be a fun and humane pursuit as well as intellectually challenging. Finally, I would like to thank my family. Not everyone has a parent who supports their child’s desire to give up a solid, lucrative career to embark on the quixotic quest for a Ph.D. I was blessed with two. Joel Rutenberg and Rebecca Becker Rutenberg both iii offered me their love and support when I quit my job as a high school teacher at age 27 to return to graduate school. They never complained, even when I did, and for that, I am grateful. My brothers, Adam Rutenberg and David Rutenberg, were equally supportive. In our quest to be the most over-educated family ever, the three of us engaged in friendly competition to see who would graduate with their terminal degree last. I am thankful that I did not earn that particular title, but I think all three of us won because we each have the others. Gini Tate, Linda Best, Herb Best, Chris Best, Anna LaPuz Best, Abigail Best, and Julie MacCartee all became part of my family along this journey, and they are the best circle of in-laws a person could ask for. This brings me to the heart of my support network. Jeremy Best lives up to his name. He is the best husband, colleague, scholar, and friend I could ever have asked for. Our son, Benjamin is the light of my life. Together, they make me laugh every day. They gave me a reason and the strength to complete this project. I love and thank you both. My grandmother, Florence Becker, wanted nothing more from her final years than for me to be happy. I hope that wherever she is, she can see that I am. iv Table of Contents Fig. 1: Selective Service Classification Chart……………………………………………vi Introduction……………………………………………..…………………………………1 Ch. 1: “To Rub Smooth the Rough Edges”: Universal Military Training and the Meaning of Masculine Citizenship, 1945-1951…………………………………………………..45 Ch. 2: “Necessary to the Maintenance of the National Health, Safety, or Interest”: Deferment Policy during the Early Cold War, 1948-1953………………………..………..110 Ch. 3: “The Keystone…of the Structure”: Manpower Channeling and the Meaning of National Defense, 1955-1965…………………………….………………………161 Ch. 4: “The Most Important Human Salvage Operation in the History of Our Country”: The Military Establishment and the War on Poverty, 1961-1969………………………………………………….229 Conclusion: Vietnam and Beyond……………………………………………………...297 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………312 v Figure 1. Selective Service Classification Chart (1951-1973)1 Classification Meaning I-A Available for military service I-A-O Conscientious objector available for non-combatant military service I-C Member of the armed forces I-D Member of a reserve unit or approved officer procurement program I-O Conscientious objector opposed to combatant and non- combatant military service; available for alternate civilian service I-S (H) Student administratively deferred to complete high school I-S (C) College student administratively deferred to complete the current academic year I-W Conscientious objector assigned to alternate civilian service I-Y (after 1962) Unqualified for military service except in times of war or declared national emergency II-A Deferred for non-agricultural occupation II-C Deferred for agricultural occupation II-S Student III-A Deferred for reasons of dependency or hardship IV-A Deferred
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