Itted the Reporting Centers Are (1) Center for the Advanced Study of Educational Administration

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DOCUMINT RISUMII ED 028 499 EA 002 027 A Review of Research and Development Centers Supported by the U.S. Office of Education. Office of Educatit (DHEW), Washington, D.C. Bureau of Research Report No-OE-12040 Pub Date 69 Note-173p.; Repel*nt. Available from-Journal of Research & Development in Education. 122 Baldwin Hall. University of Georgia. Atlanta'. Ceorgia 30601 ($2.00). Journal Cit-J nal of Research and Development in Education; vl n4 Summer 1968. EDRS Price MF-$0.75 HC-$8.75 Descriptors-Cognitive Development, Early Childhood Education. Educational Administration. *Evaluation. Higher Education. 1nstructionalPrograms.Learning,*Objectives.sProsram Effectiveness.*Research and DevelopmentCenters. School Organization. Social Structure, Teacher Education. Teaching Reports from the nine research and development centers funded by the United States 0ffice of Education provide a self-assessment of the centers from the standpoint of their respective goals. the methods used in pursuing these goals. estimates of their success to .clate, and estimates of their projected success. Discussion of organizational aspects and detailed reports of dissemination activities are omitted The reporting centers are (1) Center for the Advanced Study of Educational Administration. (2) The Learning Research and Development Center. (3) Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning. (4) Research and Deyelopment Center for Educational Stimulation (3-12). (5) Center for Research and Develpment inTeaching.(6) Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. (7) Center for Research and Development in Higher Education. (8) Center for Study. of Evaluation in Instruction, and (9) Research and Development Center for Social Organization of Schools. (TT)

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PREFACE 1

THE CENTER REPORTS

CENTER FOR THE ADVANCEDSTUDY OF EDUCATIONAL 16 ADMINISTRATIONMax G. Abbott THE LEARNING RESEARCHAND DEVELOPMENT CENTER 30 John L. Yeager and RobertGlaser 45 WISCONSIN R & D CENTER FORCOGNITIVE LEARNING Herbert J. Klausmeier R & D CENTER FOREDUCATIONAL STIMULATION(3-12) 67 Warren G. Findley CENTER FOR RESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT IN TEACHING 85 Robert N. Bush and N. L. Gage 106 R & D CENTER FORTEACHER EDUCATION Robert F. Peck and Oliver H. Brown CENTER FOR RESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT IN HIGHER 127 EDUCATION Leland L. Medsker CENTER FOR STUDY OFEVALUATION IN INSTRUCTION 143 PROGRAMS Erick L. Lindman R & D CENTER FORSOCIAL ORGANIZATION OFSCHOOLS 151 Edward L. Mc Dill, James McPartlandand J. Timothy Sprehe

PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATIONALft & D CENTERS 190 Norman J. Boyan andWard S. Mason PREFACE

The Research and Development Centerssupported by the United States Office of Education jointly with the nine universities at whichthey are located are a relatively new phenomenonin American education, the oldest centerhaving been established less than five years ago. They represent an attempt totake advantage of the staffs and resources ofselected institutions of higher education to mountsubstantial efforts to improve American education insignificant ways through a systematic long-term program of research and development on thechosen focus of each of the respective centers. Selection of these institutions for centers,funded originally for five years but with the premise that excellence ofcontributions would likely warrant extension of the grants for another five years, presupposed strongoriginal staffs and the prospect of augmenting these staffs with additional productiveprofessional personnel. Each university center was chosen, too,for its special capabilities to do research in the areaof its focus, for the strength of itsrelationships with relevantlocal,state, regional,and/or national institutions, and for evidence of each university'scommitment to active support of its Research and Development Center's program as a majorthrust of the university's total program. The purpose of this issue of theJournal of Research and Development in Education is to present for thefirst time in any single publication an assessmentof all nine of these USOE-funded Research and Development Centers: an assessmentfrom the standpoint of their respective goals, the methods used in pursuingthese goals, an estimate of their success to date, and an estimateof their projected success. Each center was asked to present its account in these terms.At the same time, the tenter wasurged to omit discussion of its organizational aspects and any detailed reportof its dissemination activities. It was felt that the emphasis ongoals and progress toward them would give a unity and parallelism to the several treatmentsand that current and prospective product, rather than operational structure or machineryfor dissemination of the product, was the prime basis for evaluating the promiseof these Research and Development Centers as forces for improvement in education

Warren G. Findley Merlin C. Wittrock University of Georgia University of California, Los Angeles

Co-Advisory Editors 9 16

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Max G. Abbott, Director of the Center and Professor of Education Forrest Lee Brissey, Professor of Education Robert Campbell, Professor of Economics Richard 0. Carlson, Professor of Education W. W. Charters, Jr., Professor of Education Robert Dublin, Professor of Sociology Terry L. Eidell, Director, ERIC and Professor of Education John M. Foskett, Professor of Sociology Keith Goldhammer, Dean, School of Education, Oregon State University R. Jean Hills, Professor of Education Paul B. Jacobson, Chairman, National Advisory Committee and Dean, School Of Education Roland J. Pellegrin, Director, Institute for Community Studies and Professor of Sociology Phillip J. Runkel, Professor of Psychology Richard A. Schmuck, Professor of Education Barry Siegel, Professor of Economics Donald E. Tope, Professor of Education Harry F. Wolcott, Professor of Education L. Harmon Zeigler, Professor of Political Science Robert C Ziller, Professor of Psychology fh. 17

CENTER FOR THE ADVANCED STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION

Max G. Abbott University of Oregon

Introduction makes distance and space irrelevant parameters. The traditionalallocation of au- The organizational and administrative thority in the school may be unrealistic in arrangements thatprevail today in the view of changes in the teacher'srole American school may have been well demanded by new instructionaltech- adapted to the instructional techniques in niques. And it is likely that instruction the first half of the Twentieth Centuryto cannot continue to becarried on in the textbook-dominated classroom where relativelyautonomousself-contained one teacherconfronted thirty to forty classrooms through which students are pupils each period or day and engaged moved in narrowly graded age cohorts. them in an instructional pattern of lec- Alterations in this traditional instructional ture, assignment, recitation,and examina- pattern will undoubtedlychange the en- tionbut it is by no means certain that tire organizational character of the school. they will be appropriate to the instruc- In whatever ways the school may need tional techniques of the year 2,000. to be re-structured,however, difficult There is gready some indication that problems of organizationwill remain. the American school will be unable to Thus, focus pf the research and develop- capitalize on the emerging instructional ment work of the Centerfor the Ad- patterns without somefundamental struc- vanced Study of Educational Administra- tural and procedural changes. It is pos- tion is on the organizational and admin- sible, for example, that the notion of a istrativeimplicationsofinstructional geographically-boundedschooldistrict change, with particular reference to public will be outmoded as a unit for organizing elementary and secondary education in instruction,especiallyconsideringthe the United States. Within this focus, the modern communications technology that generalobjective of the Center is to 18

develop organizational andadministrative through the country, seriousdeficiencies arrangements for theeducational enter- existed in the field of educationaladminis- estab- prisethatcanaccommodate rapidly tration at the time the Center was changing instructional techniques, strat- lished. There was a lack of systematic, egies, and goals. coherent, and organized bodiesof knowl- When the Center for the Advanced edge based upon soundtheoretical and Study of Educational Administration was empiricalwork;methodologicaltech- established at the University of Oregon in niques were limited andrelatively unde- April of 1964, its objective wasbroadly veloped; applied research anddevelop- defined as the improvementof educa- ment activities wererarely based upon the tional administration and school organiza- findings of basic research; anddissemina- tion through programsof basic research, tion programs wereseldom related to applied research and development,dissem- on-going research anddevelopment. ination, and training. Much of the work that hasbeen going The problem area chosen forthe Center on inthe Center during the early yearsof was thesocial context of educational its operation, therefore,has been designed organization and administration,with the to make upfor those deficiencies. Staff term"social context" defined as the members have prepared surveysof the environments, 1: oth externaland internal, existing literature andconferences have the avail- in which educationalpolicies are formed been sponsored to summarize and operating decisions are putinto ef- able knowledge regardingspecific topics fect. Three levels of environment were within the Center's domain,and the pro- included in the initialconceptualization ceedings of those conferenceshave been of the social context: theeducational widely disseminated.Individual efforts institution itself, the largereducational have been devoted to thedevelopment of systems of which aparticular educational theoretical formulations andmethodolog- institution is a unit or segment,and the ical approaches to the studyof organiza- largersocial,political, and geographic tions. Research hasbeen conducted on environments in whicheducational insti- topics ranging from anationwide study of tutions and educational systems arelo- lobbying tactics to detailedanalyses of cated and which they serve. the decision-making processesutilized by For approximately adecade prior to small group§.- Support hasbeen provided the establishment of the Center,efforts for post-doctoral fellows andpre-cloctroal had been made atthe University ofresearch assistants in an attempt toin- the.behavioral sciences to crease the quantityand quality of re- Oregon to relate personnel in the field of educationaladministratiOh. As search and development nationwide Cooperative Pro- educational administration: part of the has pursued its gram inEducational Administration, sup- In all of this, the Center ported by the W. K. KelloggFoundaticin, objectives through aninterdisciplinary research on the social context.of educa- approach. Staff members,post-doctoral assist- tionaladministration,interdisciplinary ellows, and pre-doctoral research seminars in educationaladministration', ants have beendrawn from both educa- and othercooperativeventureswere tion And the' behavioralsciences."In 'addi- undertaken. Despite these efforts,how- tion tO educationaladministration, dis- ever, anddespite he imaginative work ciplines represented bypersonnel have that had been done in otheruniversities included-anthropology, economics,politi- 19

calscience,psychology,socialpsy- developed on the basis of three major chology,andsociology.Consistently, premises: (1) that increasingly sophisti- Center staff members who are specialists cated research on instructional processes, in educational administration have dem- the psychology and social psychology of onstrated competence in the theories and human learning, and curriculum design methodologies of the behavioral sciences, willproducepotentiallyrevolutionary and those members who are behavioral teaching procedures in the next 30 years; scientists have indicated a commitment to (2) that existing organizational forms and research and development dealing with administrative practices in the school may the social context of school organization not be suited to the emerging instruc- and educational administration. tional techniques; and (3) that the ab- sence of appropriateorganizational and A Reappraisal of the Center's Focus and administrative arrangements can seriously Objectives inhibit the introduction of new instructionalprocedures and can limit their Although much of the early work in utility once they are introduced. The the Center was directed toward problems following instrumental objectives were set that have been popularly conceived as to provide more specific directionsfor those of school-community relationships, research and development and to help in with the passage of time, activities began making decisions regarding the relevance to focus more and more upon the "inter- to the Center's mission of proposed pro- nal" aspects of educational organization grams and projects. and administration. Studies of decision making tended to shift from a community to an organizational context; an intensive, Research Objectives longitudinal study of the school principal- ship was initiated;projects related to innovation and change were undertaken; to formulate models for the analysis of value and normative structures were ana- organization and organizational change lyzed internally as well as externally; and in the school projects on the economics of higher to examine relationships between the education were expanded to encompass organization of instruction and other the more general problem of resource aspectsof school organization and allocation. administration,suchasresource By early 1968, it was decided that allocation,goal-settingprocesses, future research and development work information flow, coordination, and would focus on the organizational and control administrativeimplications of instruc- toinvestigateinterdependencies be- tional change in public elementary and tween (a) social system properties and secondary schools. social psychological processes in the The general objective of the Center's school and (b) the dynamics of planned future work--to develop organizational or unplannedorganizational change and administrative arrangements for the to identify and explicate influences and educational enterprise that can accom- conditions external to the school that modaterapidlychanginginstructional either constrain or facilitate changes in techniques,strategies,and goalswas the organization of instruction 20

Developmental Objectives Center to provide a"laboratory" setting for research and devel- to designand test alternativemodels of the preparation of opmentspecialists organizational arrangementsincluding of educational to contribute tothe improvement patternsfor governing the of educa- enterprise that willfacilitate the imple- programsfor the preparation mentation of newinstructional tech- tional administrators niques Research and DevelopmentProgram to developstrategies for bringingabout changes in socialrelationships that will of pro- At the present, mostof the work of the facilitate the implementation four major proposed organizational arrangements Center is organized into processing grams: (1)Innovations andOrganizational todevelopinformation Processes of Educa- systems andstrategies for decisionmak- StrucWre; (2) Career enhance instructional tional Personnel; (3)Educational Admin- ing designed to istration and theValue and Normative management and Structures of AmericanSociety; and (4) to developinstructional materials Education. procedures for the pre-serviceand in- Resource Allocationin Higher While much of thiswork represents a service educationof school personnel of earlier re- relevant to proposedorganizational ar- continuation and extension search and developmentactivites, that rangements contained in the program onInnovations and OrganizationalStructure represents Dissemination Objectives the fusion of researchand development work implied in the Center'sobjectives. to informcolleagues in related research fields about the con- The long-rangeobjectives of this pro- and development todetermine effective ceptual, empirical, andoperational ad- gramare:(1) realized through theCenter's strategies forintroducing innovations in vances schools and school systems;(2) to iden- activities tify organizationalvariables which en- to informprtctitioners and interested introduction of in- laymen about the Center'sresearch and hance or inhibit the their impli- novations; and (3) todescribe the condi- development activities and which make it possible cations for educationalpolicy and prac- tions and processes for an organization toadapt to change tice of stability. in cooperationwith other agencies to while maintaining patterns and introduce Particular emphasisiscurrently being field test, demonstrate, development of struc- results of development placed upon the into practice the will accommodate activities conducted inthe Center tural arrangements that newcurricula and newinstructional procedures such asthose that are being Training Objectives developed by the R & DCenters whose and learning. to encourage(but not be responsible focus is upon teaching of courses of While IPI, team teaching,the ungraded for) the establishment scheduling, and the like study preparing persons tocontribute primary, modular may notexist as such thirty yearshence, to researchand development activities make it possible to in domainssimilar to those of the these developments varls

make some hard-headed estimations of functionaries in a variety of school set- what effective instructional methods will tings.However, the questionnaires are look like in the future on the basis of being supplemented by interview and ob- current advances in research and develop- servational approaches. The immediate ment. These would include: target groups are administrators, central 1. Emancipation of the student from office personnel, principals, teachers, and direct dependence upon a teacher in paraprofessionals(teachers' aides). The governing the course of instruction. ultimate target groups are those listed Machines that present the stimuli for above, plus students, since the project is learning, provide instantaneous feed- intendefi todevise improved ways of a back of learning errors, and branch organizing the school to enhance the appropriately to present new se- instructional function. The basic unit for quences of stimuli willsupplement analysis is the individual school; however, or supplant theconventional text- relationships among schools and between book-recitation patterns of the pre- schools and central offices are also being sent. investigated.Includedintheproject 2. Redefinition of teaching as the diag- sample are schools employing the In- nosis and treatment of learning diffi- dividuallyPrescribedInstruction(IPI) culties on 3n individualized, clinical Program developedatthePittsburgh basis. High defgees of specialization LearningResearchandDevelopment will be developed among instruc- Center,andschoolsemployingthe tional agents along lines other than Unitized Approach (Project Models) de- the usual age-grade or subject-matter veloped at the Wisconsin Research and division of responsibility. DevelopmentCenterforCognitive 3. Development of specializedcurri- Learning. cular programs built on concrete, An attempt to state all of the assump- relativelyshort-run objectives and tions that underlie a research project of designedforstudentsinunique this nature would be an almost endless learning circumstances. Head Start, task. It does, however, seem important to highschoollanguagelabs,short state some of the salient assumptions coursesindataprocessingpro- upon which the project isbased. First, it cedures, and reading clinics are illus- isassumed that schools differ in the trative. extent to which they are innovative,and Two projects constitute the major ac- that the causes of these differences can be tivities in the program at the present time. determined through research. Second, it is The first of these is essentially a research assumed that valid instruments for the project with developmental implications. measurementofdifferencesamong The initial objective of the project is to schools can be developed. Third, itis gain an increased understanding of how assumed that measured variations amoil schools function as formal organizations. theattributesof schoolswillreveal The eventual objective is to find ways to systematic patterns of variation among enable schools to function more effec- these variables. Finally, it is assumed that tively through improved organization. The innovativeness can be planned for and approach is primarily that of a field study; effected through intentional or deliberate questionnairesregardingorganizational interventions. vsriables are being administered to various The second major project in the In-

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novations and Organizational Structures approaches. Although it is impossible to program,isadevelopmentalproject report on all of these here, it is possible to designed to discover ways to.help a school illustrate the scope of the research by system organize itself foreffective innova- discussing a few of the completed pro- tion. To date, relatively little study has jects. been done to improve the functioning of Perceptions of the role of the elemen- school systems as organizations. Innova- tary school principal and teacher. One tionineelucation has been narrowly series of studies has been conducted in an focused on the special training of individ- attempt to defme the norms associated ual teachers, the production of new cur- with the positions of elementary school riculum materials, or special arrangements principal and elementary school teacher. such as team-teaching or individualized These studies were designed to test the instruction. This project begins with the commonly heldassumption thatper- assumption that improved organizational formance of organizations is influenced, processesareoften crucial antecedent at least in part, by the extent of agree- conditionstoaspecificinnovadve ment concerning rules ofbehavior and the attempt. The project is a field experiment; extent to which expectations areshared. two school systems withcomparable Thus, principals, teachers, and represen- sociological characteristics serve as con- tatives of other community populations in trols. Although the project should benefit differing types of communities were asked the target system, and members of that to respond to a role norm inventory to system are collaborating with that expec- provide data regarding (a) the way princi- tation, the primary purpose is a develop- pals and teachers viewed their own posi- mental one of testing the effectiveness of tions, (b) the perceptions that principals group procedures. The anticipated out- and teachers had of the views of other comes of the project aredescriptions of populationswithintheircommunities goup procedures forschool systems that concerning the roles of teacher and princi- enhance the organizational effectiveness pal, and (c) the actual views of each of the of the system and increase the possibility populations of others. that effective innovations will be carried The studies have shown that full agree- into the classrooms. ment on role norms seldom exists. Among both teachers and principals, the levels of Accomplishments agreementrangealmostcontinuously from near zero to almost 100 per cent; The accomplishments of the Center average agreement amongmembers of during its rust four years of operation each of several populations for a given set have been substantial and are related to all of role norms is approximately 50 per four areas of activity in which work has cent. Moreover, when comparisons were been undertaken: research, development, made between levels of agreement among dissemination, and training. schools within a given community and the levels of agreement between communities, Research no significantdifferences were found. Thus, these studies have led the investi- Approximatelythirty-fiveresearch gators to question the popular assumption projects have been completed utilizing that social order is related to agreement various disciplinary and methodological on role norms.The available data from 23

the communities studied regarding teacher has been concluded from these studies morale, attitudes toward a school system thattheeffectivenessof community anditsprograms,publicsupport of power structures,i.e., the influence of schools, and teacher turnover do not formal groups on educational decision reflect any appreciable difficulty arising making, is greatly overrated. Specialized from this apparent lack of agreement. interest groups in "weak" areas such as Educational and community decision- education have only marginal claims on makingprocesses. Anotherseriesof the allocation of public resources. Perhaps studieshas been conducted regarding their role in community affairs is more educational decision making and the par- symbolic and ritualistic than it is decisive, ticipation of teachers in decision making coordinative, or integrative. in education and other community ac- The Politics of education.Still another tivities. Using interviews, document ana- series of studies has been conducted re- lyses, and questionnaires, the researchers garding thepolitics of education. One attempted toclarifythe processes by completed project was a study of the which educational decisions are made in interactions between legislators and lob- the context of a local community in- byists in Oregon, North Carolina, Utah, cluding the extentto which teachers and Massachusetts. The theoretical frame- actually participate in the formulation of work for the study was derived from the educational policy. symbolic interactionist school of social The data from the studies provided psychology. The problem was to find out strong evidence that aspirations for and why interest groups are powerful in some experience in decision-making activities states and not in others. The investigators are limited for most teachers in three assumed that interest groups are powerful ways. First, teachers do not believe it is instatesin which thereissustained appropriate for.them to participate widely interaction between legislators and lob- in decision-making activities either in ed- byists. However, it was also necessary to ucation or in other areas of community isolate the factors which contributed to life. Second, they have not participated sustained interaction. It was found that extensivelyintheseactivities.Third, those states in which legislators had posi- teachers do not aspire toward a powerful tive feelings toward lobbyists were high role in decision making on most educa- interaction political systems with effective tional issues, or, for that matter, on other interestgroups. The following factors issues in the community. The teachers' were discovered to be associated with reports of personal experiences as decision favorable attitudes and, hence, high inter- makers areconsistent withtheir low action: (1) the total output of the state aspirations because their role in decision system--states with a high annual expendi- making is quite limited in matters that ture of funds attract a disproportionate extend beyond the borders of the in- amount of lobbying activity; and (2) dividual classroom. patterns of socializationstates in which At a more general level, the studies legislativecareersbeginearlywith a have shown that in a given community the specific area of public policy in mind are efforts to coordinate education activities productiveofsustainedinteraction and decisions are much less pronounced systems. than are the efforts to coordinate eco- The exchange between legislators and nomic activities and decisions. In fact, it lobbyistsisbased on the creation of 24

obligations which can then be "cashed in" One such project was designed tohelp when needed. Obligations are mostfre- the entire staff of a junior highschool quently created by providing information become more aware, open, and analytic which thelegislator,lacking adequate about communication patterns and inter- staff, cannot gather himself. Communica- personal problems among its members. tion which arouses fear (pressure) is not The project directors based the activities an effectivetechnique and is used by on the assumptionsthat staff communica- inexperienced lobbyists. tion sets the stage foreffectiveclassroom Problems of school administrators.The instruction; that interpersonalrelations findings of a nationwide study which and feelings, communication clarity,and focused on administrators' perceptions of groupproblem-solving skills of a faculty contemporary, emergentproblems of edu- affect the academic experience of young- cational administration were reported in a sters; and thatimproved communication Center monograph,Issues and Problems in and problem-solving skills increasethe Contemporary Educational Administra- likelihood that staff members will initiate tion.This monograph was chosen by Pi organizational and instructional changes, Lambda Theta as one of the twenty-three both collaboratively and individually.The outstanding education books of 1967.1 goal of this project was tohelp staff Other research projects.Other studies members publicly identify problem areas completed in the Center have treated such in staff communication; use asystematic topics as the career patterns ofadministra- problem-solvingprocedureto improve tive and teaching personnel, the adoption communication; relate improvementsin of educational innovations, motivational faculty communication to student-teacher and personality correlates of successful relationships and classroom instruction; administrativeperformance,and com- and establish a continuing programof munity conflict and the politics of educa- activities for improving communication. tion. The project was designednotto have its primary effect onindividuals, but on Development the actual, intact faculty as aworking group. A trainingdesign was used in Developmental activities conducted in which groupings during training were not the Center have consisted primarily of permanent; personsrotated from group to devising ways to improve working rela- group to increaseidentification with the tionships in the school organization. Six entire staff. This designalso makes pos- projects have been completed or are cur- sible training designs fororganizational rently underway; most of them have been groups ofconsiderable size. The design designed totestthe effects of direct included several follow-up sessionsduring interventions in the on-going processesof the school year to reinforcewhat was intact work groups in schools. The pro- learned in the initial workshop. The entire cesses towardwhich the interventions project was thoroughlyevaluated through have been directed are those of problem pre-test questionnairesand interviews as definition,communications, . and prob- well as through analysis by anoutside, lem-solving techniques. disinterested team of observers.

1The list of "Outstanding Education Books of 1967" compiled by PiLambda Theta appeared in the May, 1968 issue of the NEA Journal. 25

disciplines in the Dissemination tion and from various behavioral sciences, thepost-doctoral fel- The dissemination objectivesof the lows affiliated with the Center,generally and participated Centerhavebeenpursuedprimarily for a one-year period, through two sets of activites:(1) the actively in designing andconducting re- sponsorship or co-sponsorshipof seminars search and development projects. and conferences, and (2)the sponsorship In addition, the Centerhas employed of apublications program. The con- eachyearfrom twenty to thirty-five ferences have dealt with topicsrelated to graduate research assistants.Coming f-rom various facets of thesocial context of those disciplines representedby the Cen- educational organization andadministra- ter's professionalstaff, the assistants have tion and thepublications program is been given considerableresponsibility for designed to communicatethe findings and helping to design andconduct projects. implications of the Centerresearch and Not only have theassistants increased development work toeducational practi- their skills in researchdesign and method- tioners, to scholarsengaged in educational ology through theiraffiliation with the research, and to the generalpublic. Center, they havealso acquired substan- In the CASEAmonograph series, the tive informationregarding the organiza- publications Change Processesinthe tion and administrationof schools. and post- Public Schools andKnowledge Production Former research assistants and Utilization arecollections of papers doctoral fellows are nowholding pro- presented at two conferences. fessorialpositions in variousacademic To date, publicationsinclude seventeen departments in a numberof major univer- monographs, twentyoccasional papers, sities. Others arecurrently employed by and a number of reviewsand bibliog- Federal agencies such asthe Regional raphies. In addition, threebooks based in Educational Laboratories. work completed in the Center part upon Development at have been published throughcommercial Future Research and channels and more than twentyjournal CA SEA of readings articles or chapters in books planning re- have been authored by CASEApersonnel. Although a great deal of mains to be done toimplement the new statement offocus and objectives, it is 4 Training possible at this point to anticipate some Although the Center offers no courses of the futureaccomplishments of the for academic credit andhas no authority Center. First, it isclear that future re- major develop- to grantdegrees, it has from thebeginning search will be related to a made an importantcontribution to the mental objective, thatof designing new training of futureresearch and develop- organizational and administrative arrange- enhance the instructional pro- mentpersonnel in the field ofeducational ments to During thefirstthree grams oftheschools. Although this administration. limit creativity in yearsof its operation, the Center sup- should in no way fellows who designing and conductingbasic research, it ported thirteen post-doctoral which indi- wereinterested in improvingtheir re- should increase the extent to skills. Selected vidual projects are related toeach other search and development the extent from the field of educationaladministra- and, therefore, should increase 26 to which research results arecumulative. hardwaretoenhancebothdeicison The new statement of focus and objec- making and instructional management in tives is also likely to incr4ase both the schools. Still others will be undertaken to quality and quantity of developmental produce improved materials for the in- work in the Center. In addition to the service and pre-service education of school activities that are now underway designed personnel,particularlyadministrative to improve socialrelationships in the personnel, and to design new instructional schools, a series of new activities will be procedures for preparation programs. instituted. Some of these will consist of In light of the rapidly changing charac- efforts to develop new models for organiz- ter of the nation'sschools, the Center's ing schools and to test those models in mission has become one, not of keeping practice. Others will be designed to de- up with change,but one of anticipating velopinformationprocessingsystems change to help school personnel meet the based primarily on the use of electronics educational demands of tomorrow.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Monograph Series

The Jackson County Story,A Case Study, Keith Goldhammer and Frank Farner,September, 1964.

Change Processes In The Public Schools,Richard 0. Carlson, Art Gallaher, Jr., Matthew B. Miles, Roland J. Pellegrin, and Everett M. Rogers, February, 1965.

The Economic Returns To Education: A Surveyofthe Findings..JonT. Innes, Paul B. Jacobson, and Roland J. Pellegrin, Mary, 1965.

Perspectives On Educational Administration And The Behavioral Sciences.W. W.Charters, Jr., Burton R. Clark, Jack A. Culbertson, Daniel E.Griffiths, Werner Z. Hirsch, Dorothy Lee, and Nicholas A. Masters, June, 1965.

Adoption Of Educational Innovations,Richard 0. Carlson, August, 1965. 27

Communication And Status: The Dynamics of a Research Center,Alfred G. Smith, April, 1966.

The Political World of The High School Teacher,Harmon Zeigler, November, 1966.

Viewpoints For The Study Of The Administration Of Higher Education,Harold W. Stoke, November, 1966.

The Normative World Of The Elementary School Teacher,John M. Foskett, May, 1967.

Issues And Problems In Contemporary Educational Administration,Keith Goldhammer, John E. Suttle, William D. Aldridge, Gerald L. Becker, July, 1967.

The Concept Of System,R. Jean Hills, July, 1967.

Teacher Participation In The Community,Robert B. Carson, Keith Goldhammer, Roland J. Pellegrin., September, 1967.

The School Administrator And Organizational Character,John B. Miner, September, 1967.

The Normative World Of The Elementary School Principal,John M. Foskett, December, 1967.

Jackson County Revisited, A Case Study in the Politics of Public Education,Keith Goldhammer and Roland J. Pellegrin, January, 1968.

Forthcoming

Knowledge Production And Utilization: Role Emergence and Reorganization,Terry L. Eidell and Joanne M. Kitchel, Editors, June, 1968.

Toward A Science Of Organization.R. Jean Hills, September, 1968.

Occasional Paper Series (*indicates paper is no longer in print)

*"Open-mindedness Among Administrators," by John Croft. Paper presentedatthe annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois. February, 1965.

*"Factors Related to Citizen, Administrator, and Teacher Participation in Educational Decision- making," by Keith Goldhammer. Paper presented toa symposium of the American Educational Research Association. February, 1965.

* "Community Power Structure and Educational Decision-making in the Local Community," by Roland J. Pellegrin. Paper presented at the 1965 National Convention of the American Association of School Administrators, Atlantic City, New Jersey, February, 1965.

*"Sociology and Educational Administration," by John Foskett. Paper presented ata University of 28

Oregon Conference entitled "New Directions in Research in Educational Administration." March, 1965.

* "Some Problems of Educational Organization in Comparative Perspective," by R. Jean Hills. Paper presented at a University of Oregon Conference entitled "New Directions in Research in Educational Administration." March, 1965.

"Some Recent Ideas in Research Methodology: Facet Design and Theory of Data," by Philip J. Runkel. Revised version of paper presented at a University of Oregon Conference entitled "New Directions in Research in Educational Administration." March, 1965. Revised June, 1966.

*"Political Values in Education," by Harmon Zeigler. Paper presented at a University of Oregon conference entitled "New Directions in Research in Educational Administration." March, 1965.

* "The Functions of Research for Educational Administration," by R. Jean Hills. Revised version of a paper presented at the National Conference on Public Administration, sponsored by the American Society for Public Administration, Kansas City, Missouri. April, 1965. Published in JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, May, 1967.

*"Issues and Strategies in the Public Acceptance of Educational Change," by Keith Goldhammer. Paper presented at a conference on "Educational Issues in a Changing World," Kaanapali Beach, Maui, Hawaii. November, 1965.

*"Reference Group Orientation and Teacher-attitude Toward School District Reorganization," by Robert B. Brumbaugh. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois. February, 1966.

*"Selected Determinants of Adolescent Educational Expectations: Social Status, Parental Educa- tional Family Size, and Parental Educational Pressue," by Richard A. Rehberg. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois. February, 1966. Published in SOCIAL FORCES, March, 1967.

*"Faculty Input: A Function of a College's Incentive System," by Herman A. Wallin. Paper presented tothe annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research, Boston, Massachusetts. May, 1966.

*"Providing Incentives for Professionals in Two-year Colleges," by Herman A. Wallin. Paper presented to the annual meeting of the Pacific Sociological Association, Vancouver, B.C. April, 1966.

"An Analysis of Sources and Processes of Innovation in Education," by Roland J. Pellegrin. Paper presented at a "Conference on Educational Change," Allerton Park, Illinois. February, 1966.

* "A Secondary Analysis of Communicationand Status,"by R. Jean Hills. April, 1966. 29

* "The Demand for Higher Education in the United States, 1919-1964," by Robert Campbell and Barry N. Siegel. Revised of an interim research report. July, 1966. Published in AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW, June, 1967.

*"Balancing in Group Decision-making," by David F. Wrench and Gary L. Gregor. A projectreport. January, 1966.

*"Self Images and Community Images of the Elementary School Principal: Findings and Implications of a Sociological Inquiry," by John M. Foskett and Harry F. Wolcott. An interim a research report containing selected analyses from a larger study entitled, "The Community Normative Structure for Roles in the Public School." May, 1966. Published in EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION QUARTERLY, Spring, 1967.

"Accuracy of Interpersonal Perception: A Function of Superordinate Role," by Robert B. Brumbaugh. May, 1966.

"Towards a Theory of the Educational Firm," by Barry N. Siegel. Paper presentedat the annual meeting of the Western Economic Association, Berkeley, California, August, 1966. Published January, 1967.

"Community Resources and Conflict Propensity as Sources for Constraintson the Local School Administrator," by R. J. Snow. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. February, 1967.

Other

Issues And Problems In Contemporary Educational Administration: A Review of Related Literature, by Keith Goldhammer. (mimeo), CASEA; University of Oregon, 1967. 30

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Robert Glaser, Director of the Centerand Professor of Psychologyand of Education 41. J. Steele Gow, Jr.,Executive Director andProfessor at Large John 0. Bolvin, AssociateProfessor of Education J. G. Castle, jr.,Professor of Electrical Engineering Henry B. Cohen, AssociateProfessor of Mathematics William W. Cooley, Professor ofEducation Richard C. Cox, AssociateProfessor of Education A. Wayne Donaldson, AssistantProfessor of Psychology Lee Goldman, Center Associateof Carnegie-Mellon Glen Heathers, Professor ofEducation James G. Holland, AssociateProfessor of Psychology Burkart Holzner, Chairman andProfessor of Sociology Raymond C. Hummel, AssociateProfessor of Education Wilson A Judd, PostdoctoralResearch Associate of Psychology Leopold E. Klopfer, AssociateProfessor of Education C. Mauritz Lindvall, Professorof Education Paul H. Masoner, Dean, Schoolof Education Omar K. Moore, Professorof Psychology Anthony J. Nitko, AssistantProfessor of Education Kathleen M. O'Keefe, Research Associate Charles A. Perfetti, AssistantProfessor of Psychology Malcolm M. Provus, Center Associate,Pittsburgh Public Schools William W. Ramage, Research Associate Lauren B. Resnick, AssistantProfessor of Psychology Larry J. Reynolds, ResearchAssociate of Psychology Stephen R. Schroeder, PostdoctoralResearch Associate of Psychology Warren D. Shepler, AssociateProfessor of Education Alex Siegel, Assistant Professorof Psychology Edward A. Suchman, Professor ofSociology & Public Health Margaret L. Wang, ResearchAssociate John L. Yeager, Assistant Professorof Education 31

THE LEARNINGRESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT CENTER

Ilr

John L. Yeager and RobertGlaser University of Pittsburgh

broad goals of Purpose and Goals educational practice. The the Center are the following: the growth of those The Learning Researchand Develop- 1. To contribute to institute composed of a aspects ofbehavioral science which are ment Center is an A major faculty from manydifferent academic relevant to educational practice. of Pitts- rationale of the work of the Centeris that departments of the University sciences can burgh. Its general purpose isthe scientific research in the behavioral stud.y of the problemsof learning and provide foundations for neweducational instruction with particularattention to practices and thatresearchers sensitive to and psycho- this possibility can makecontributions the nature of the educational and logical environment required tomaximize both totheir underlying science the potential of theindividual learner. educational research anddevelopment. from This span of activityfosters a constant The scope of its activities ranges instructional imple- basic theoretical research onthe learning interplay between 11. experimental work, process;through the developmentof pro- mentation and basic cedures, materials, and equipmentof ineach providing insightsand substance for struction; to thedevelopment of educa- the other. school settings for 2.To developeffective prototype tional programs in procedures and experimentation, tryout,and evaluation. models of instructional The role of the Center is toprovide the appropriatehardwareandsoftware andthe through the involvementof scientists, climate,theorganization, An operating facilitiesfor maximizing fruitfulinter- engineers, and educators.. relevantacademic principle of the Center isthe belief that if actionbetween of learning by the disciplines and the studyof learning and the results of the study 32 researchers are to have practical implica- sonnel. Under each of these program areas tions for education, theseimplications can are anumber of specific projects in which best be translated into instructional pro- work is carried out. cedures and materials under the direction Basic Learning Studies. Inthe Basic of the researcher himself. The Center, Learning Studies Program,psychologists therefore, encourages the researcheralso and other behavioral scientists conduct to be adeveloper of prototype instruc- research on learning that may be basic to tional materials. the development of instructionalmaterials 3. To develop andevaluate experi- and procedures. Since basingeducational mental instructional systems,including practice on the science oflearning is an materials, procedural components,and important goal of the Center'stotal pro- personnel training. Coordinate with its gram,independent scientists working with small research staffs are investigating a research emphasis, the Centercontributes 41. to educationalimprovement through the variety of learningphenomena. These development of evaluated systems of in- basic research studies are carried outin a struction. An operating principle isthat laboratory context which permitsthe effective educational change comes about investigator to achieve a g.reaterdegree of most rapidlythrough the development control and precision than isnormally and demonstration of full-blown programs found in classroom studies. For some which include thenecessarymaterial, experiments, a computerfacility in the teacher training, and environmental design Center is employed to carry outinvestiga- to make themoperational in a school tions on-line under computercontrol. The setting. As programs are developed,they types ofproblems that have been inves- arecontinually evaluated through the tigated include: the properties of response collection of data which provide evidence latencies in rote learning (Judd, 1968); of the effectiveness of the programand the study of the natureof attention which in turn are analyzed in such a way throughanalysisof eyemovements 1968b); the as to providespecific implications for the (Schroeder & Holland) 1968a, further improvement of the program. It is analysis of comprilension skills(Resnick, the Center's policy that its work inthe 1968); study of transfer effects inverbal school settings is performed for the pur- learning (Kjeldergaard,1968); andthe ac- poses ofresearch and development; it quisition of discriminations in youngchil- does not act as a service agency, as such, dren (Cohen, Glaser & Holland,1968). for the maintenance of ongoing programs. New areas of investigationinitiated in the course of the past yearinclude the study Research and Development Programs of short-term and long-term memoryand study of psycholinguisticvariables in The Center's activities are carried out in learning. the context of four program areas: (1) In addition to laboratorystudies, many Basic Learning Studies, (2) Computer-As- of the researchers are working ondevelop- sisted Instruction Studies, (3) Field Re- mental activities which areconcerned search,and(4)ExperimentalSchool with the application of basicprinciples to Development. The four program areas the production of educationalmaterials provide a context in which different and procedures, e.g., beginningreading activities can operate and also can ex- materials (Kjeldergaard, Frankenstein, & change appropriate information and per- Kjeldergaard, 1967), the behavioralanaly- 33

1967). student-teacher interaction,and these data (Klahr, sis of Field Research.The research inthis preschool skillsdevelopment programs. oriented towardbasic prob- research anddevelopment program is This duality of lems ineducational andpsychological activities involving asingle researcher per- activitiesin that assists in pro- measurement,including mits a work context curriculum evaluationand in the assess- vidingsustainedrelationships between relevant to the development. mentof learner behavior basic research and planning andredesign ofinstructional Computer-Assisted InstructionStudies. Attention is also that of Com- systems(Lindvall, 1966). The second porogram area, given to assessmentof the effectsof puter-Assisted Instruction(CAI) Studies, variables on learning conducts researchand development on socio-psychological 1967). In systems outcomes(Brodie & Suchman, computer-assistedinstructional the Center'sexperimental (Ragsdale, 1966). This programis con- the context of school activities,psychometric methods cerned with: (a) theanalysis of learning learning problems students work inpartially arebrought to bear on processes as in the formof the design ofprocedures automated environments,(b) the design of educationalobjec- student stations, (c)the for the assessment of experimental tives, (Coxand Graham,1966), for the study anddevelopment of effectiveCAI dif- evaluation of the analysis and diagnosisof individual courses,and (d) the ferences relevant toalternative teaching potential role of CAIin a rangeof 1968), for the meas- A potential con- procedures (Glaser, educational applications. of classroomenvironments tribution ofcomputer-assisted instruction urement and for the the learner with ahighly (Yeager &Lindvall, 1968), is to provide analysis ofcurriculum materialsand in- responsive learningenvironment in which (Cox & Vargas, manipulate subject matterprob- structionalpractices he can 1966). The FieldResearch Programde- lems in a moreinteractive way thanhas and evaluation pro- with the usual signsthe testing heretofore been possible cedures for ongoingCenter activitiesin materials of education. Inworking on this additional special interested in and is schools and carries out problem, the Center is studieswhennecessary(Yeager & experimenting withthe use of cathode-ray Effective use of com- speciallydesigned Lindvall, 1967). tubedisplays, puter dataprocessing for theconduct of touch-sensitive displays,devices for rapid major tool,particularly displays and a these activities is a access toaudio and visual development of computermanage- interface devices (Glaser in the variety of other ment systemsfor adaptinginstruction to & Ramage,1967; Blackhurst,1965). En- being carried out inthis individual differences. gineering research ExperimentalSchoolDevelopment. programinvolves not only thestudy of is to be used most The primaryfocus of this program how such devices can develop, test, revise,and study neweduca- effectively in instruction,but also of how central focus is the developed and be economi- tional procedures. A they can be development ofschool situationswhich is also given to the cally feasible. Attention arehighly responsiveand adaptive to instructional systems managementand individual learner. As the requirements of the dataprocessingconcernedwith developed,ex- rele- prototypemodels are gathering, storing,and retrievinF of areestablishedin individuals and curricula,and perimentalschools .vant data on which educationaland learning processes with the decisionalgorithms which utilize 34 can be studied andfrom which data can Center will be briefly described rather be obtained which contribute to instruc- than attempting to list and summarize in tional theory and to the improvement of fewersentences all ongoing Centerwork. curriculum materials and practices. Ex- perience has indicated that there is an Basic Learning Studies optimal size for a particular school under- takingtoo small a project does not have Language Comprehension Skills.Sev- enough impact in generating significant eralpilotstudies on theanalysis of and sustained redesign of school condi- syntactic comprehension skills havebeen tions; too large a project does not permit conducted which have led to the use of intensive study or continual improvement the Eye-Voice Span Technique (EVS) as a based upon information feedback. The convenient means of studying segmenting mass required is,however, still sizable, behavior (Resnick, 1968). In the EVS and the projects in this program, in order procedure the subject reads a text pro- to be most effective,usually require addi- jected on a screen. When he reaches a tional resources beyond that of the Cen- pre-determined word in the textthe ter.In some cases experimental school screenis blacked out, but the subject design can be planned fOr introduction continues to "read" on for several more into a cooperating school over a specified words.Thisprocedureyieldsseveral period of time. In other cases, especially scores for eachsubject. Most important when specialized materials and equipment for the work to date have been the or extensiveclassroom redesignisin- subject's average EVS (i.e., the average volved, schools will be invited to bring number of words beyond the light-out theirclassesinto the Center's experi- pcAtion) and count of the numberof mental classrooms. The work in this area trials on which the subject stopped read- is focusing on three major projects: the ing at a phrase boundary. The former is a Individually Prescribed Instruction Project measure of howfar ahead, in purely (Lindvall & Bolvin, 1967; Glaser, 1968), quantitative terms, the subject istypically the Primary Education Project (Resnick, scanning. The latter is a measureof the 1967), and the Responsive Environments kinds of syntactic units he is using as he Project (Moore & Anderson, 1968). reads. Measures of speed of oral reading Overall,theCenter's four program and more refined syntactic scores canalso are a-- BasicLearningStudies,Com- be derived from the basic EVS data. puter-Assisted Instruction Studies, Field Studies completed during the past year Research, and Experimental School Devel- have confirmed the findings ofother opmentwork toward an integrated re- investigators that both size of scanning search and development setting where unit and tendency to pause at syntact- each of the program areas can contribute icallyappropriate phrases in the text to the work of the other. increase with age (third grade tocollege). However, in the youngest readersthere Illustrative Activities was nosignificant association between reading in longer units and reading in Under the space requirements of this syntactically appropriate units. This lack report, some illustrative, ongoing activities of relationship could be due to the over- in each of the program areas of the whelming attention new readers must give LearningResearchandDevelopment to the problemof simply recognizing t!- 35

1968),is of relevance toinstructional words. To explorethis possibility, an latency may pro- used in which decision making since experimental condition was of learning strengthafter college students readslides projected up- vide a measure correct responsefrequency or response side down in order to create ataslc have reached an analogous in perceptualdifficulty to the probability measures asymptote. Itis known, forexample, that thirdgrader's.Under these conditions but and syntactic ap- retention isincreased by overlearning, both length of unit specifically, how muchoverlearning is propriatenessdeclineddrastically(to If level) but the as- required for aparticular individual? about the third-grade individuals differ inthe amount of prac- sociation betweenthe two scores was assumed finding suggests tice for initiallearning, it can be actually heightened. This that they alsodiffer in the amountof that once a relatively strongdegree of required to achieve a reading is established overlearning practice syntactic control in desired degree ofretention. Theproblem (as it is assumed tobe in college students), decide when asubject or of perceptual difficulty arises of how to the introduction individualhasreceived enoughover- will make it lessmanifest. However, if a when a studenthas the perceptual learning practice or subject is able to overcome reached a sufficientoverlearning criterion. problem, he willautomatically bring his back into play. In An error rate, orresponseprobability syntactic responses measure, isof little value duringthis stage third graders, wherethe syntactic be- the response altogether, increased per- since thestudent has learned havior is weak and is consistently correct;at thispoint, ceptual skill will notaffect the syntactic basis for responselatency may provide a character of reading units. deciding when todiscontinue overlearning These findings suggestthat training in investigate thisprob- ought to extend practice. In order to speeded reading, which lem an experiment wasrununder on-line average EVS,should have differenteffects whichexamined subjects. This computercontrol, oncollege and younger changes in latency overthe course of hypothesis is beinginvestigated in college list of paired-associate students, using students in auniversity learning a short subjects. A paral- items. speed reading course as The data obtainedindicated that over lel study using youngchildren is being learning prior to thetrial of planned. Also of interest isthe relation- the course of to the last error, latenciesshowed little change ship of various EVS measures and did not reflectthe change inassocia- subject's ability topredict missing words indicated by asubstantial procedure) and ability to tive strength in a text (doze increase in correct responseprobability. answerquestions based onthe text. Both systematic differencesbe- of "compre- There were no of these measures are aspects tween thelatency of correctand incorrect hension." An additional concernis the general, it responsesduring this period. In relationship of the EVSphenomenon to latency was not avalid memory,and appeared that short-termperceptual of learning duringthe early stages studies are now beingconducted to deter- measure of this paired-associatetask. In contrast, a mine the extent towhich subjects of that subsequent to still are actually significant finding was different levels of reading the trial of last error,there was a largeand "processing" language asthey scan ahead. this second area of consistent reductionin latency. Since Response Latency. A reduction in latencyaccompanied over- investigation,responselatency(Judd, 36 learning practice, there is the suggestion this program has been on thedesign of that the increase in response speedduring experimental courses and on theoverall overlearning will provide a measure of the process ofcurriculum development from subject's degree of overlearning andmight the design of materials bylesson writers through computer coding and computer predict subsequent retention. The possi- The in- bilitythat latency did measure over- implementation (Nemitz, 1968). learning was indicated further by the structional strategy and presentation con- finding that those items which required a text of a programdesigned to teach basic and four-year greaternumber of trials to reach criterion number concepts to three- in initial learning tended tohave longer oldchildren entitled "Introduction to latencies after the trial of last error. Numbers" has been completed.Materials Work is in progress to continuethe preparation, computerprogramming, and evaluation of latency measures asindica- debugging of thefirstsection of the tors ofoverlearning and predictors of pr ogramhavebeencompletedand retention. An experimentunderway in- initially tested. The studentstation used volves sustained overlearning in a paired- in presenting thecurriculum content to toestablish the student consistsof a touch-sensitive associatetaskinorder 1967), a slide whether or not response litenciesreach a display (Glaser & Ramage, this projector and aspeaker attached to a stable asymptote and whether or not result of the asymptote isrelated to the rate with rapid-access audio unit. As a which the item isinitially learned. A initial tryout, theinstructional strategy the wasrevised, and the modified program subsequent experiment will control subjects. The new amount ofoverlearning on the basis of retested with additional latency measures and will measure reten- strategy, inaddition to providingremedial period of and forward branching,includes extended tion of the material following a of previously drill on interfering material. Thiswill be review, when necessary, learned numeral discriminationsand pro- done in order to attempt tocorrelate himself latency measures during overlearningwith vision for the student to correct after receiving feedbackinformation that subsequent retention. This research pro- incorrect response. gram has asitsgoal thecontrol of he has initiated an This latter aspectof the instructional retention by training to alatency crite- the be concerned strategy increasesthe probability that rion. The initial work will teaching frame with with simple paired-associatelearning. It is student will end each acorrect response.Strategies for the anticipated that a parallel research pro- of the "Introduction gramwill be considered to investigate the remaining sections to Numbers" programhave been program- utility of latency measures in concept and are currently learning situations. med for the computer undergoing tryout andevaluation. "Timetelling," has Computer-Assisted Instruction Studies A second program, undergone a number ofrevisions in terms of the instructional strategyemployed. Of importance to the work being car- is being In- Currently, materials preparation ried out by the Computer- Assisted station planned struction Studies Program is thedesign of completed. The student foruse withthe timetelling program experimental materials that can be pre- display, rapid sented to students via computercontrol. employs the touch-senitive Therefore, one emphasis of the work in access toaudio messages, and avoice-key

J .37

student can speak his of response historywhich needs to be into which the stored to effectivelyadapt to individual response.In contrast tothe numbers timetelling is designed to ac- differences is a questionof interest. In- program, will be investigated, cumulate student responsehistories over dices of this history such as error patterns,learning rates, and relatively large portionsof the program kind of making branching responselatency. The amount and and to use them in history storage requiredis a significant decisions. Of interest is aninvestigation of because it deter- the depth and breadthof response history areafor investigation mines requiredinvestment in computer necessary tomake instructionaldecisions. addition, the with the timetelling hardware and software. In Of interest in work characteristics of feedbackand reinforce- course iscomparison of thefirst CAI required to actively version of timetellingwith other methods ment parameters simpler apparatus interest youngchildren in automated of teaching, employing stations will bestudied. with less provisionfor branching strategies.A secondversionemploysa free-standing portablelaboratory teaching Field Research machine which providesauditory and Computer Management.One of the visual stimuli,multiple-choice responses, a major activitiesof the FieldResearch andauralrespondingthrough been the design and instructional Studies Program has voice-operated relay. The implementation of adata management sequencewith this portablemachine is systemfor both classroom management similar to the CAI version,but the branch- After three years ismorelimited,and and research purposes. ingstrategy of development, theCenter's Individually multiple-choice responses arerequired. A Project had reached timetelling course Prescribed Instruction third version of the of developmentwhere informa- employs a linear strategy.The student a point tion requirements,in terms ofstudent receives sound messages atvarious points demanded that by operating a special classroom management, in the program procedures be developed toprovide audio-frame tape recorder.Visual pre- new staff and the by means of abooklet both the Center project sentation is made classroom teacher withrapid access to in which responses toeach page are made the answer with a large amounts ofinformation on student by marking over progress. To meetthis need, a computer chemically treated penwhich confirms a designed that preprinted management system was responseby making visable would permit theteacher to operate material(Glaser,Kaelin & Samuels, Computer Cen- design is completed forthe online with the University 1968). Course ter at anygiven time inorder to retrieve latter two versionsof the timetelling the students with and materials preparationis under- information concerning course whom he is working. way. There are threelocations where the As has beenthe plan of the work on of the system are Computer-Assisted Instruction,the exper- hardware elements housed:(1)at theschoolan optiCal imental courses designedwill continue to typewriter studies scannerand card punch, a serve asvehicles for experimental console with a cardreader; (2) at the to evaluateinstructional strategies,human terminal; and (3) at of student consoles, Centera typewriter engineering aspects the University ofPittsburgh Computer and computerlanguage design. Thedepth 38

This dent rate of learningand student factors Center--an IBM 360/50 computer. (Yeager & Lindvall, hardware configuration isconnected by associated withit the capabili- 1967; Wang, 1968).Although studies on telephone lines and provide% undertaken in ties necessary formeeting the needsof this variable have been the researcher. As laboratory settings, little hasbeen done to both the teacher and classroom student data is generated atthe school it investigateitin an ongoing situation.Undoubtedly, one important is transmitted tothe University Computer of rate of Center and stored ondisc and magnetic reasonfor the paucity of studies school learning is thedifficulty of estab- tape. Theinformation on disc can be of rate and of queried by the classroomteacher to ob- lishing a usable measure data about the exercising somecontrol over the number tain background and status of factors that canaffect this variable. student via the typewriterconsole in a is the seconds or minutes. The com- Perhaps an equally important reason matter of difficulty encountered inimplementing an munication terminallocated at the Center where capability of operational instructional system provides researchers with the for students to progress carrying out, in a matterof hours, studies provision is made atindividual rate;.Since the Center's requiring larger amountsof data that Project would have orginallytaken weeks to Individually Prescribed Instruction provides asetting wherestudents are gather and analyze. permitted to progress atindividual rates, a Of considerable importanceduring the of the sys- number of studies havebeen undertaken initial period of development characteristics of various tem wasthe specification of the typesof that examine the formating of rate measures. information required and the examined this information. It wasonly after this The 'types of rate measures include days per unit,units per year, skills verytime-consuming activity was com- per year,achievement per day,work pages pleted that efforts couldbe directed to individual required com- per liay,and skills per day. As developing and testing the each of the measures pre- puter programs necessaryfor making the rate measures, sents somelimitations in terms of compre- systemoperational. To date, a fewclass- have been are now run- hensivenes. These menasures room management programs studied in terms oftheir meaningfulness, ning, and the retrievaland analysis pro- selective stu- for the research andevaluation utility, and relationship to grams dent variables. Eachof these measures has aspects areoperational. of its relationship One of the goalsof the system is to been examined in terms to studentcharacteristics such asintelli- develop a procedure for usingavailable achieve- student a gence,mathematics and reading student data to develop for each attention scores,and atti- suggested prescription forconsideration ment scores, tudes towardmaterials and subject areas. by the teacher. It is throughthis constant significant- the None of the rate measureswas feedback of information concerning of these variables nor instructional operation of theschool that ly related to any werecomposite rate measuressignificant- teachers and researchers canendeavor to student variable or improve student performance. ly related to a single Rate of Learning.Another area in the groupof student variables. that has These results suggestthat rate of learn- Field Research Studies Program ing is not a generalcharacteristic of the been of continuing interest isthe study of the contention that problems associated with measuring stu- learner and support 39

the rate of learning is specific to a given In each of the 1P1 curriculum areas, learning task. Plans are now being formu- sequences of behaviorally statedobjec- lated to continue the investigation of tives have been spelled out and material student rate measures and their relation- selected to enable students to achieve ship to student factors and to aspects of mastery of each of the objectives. These the instructional system. As these rela- materials were not obtained from any tionships become known, the characteris- singlesource, but rather from alarge tics of the instructional system can be number of sources identified through an modified to maximize the progress of the intensive survey of existing materials. One individual student. criterion that influenced the selection of these materials, aside from the specific Experimental School Development behaviors that they were to teach, was the Program extent that the materials could beutilized by the student in studying independent of In dividuallyPrescribedInstruction. the teacher's assistance. Whenever com- One of the major activities of the Experi- mercially prepared materials proved to be mental School Development Program is unavailable or inappropriate, the Center's Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) staff and teachers prepared materials. (Lindvall & Bolvin, 1967; Glaser, 1968). Types of materials that have proven useful This project was initiated as a feasibility haveincludedworksheets,individual study to determine if it were possible to readers,programmedtextbooks,and develop a system of procedures that taped lessons played on cartridge-loading would produce an educational environ- tape-playback devices. In the science pro- ment which would be highly responsive to gram theutilization of taped instructions differences among chil&en. The individ- has permitted students to conduct a series ualizationthatisbeing provided for, of simple experiments on an independent during the initial years of development, basis. In reading, considerable attention involves individualized lesson plans, indi- has been given to the student engaging in vidualization of the materials and instruc- independent reading activities in which he tional techniques provided, and achieve- is responsible for selecting his own books ment of a required level of subject matter from either the library or book shelves in mastery for each student. his own room on the basis of his interest. In order to develop and implement the Such readings are then discussed with a IPI system, cooperative relations with the teacher and with fellow students. By Baldwin-Whitehall School District were following this procedure, materials are established and the Oaldeaf Elementary assembled that allow for a maximum use School was designated as a laboratory of individual study but with some utiliza- school for the development and testing of tion of small group instruction, large theIPI system. Currently the project group instruction,and individual tutoring involves students spending a portion of by the teacher. each school day engaged in IPI procedures At the beginning of the school year, inmathematics,reading,and science. each student is given a series of placement Typically, a student spends fifty minutes testsfor the purpose of assessing his in each of these areas per day and the entering behavior and determining the remaining time in subject areas taught level at which he should begin work in through more conventional methods. each content area. In this manner, both 40 inter- and intra-individual differences in where assistance is indicated. It is through level of achievement are accounted for in thisprocess of continualre-evaluation the mathematics, reading,. and science that a student progresses from one learn- curricula. The student is then assigned ing task to another at a rate commensu- work in the unit in the curriculum con- rate with his needs and abilities. tinuum for which he indicated lack of As evident from this description of IPI, mastery, but for which he has the neces- the teacher's role is somewhat different sary prerequisiteabilities. Prior to starting from that found in more traditional class- work in the unit, the student is given a rooms. The teacherspends a considerable unit pretest constructed to evaluate his amount of time in studyingthe progress mastery of the specific objectivesincluded of individual students and in developing within a particular unit. The student's individual learning experiences fitted to performance on this pretest is then exam- the needs of each student. In this role the ined and, as a result of this diagnosis, a teacher is not only a source of informa- series of learning experiences uniquely tion, but also a diagnostician and consult- suited to the individual's competencies is ant on individual learningrequirements. prescribed. The work of the IPI project to date These learning experiences consist of points to the feasibility of this typeof work pages or other instructional mate- procedure as one system for achieving the rials. A particular prescription contains individualization of instruction. Further enough materials to provide a student work remains to be done: (1) to study with work lasting from a single day to a how learning proceeds in such an educa- week, depending on the student's ability, tional environment, and (2) to redesign the type of units being studied, and the the system so that it becomes increasingly number of experiences prescribed. The effective in both (a) adapting instruction student "fills" his prescription by first to learner requirementsand (b) allowing obtainingmaterials from the learning the learner to attain the various goals of center and then workingindependently, elementary education. IPI holds promise receiving teacher assistance when needed, for positive change in the classrooms of or in large andsmall groups under the the nation, and it Is the intent of the direction of a teacher. Upon completion Center to more fully develop all the of a given learning experience, a student necessary componentsof the IPI model in presents his work to a para-professional to order to fulfill this promise. grade and record. As the student pro- Primary Education Project. The Pri- gresses througheach set of experiences, mary Education Project(PEP) is a new his achievement is evaluated in terms of experimental school Foroject of the Center. his performance on the lesson material PEP has as its aim the developmentof an completed and a series of curriculum- individualized curriculum and a school embedded tests. organization that will serve children in a When a student completes the work for continuous program beginning atage a given unit,which consists of a series of three and running through the primary sequential prescriptions, a unit posttest is grades. Particular emphasis in this worlc assigned. If a student demonstrates mas- will be on the needs of urban culturally tery of the unit on the posttest, he is deprived children. Basic to the project is assigned a new unit of work; if not, a new the assumption that the full potentialof prescription is written for those objectives an early start informal education can only be realized when the entire school The project staff is now engaged in environment, at least through the primary component analysiswork in a number of grades, can be made more responsive to areasconsidered important in the pre- the children's needs. PEP is a jointeffort schoolandkindergartencurriculum. of the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh These include: earlyquantification skills, Public Schools, and the General Learning classification, plan following, motorskills, Corporation. The Center is responsiblefor and certain language skills. Onthe basis of the research and development activities these analyses, hierarchicallysequenced leading to the design of curriculum, class- sets ofcriterion-referenced tests will be the cen- room managementprocedures, and ulti- constructed. These tests will be mately for the consiuct of the general tral vehicle for monitoringstudents' pro- evaluation of the project's effectiveness. gress. Thecurriculum will be defined for a The project is now operating on apilot teacher by giving her thesequenced set of basis in a Pittsburgh elementary school tests and instructingher to teach her chosen for its unusually heterogeneous children to pass all the tests. This strategy urban population. Children currently in- places a great deal of the burden onthe volved inthis project are in the pre- classroom teacher while obtainingsub- primary headstart classes and thekinder- stantial school control over thecurric- gartens and in onefirst grade class. During ulum through these tests. The PEPstaff the 1968-69 school year, the project will believes that the combination ofcontrol continue to serve preschool andkinder- of curriculum objectives through tests garten childrenplus the first grade class. with freedom of instructional tactics may In each subsequent year, oneadditional be an effective means ofcapitalizing on teachers' strength and alsoof preventing grade will be added, at least through the by a too third grade. them from feeling overwhelmed PEP's major attention in its first two complex system enforced fromwithout. that a system years willbe twofold:(a)curriculum In addition, it is expected design and implementation for preschool defined by tests of masteryperformance lessons, will be andkindergarten,and (b)studiesin rather than by specific shaping motivation and attention inlearn- much easier to revise andmodify as more ing. One of PEP's major contributionswill knowledge about ch.. Inn's learning pat- be a rigorous methodology for curriculum terns isaccumulated. work is based design thatisapplicable not only to The basic thrust of PEP's preschool, but to curriculum projects at a on thehypothesis that intelligence is,by variety of levels and in anumber of and large, learned by andresponsive to subject areas (Resnick, 1967). The pro- experience. To adequately testthis hy- ced.ure begins with the analysis of behav- pothesis, a sustained attempt isrequired iorallystated curriculum objectives in to increasethe rate at which children such a way as to identify a hierarchy of acquire, one after another,the key com- prerequisites or component behaviors for ponents ofintelligence. For such a test it the objectives. That is, skills or concepts is important that thehierarchies guiding which a child would need to have before instruction are validand reflect the nat- he could successfully be taught the new ural order in which skillsand concepts are objective. Each analysis specifies one or acquired. Component analysesof the kind objec- described above take accountof existing several sequences of instructional and cogni- tives. research on children's learning 42 tive performance. The componenthier- task well and socialapproval. Given this fact alone, it is not surprising tofind so archies and resulting teaching sequences Techniques must thereforebe empirically validated manyfailing in school work. before they can be regarded asauthorita- for systematically andefficiently dealing the use of curric- withdeficits of this kind havebeen tive. Concurrently, with number of ulum based on componentanalyses in the developed and applied in a school, the project staff willundertake classroomsettings,particularly among formal validations of thehierarchies de- retarded and slowlearners. These tech- scribed in the analyses. Two strategieswill niques involve the useof social and other of extensive reinforcers in a mannerthat is system- be used. In one, a program child's perform- testing on individual componentswill be atically contingent on the relation- ance ofdesired behaviors. In the nursey followed by examination of the certain social be- ships holding between testitems for indi- school, however, while form of haviors have beenstudied and modified, vidualchildrenanon-linear paid to the scaleogram analysis. A second strategy verylittle attention has been shaping of suchbehaviors as concentra- involves teaching individualchildren each attention in pre- component thatthey lack according to tion and task-oriented Such instruction school children. the analyzed hierarchy. experimenting with should lead to theestablishment of the PEP is currently relatively little threedifferent forms ofapplied rein- terminal behavior with preschool classrooms difficulty and would constitute anexperi- forcers. In one of its attention toconceptual tasks earns time mental validation of thehierarchy. favored activities, such as water PEP's concern with shapingmotivation at more and blocks. In thefirst grade "Reading and attention is based uponthe observa- tickets tion that one of the moststriking charac- Readiness Class" children earn their distract- during their workperiod which can be teristics of young children is the "rental" of playequipment ability. Some older children,particularly spent for during recess. In a thirdclassroom, social the disadvantaged, theretarded, and the being used charac- reinforcement or attention is emotionally disturbed possess this three-year teristic. These childrenoften do not fol- in an attempt to encourage a old child to initiate moresocial contact low directions, and ingeneral show a low PEP plans to level of impulse control. Inshort, they with adults and peers. them- continue studiesof these and otherforms seem tohave problems in orienting in the classroom selves in learning. Disadvantagedchildren of behavior modification still another addressingitselfinparticular to the typically enter school with direction following, difficulty because of thecharacteristic of shaping of attention, adults at home. They and self-planningskills. PEP will also the interaction with the problemsin- are notused to working with recognition study systematically disapproval and with volved in graduallyreducing extrinsic rein- such as approval and desirable the pleasure of completing atask success- forces whilestill maintaining because there has levels of motivationand attention. This fully. This is probably only peripheral been such little occasionfor success, and question has been given home. These chil- attention in the appliedbehavior modifi- recognition of such at date, and represents a dren, in other words, are notmotivated to cation literature to major need beforereinforcement princi- work for the two majorkinds of rewards applied in a wide that the school offers:pleasure in doing a ples can be fruitfully ,07

basic and developmentalactivities so that variety of settings. abody of technology canbe made available for the designof educational prac- Conclusion tices.(2) The importanceof adapting educational environments tothe require- As one looksback on four yearsof Research and ments and requestsof the individual operation of the Learning significance of evaluation, Development Center, thework of the learner. (3) The not onlyfor the assessmentof student Center faculty appears toemphasize what education, themes of investiga- progress inthe course of his they consider to be but also for themonitoring ofeducational tion which areof special significance to relevant in edu- procedures andmaterials in order to research and development redesign and improvethem, and to put cation. These themes arethe following: contributions to the edu- of contact with their respective (1)The importance cationalprocessintotheproper scientists,engineers andsubject matter scholars and the mutualinterplay between perspective.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

education: Someimplications. ExceptionalChildren, Blackhurst, A. Edward.Technology in special 1965, 31, 449-456. Socioeconomic status andstudents' educationaldesires. 4 Brodie, Donald Q., &Suchman, Edward A. Research and DevelopmentCenter, Universityof Pittsburgh, 1967. Working Paper 14. Learning in discriminationlearning: Glaser, Robert, &Holland, James G. Extinction Cohen, Miriam, effects. Journal of theExperimental Presentation andcontingency variablesand associated side Analysis of Behavior,1968. (in press) development of a sequentiallyscaled achievement test. Cox, Richard C., &Graham, Glen T. The Measurement, 1966, 3,147-150. Journal of Educational for norm-referencedand Vargas, Julie S. Acomparison of itemselection techniques Cox, Richard C., & Council on Measurementin Education, criterion-referenced tests. Paperread at the National Chicago, February, 1966. individual performance.Proceedings of Adapting the elementaryschool curriculum to Glaser, Robert. problems. Princeton, N. J.:Educational Testing Service, the 1967 invitationalconference on testing 1968. Pp. 3-36. Timetelling. ExperimentalEdition. New York: Glaser, Robert,Kaelin, Nanci, &Samuels, Merryl. 44

Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968. Glaser, Robert, & Ramage, William W. The student-machine interface in instruction. 1967 IEEE Convention Record, Part 10. New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 1967. Pp. 52-59. Judd, Wilson A. The effects of task characgeristics on response latency and latency trends during learning and overlearning. Technical Report 7.Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, 1968. Kjeldergaard, Paul M. Transfer and mediation in verbal learning. In T. R. Dixon and D. L. Horton (Eds.), Verbal behavior and general behavior theory. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968. Pp. 67-96. Kjeldergaard, Paul M., Frankenstein, Roselyn, & Kjeldergaard, Maxine. Beginning reading. Experi- mental Edition. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967. Klahr, Isadore. An iterative decision algorithm for computer-based instruction systems.Unpublished masters thesis. University of Pittsburgh, 1967. Lin& all, C. M. The task of evaluation in curriculum development projects: A case study.The School Review, 1966, 74, 159-167. Lindvall, C. M., & Bolvin, John 0. Programmed instruction in the schools: IndividuallyPrescribed Instruction. Sixty-sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Studyof Education, Part II. Chicago: NSSE, 1967. Pp. 217-254. Moore, Omar K., & Anderson, Alan R. The responsive environments project. In R. Hessand R. M. Bear (Eds.), The challenge of early education. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1968. Pp. 171-189. Nemitz, Bertram. SKOOLBOL: A simplified user's language for programmingthe PDP-7. Unpublished working manual. Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, 1968. Ragsdale, Ronald G. The Learning Research and Development Center's computer assistedlaboratory. DECUS Proceedings, 1966, 5, 65-68. Resnick, Lauren B. Design of an early learning curriculum. Working Paper 16. Learning Researchand Development Center, University of Pittsburgh, 1967. Resnick, Lauren B. Relations between perceptual and syntactic control in oral reading. Paperpresented at the American Educational Research Association,Chicago, February 8, 1968. Schroeder, Stephen R., & Holland, James G. Operant control of eye movements.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1968, in press. (a) Schroeder, Stephen R., & Holland, James G. Operant control of eye movementsduring human vigilance. Science, 1968, in press. (b) Wang, Margaret. An investigation of selected procedures for measuringand predicting rate of learning in classrooms operating under a program of individualized instruction.Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Pittsburgh, 1968. Yeager, John L., & Lindvall, C. M. An exploratory investigationof selected measures of rate of learning. Journal of.Experimental Education, 1967, 36, 78-81. Yeager, John L., & Lindvall, C. M. Evaluating an instructional innovationthrough the observation of pupil activities. The High School Journal, 1968, 51, 248-253. WISCONSIN RESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT CENTER FOR COGNITIVE LEARNING

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Ronald R. Allen, Associate Professorof Speech and of Curriculum and Instruction Vernon L. Allen, AssociateProfessor of Psychology Frank B. Baker, Professor ofEducational Psychology Nathan S. Blount, Associate Professorof English and of Curriculum and Instruction Robert C. Calfee, Associate Professorof Psychology Gary A. Davis, AssociateProfessor of Educational Psychology Frank H. Farley, Assistant Professorof Educational Psychology Harold J. Fletcher, Associate Professorof Psychology John Guy Fowlkes, Professor ofEducational Administration, Director ofthe Wisconsin Improvement Program (Advisor) Max R. Goodson, Professor ofEducational Policy Studies Warren O. Hagstrom, AssociateProfessor of Sociology John G. Harvey, Associate Professorof Mathematics and of Curriculum andInstruction Herbert J. Klausmeier, Director of the Centerand Professor of Educational Psychology Karl R. Koenke, Assistant Professorof Curriculum and Instruction Burton W. Kreitlow, Professorof Educational Policy Studies andof Agricultural and Extension Education Richard G. Morrow, Assistant Professorof Educational Administration George T. O'Hearn, AssistantProfessor of Curriculum and Instruction(Science) Wayne Otto, Associate Professorof Curriculum and Instruction. Milton O. Pella, Professor of Curriculumand Instruction (Science) Robert C. Pooley, Professor ofEnglish and Instruction Thomas A. Romberg, Assistant Professorof Mathematics and of Curriculum Henry Van Engen, Professorof Mathematics Richard L. Venezky, Assistant Professorof English and of Computer Sciences 46

FOURTH YEAR REPORT

WISCONSIN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTCENTER FOR COGNITIVE LEARNING

Herbert J. Klausmeier University of Wisconsin

The agreement between the University curriculum workers in the subject fields. of Wisconsin and the United States Office A third proposition in that the acquisi- of Education (USOE) establishing the tion of cognitive skills enables man not WisconsinResearchand Development only to acquire knowledge but also to Center for Cognitive Learning was signed generate newknowledge. When the child on August 6, 1964.The problem area of has learned the cognitive skills ofreading, the Center is the improvement of educa- he can acquire knowledge in theabsence tion through a better understanding of of other persons. When he has mastered cognitive learning. The importance of this mathematical concepts and computational problem area may be inferred from six skills, he can find solutions to problems propositions regarding learning and the not encountered inthe same form by any improvement of instruction. other person. The first proposition is that concepts A fourth proposition is thatefficient' provide much of the basic material for learning of concepts and cognitiveabilities . thinking. Concepts once learned then is related to conditions withinthe learner servedas symbolicmediators between and conditions within the situation.The sensory input and overtbehaviors. former is related to attention and levelof A second proposition is that concepts cognitive functioning and thelater to and cognitive skills comprise the major content and sequenceof instruction, outcomes of learning in varioussubject quality of equipment and materials, and fields. The identification of concepts and methods of instruction. their arrangement in a hierarchical order A fifth proposition is thatknowledge and the identification of cognitive skills generated by scholars about cognitive areprincipal concerns of scholars and learning, concepts, cognitive skills, and laboratory-type experiments orresearch requiresvalidation conditions of learning within the schoolsetting. in school settings. To synthesizeexisting knowledgeand The final propositionis that tested models, or theories procedures requirewide- develop taxonomies, materials and of cognitivelearning. spread use inschool settings inorder for educational materials sug- and development to To develop educational research gested by the prioractivities. improve educationalpractice. These six propositionslead directly to and Programsof of the Center intofive Program 2--Processes the organization Instruction programs--three researchand development programs, adissemination program,and a which and Five variables inschool settings support program.The three research usually controlled ormanipulated development programs areConditions and are not in the learninglaboratory includesubject- Processes of Learning,Processes and Pro- and sequence,instruc- and FacilitativeEn- matter content gramsof Instruction tional materialsand media,characteristics vironments. of students andof the instructional group, behaviors of teachers, Development Objectives characteristics and Research and and organizationfor instruction.These and other componentsof an instructional Each researchand development pro- measurement characterized by asharp focus system,including objectives, gram is tools and evaluationprocedures, time,and that assures itsidentity and by arelated- into a total methodology that space,require integration nessof content and functioning system.Thus, research on facilitates the freeflow of information and the develop- programs.Program instructional variables and personnel among ment ofinstructional\systems arecentral objectives are statedin general terms; objectives of objectives are stated as to this program.The specific whereas project Program 2 are: outputs tobe 'attained atspecified times. rationale and strategyfor objectives which To establish a The general program developinginstructional systemsin the collectively comprisethe objectivesof the described briefly. cognitive domain. Center, are now To identify sequencesof concepts and within and acrossdisci- 1--Conditions and Processesof cognitive skills Program plines. Learning To develop assessmentprocedures for the concepts andskills identifiedabove. To increase ourunderstanding of con- instructional ma- of cognitivelearn- To identifyexisting ditions and processes terials or develop newmaterials associated ing, basicresearch is needed.To test in cognitive skills. knowledge frombasic with the concepts and school settings the To generate newknowledge aboutthe research, relevantmodels and systems of an instructional developed. To meetthese require- various components must be systemthrough research. ments theresearch anddevelopment ac- Program 1 aredirected tivities comprising Program3--Facilitative Environments toward achievingthe followingobjectives: To generateknowledge about concept Achieving the Centerobjectivesre- learning and cognitiveskills by conducting 48

and tested. quires facilitative enviornmentsin selected tional systems are developed local school buildings, intotal school Current projects are: systems, and amongvarious agencies. Pro- designed to achieve thefollow- 201 - ElementaryMathematics gram 3 is and Composition ing objectives: 202 - English Language To develop and testorganizations that 203 - Elementary Science facilitate research anddevelopment ac- 204 - Elementary Reading tivities on cognitivelearning in schools 205 - The Teaching andLearning of and also facilitate studentlearning and Concepts in Verbal Argument in-service and pre-serviceeducation of development activities teachers. The research and the effectiveness of of Program 3 are concernedwith develop- To develop and test staff organizations the means wherebyschools select, intro- ing and testing new results of research and relationships thatfacilitate a system duce, and utilize the for chil- and deve10-ment. of individually guided education dren and related researchand develop- cognitive learning in General Strategies toAchieve the ment activities on schools, and with developingand testing Objectives the effectiveness of theschools' utiliza- Basic research is carried onin Program tion of the resultsof research and devel- schools that facilitate 1. Relev ant modelsand learning systems opment. The same student learning also serve asdemonstra- aredeveloped and tested inschool set- activities are differen- tion centers for entireschool systems and tings. Program 1 The three main tiated into projects. Thetypical project for the R & D Center. involves two professors, oneof whom projects are: assumes primaryresponsibility, one fulltime research associate orproject spe- 301 - Project MODELS cialist, and from two to sixproject or 302 - Models forEffecting Planned projects are: Educational Change research assistants. Current Study of Educational 101 - Concept Learning(Phase 1) 303 - Longitudinal Effectiveness of ReorganizedSchool 101 - SituationalVariables and Efficiency of Concept Learning (Phase 2) Districts 102 - ComputerSimulation and Memory Variables in Specific Strategies for RelatingResearch, 103 - Task and Training Im- Human Problem Solving Development,andEducational 104 - Language Conceptsand Cognitive provement Skills Related to the Acquisitionof Literacy The continuousinteraction of the staff with school 105 - Rule Learning Wisconsin R & D Center Learning people, and also the continuousexamina- 106 - Project Motivated problems by the R & 107 - Peer Group Pressures onLearning tion of educational D Center staff, havemarkedly influenced and _the development activitiesof the Center. Program 2 deals with processes much basic research programsof instruction. Basic research is At the present time conducted to extendknowledge about has been generated inconnection with instructional variables. Prototypicinstruc- development activities. *NM& Immo e=lb Program 1 olailw InD emo .1701/ amml, OIN aINE. Program 2 Prosiness and Conditions of Learning awl* Promotes and Programs of Instruction 4111 MM. 0E1Mb gen- Basic research to gen- Basicerate research to knowledge and fmNio ow* MM. MIN an Development of procedural theoryerate about instruc- knowledge and theory about leprning: , 1 MM. Min. a a a A4 , jectuseand insubstantive schools, related outputs to for fields and instructional sub- tional processes: Re- booksReports, monographs, 11.011.01 134-1 andspecificuseDevelopment substantive in schools subject notfieldsoutputs related for of procedural to I procedures ports.books monographs, - 4111111. man 4EN=1 I 41MOM 41MI A31 A2 01 7t 1 IF E I c)3 102 1 in facilitative school environmentsApplied, to or development-based, research with studentstest and refine products I 31 I Improvement in educational practice the Wisconsin Resserch and Figure 1. Relationships Among Development Center for CognitiveResswch and Development Activities at Learning Analyzing the si- Securing informs- Global Strategy for Processing informationdiscriminating -=> cognizing Attaining Concepts1 inducing and/or -->hy- andtuation--the its canponents whole UII for the attributes tofineandtion--searching be rules theattained concept that de- deducingpothesizing attributes, > remembering rules, and >eventually evaluating > the concept Cognizingofpopulationfinitional the concept the de-basisin Selectingfiningtofrom identify a attributestotal instances the array de EvaluatingdefiningrelationsInferring properties relationsamongthe concept properties andamong byrules inductivelyattributes and (14), rules or (15); by arrivingcognizing(14) at logical the common values and rules in meanings,termstributes,ible ofdefining percept- opera- semantic at- Respondingandsimultaneouslystances rules presentedto in -or HypothesizingRememberingterms of an hypothesisattributes, relevant (15)attributes rules, and (4), hypotheses (5), (6) (7), (S), (9), (10) Cognizingortions,tura use ofrelations,(1), thethe (2), conceptstruc- (3) consecutivelyandfiningidentify rules attributes the to de- mationCognizingCognizing(3), presented (13), a thatrelevant (14) in two positive orattribute three and instances ornegative rule do or by comparing the infor- instances (1), (2),do not belong to butes,population--in-butes,Joiningstances, rules and attri- attri- theirfor Respondingcsitionssimultaneously presentedtoonsecutively propo or. to Discriminatingtheistics same oftheset (13), stimulumthe (14)relevant situation from the (13) irrelevant character- relations(2), (3) (1), , (11) , rule.,finingidentify attributes,or the concepts de- Cognizingsponding commonwith the properties appropriate of atsingle least label two instances and re- Cognizingrequirements(12),(2), (13)(3) the task(1), AcquiringDiscriminatingstimulus labelssituation among and manyassociating stimuli properand responding appropriatelylabels with each AcquiringAssociatingAasociating or sequentialresponsesmanifesting withS-R non-labeling associationsstimuli along responses physical dbsensions Figure 2. Hisrarthical Anommmont of Cognitive Fromm in Commpt Looming Sensing external and internal stimulus situations The actual sequencing of activities de- materials intended for the educational and rives from continuous interplay ofre- re searchcommunityscholarlybooks, searching and developing. This interplay is technical reports, theoretical papers, prac- shown in Figure 1. There is nota clear-cut tical papers, working papers, and technical terminal point at which research results memos; Center publications and other arestatedandproductdevelopment materials intended for use by students; begins, nor are there separategroups of demonstration and dissemination of pro- personnel, one doing research and another cedural and substantive outputs in select- developing. Rather, the research and de- ed schools; conferences and workshops velopment strategy involves cooperative designed to disseminate procedural and effort by specialists in learning, in the substantive outputs; working relationships subject disciplines, in methodology, and with various development and dissemina- also by teachers or other schoolper- tion agencies; graduate students and other sonnel. Center staff who acquire greater com- The 111--B2>3 and the CLC2-->3 petence in R & D activities. sequences are most typical of present research and development activities at the Outputs and Results from Program 1, Wisconsin R & D Center. The A1 A2>3 Processes and Conditions of Learning sequence also provides for the development of procedural and substantive out- With basic research on learning, one puts, such as instructional materials and strategy is to identify a problem area, equipment for use by students ordescrip- conduct a series of studies and report tions of procedures to be used by teachers them separately and then synthesize and and other educational workers. In turn, report them in the form of a comprehen- these outputs are researched, and refined sive theoretical paper or book. Four pro- with school-age children in school set- jects follow this strategy. tings. Lines D1 and E1 indicate that some In project 101 on concept learning, 19 basic research results may lead directly to experiments were completed to identify applied research in school settings without the cognitive processes involved in learn- the intermediate step of developinga ing concepts. From these a model of product to be used by childrenor teach- strategies and processes was outlined, the ers. Also lines D2 and E2 show that some basic elements of which are shown in research results may be put directly touse Figure 2, A global strategy was identified in educational improvement. and defined as a cognitive control, or A community of scholars representing plan, for executing three process configu- various specialties, some within the Center rationsanalyzing the situation, securing on a more permanent basis and others relevant information, and processing the from outside the Centeron a consulting information. Most subjects demonstrate basis,is an essential component of an these behaviors in experimental situations effective research and development strat- but not in a perfect straight-line sequence. egy in education. There is re-analysis or further information securin& when the concept is not attained Main Outputs Through August, 1968 on the first trial. Identification of the more specific pro- Outputs of the Center take these tan- cesses involved in the three larger configu- gible forms: Center publications and other rations was the main concern of the 19 52

direct relationshipbetween a specific dis- experiments. the corresponding Information processing iscomplex and crimination error and error.(2)Discrimination may beviewed in many ways.Beneath the articulation errors are morepredictable on the basisof broken line of Figure 2 arenoted the of beginning with sen- acoustical similaritythan on the basis elementary operations load of the soundsinvolv- sory experiences atbirth and extending the functional child's properly ed. (Functionalload means the frequency hierarchically through the sound occurs inEnglish, giving the same label to twoinstances that with which the and the extent towhich a sound iscritical cliffer in some respectsand responding to similar words.) them with the samelabel. By definition, todiscrimination between properly labeling (3) At alleducational levels many stu- the child's behavior in dents fail to utilizethe most predictable the two instances as"ball," for example, (4) Use Experi- spelling-to-sound correspondence. manifestsconceptformation. patternsishighly ments were not runin this series toclarify of spelling-to-sound related to readingachievement and aca- these elementary processes.The concern through the college the increasingly complex pro- demic performance was with (5) Evenkindergarten starting withdiscriminating the sophomore level. cesses, children can useparallel syntactic struc- characteristics of relativelyhomogeneous of English stimuli and endingwith inferring the turestofacilitate memory inductively, or attaining itby sentences. concept A third project(107) not leadingdi- cognizing logicalrelations among prd- for school use has as Experiments are now rectly to an output perties and rules. the identificationof peer being planned to ascertainthe relevance its objectives grouppressures ontheutilization of of the model tochildren of elementary also the through read,- conceptsalready learned and school age forming concepts identification of howgroup pressures ing and related study. affect the learningof concepts initially. Asecondproject(104)strongly research is con- The overall strategyof this project is to oriented toward basic variables as olependence, cerned with theidentification of concepts investigate such independence, ordinalposition, and social and skills that precedebeginning reading. and is to isolate the organ- support andthen to relate cognition A related concern behavior within the contextof response ismic, situational,and content variables failure to acquire under group pressures. that are associated with The results of theresearch on peer theessentialpre-reading concepts and incorporated in four gained regarding group pressures are skills. As knowledge is synthesis of theseand these matters,experimental techniques technical reports. A other reports doneunder other auspicesis and related tests forfacilitating the ac- conclusions thus far will be developed. planned. The main quisition of the skills the psychological Substantive results from thisproject are relate to understanding and bases for theeffectiveness of social sup- incorporated in four technical reports reducing theoretical papers. Thefive main port (presenceof a partner) in two comformity to the group.Merely breaking conclusions from the researchand devel- shown to be not asuf- opment activitiesthus far are as follows: consensus was ficient theoreticalexplanation. Moreover, (1) Articulation errorsin normal kinder- effective, result primarily from the socialsupportwasequally garten children whether public orprivate, whetherthe slow motor development.There is rarely a 1-

and transmissionof knowledge. The cur- groupremained the same or not,and of per- preceded the rent computermodel is capable whether the social supporter forming the various conceptattainment person or not.Social support was some- by Bruner and canalso when occuring first, strategies derived what more effective using variousmixtures of before the group, thanlater. When the attain concepts conceptattainment strategies.The next social supporter waspresumably unable, of this simulation however, to base his responseon an level of development of reality, then programwill involve alinguistic approach independent assessment handling the higherlevel cognitive the person was not asindependent. Hav- to independently assess the processeswithin the computer program. ing someone else Three projectsillustrate a second strat- environment seems tobe more important involving less experi- independence than socialand egyof Program 1 in inducing mentation and moredirect approach to emotional factorssuch as beingalone In Project 103 facing the group. Inthis connection, a instructional improvement. on creativeproblem solving,experiments surprising result wasthat in an experiment and incorrect in his werefirst run onproblem solving when the partner was then on thoseelements generallydes- responses50 per centof the time, the creativity. After a independence from ignated by the term, second person showed synthesis of laboratoryresearch and an the group whenthe partner was infact model was clearly per- extensive literature survey,a incorrect. The partner was for teaching crea- negatively by thesecond developed and reported ceived very solving. Programedmaterial person. So, a personwill be independent tive problem wasthen prepared;and now, in thethird from the group whenhe has an "unlike- being tested with "unintelligent" personwho yearof the project, it is able" and junior highschool students.Further ex- agreeswith him in opposingthe group. laboratory and (102) with a strong perimentationinthe .A fourth project analysis of the fieldtesting data arebeing research orientation iscomputersimula- of the is done to ascertainthe effectiveness tion of conceptleatning. The objective and also therelevance of the to develop acomputermodel for the program processinthe model. c onceptattainment The results ofthese research anddevel- Bruner-type conceptattainment model. in one book the problem was to opmentactivities are given The basic approach to for junior highschool students,Thinking translatesubject protocolsinto IPL-V technical report, and two On the basisof such Creatively, one computer programs. theoretical papers. Athree-part model for protocols, a seriesof computer programs suggestshow stimulate the con- conceptualizing "creativity" weredeveloped which creative thinking maybe taught. Crea- cept attainment process.The most recent be conceptualized as embodies both an opera- tivity profitably can of these models of(1)appropriate higher level cognitive consistingmainly tional aspect and creative attitudes,the most criticalof process.The latter attempts toperform attitude toward high- and which is a favorable the functionsof goal directedness problem solutions,(2) behavior modification as afunction of the lyimaginative various cognitiveabilities which facilitate current stateof the learning process.The of the whatever mentalabstracting, combining, former embodies those aspects perceiving, associating,filling in gaps, etc., conceptattainmentprocessconcerned contribute to thefluent productionof with doing, such ascomparing, selecting, 54

general, good progress techniques for the for one year. In original ideas, and (3) skills, as predictedfrom conscious and systematicproduction of wasmade in these principles. A consider- newcombinations of ideas.Thinking S-R conditioning Creatively: A Guide toTraining Imagina- able gain from 101 to113 in Stanford- tion incorporates manyconcepts and prin- during a seven-month It Binet IQ occurred ciplesfrom thisthree-part model. period. The practiceeffects, if any,of attempts toincrease students' awareness of the test during of novel ideas, to teach four administrations and appreciation sevenmonths, cannotbe determined. techniques for producing newidea com- made a mean gainin binations, to provideexercise for some Also, the children percentilescoreonthe Metropolitan creative abilities,and, through humor, to the free atmosphereencouraging Readiness Testfrom 2 to 24 during createa experimental spontaneity and imagination. sameperiod. The theory, A second project(106) taking adirect methodology, and trainingprocedures em- approach to instructionalimprovement is ployed in thesestudies have been con- concerned withextending the basic prin- tinued at the Universityof Hawaii by the ciples of classical and operantcondition- principalinvestigatorsince September, al ing to the studyof significant functio 1966. human behaviors, such asthose involved The third project(105) along the same learn- in reading, andalso with cognitive lines was undertaken as partof the project children where thebeginning ing in young studying conditionsof cognitive learning stages ofthe learning may beinvestigated. Here a set ofgeneraliza- The results ofthis project are incor- in school settings. tions wasoutlined concerningmotivation porated in threetechnical reports, one The theoretical paper, and oneworking paper. and relatedinstructional procedures. wereincor- The theoryis incorporated inseveral instructionalprocedures books, the frstof which appeared in porated as treatmentvariables in six ex- 1964 and thelast in 1968. Juniorhigh periments conductedin theelementary school students,severely retarded inread- school in connectionwith the acquisition ing, were taughtand also studiedduring of mathematical conceptsorof reading two years.For this purposeinitial levels skills. Theexperimental resultsand re- of the SRA readingmaterials were adopt- lated procedures arebeing tested todeter- ed, with permission,into 230 lessons. specified procedureswork administered by lay mine how well These lessons were with children ofvarying characteristicsin personnel as werealso the relevant S-R several elementaryschool environments. conditioning principles.Although the re- A motivational systemdesigned specif- sults are notcompletely analyzed, two being Severely re- icallyforschoolsettingsis conclusions are warranted. the use of indi- tarded readers improvedin reading skills formulated. At present desirable school behaviors, vidual conferences, concreteand social and related for and the principlesof conditioning de- rewards, and olderchildren as models veloped in thelaboratory are applicable to youngerchildren haveproduced excep- this complex formof human behavior. In tional gains inachievement, higherin- another studyculturally disadvantaged terest inschooling, and morefavorable pre-school children weretaught to acquire attitudes towardthe subject matter. reading, writing, andarithmetic behaviors 55

Outputs and Results from Program2, the first grade, almost 70 per centof the Processes and Programs of Instruction children scored above the medianof the national standardization sample. Based on The primary outputs from Program 2 astandardizedtest,the average third- are prototypicinstructional systems re- grade score at the beginningof the year lated to various subject fields. The system was about one yearbehind the national is prototypic in thatitis an original mean incomputing skills. At theend of model, illustrating typical propertiesof the year, the average third-grade score was the final system. This assumes that the R equal to the national mean score.These & D Center will notproduce the final students' gains in mathematical concepts system, includinginstructional material, were aboutdouble that of the sample on that is used by children and teachers. It is whom the test was standardized. a system inthe sense that all the relevant Some teachers alsolearn both mathe- components are taken into account,not matical content and methodsfrom studywith the merelytheinstructionalmaterialsor ing the material simultaneously media. One exception to this is Patterns in children. They do not have toattend Arithmetic which is being developedand evening classes, summerschool, or after- put into finalform by the R & D Center school meetings for in-serviceeducation television foruse bychildren and teachers. As before using the program. The subsequently noted, other phases of the teachersareknowledgeablemathe- mathematics project involve thedevelop- maticians as well as expertteachers. ment of prototypic systems,rather than Whilestillbeingfieldtestedin instructional materials in final form. 1967-1968, Patterns inArithmetic was Developed in Phase 1 of the Center's used state-wide in SouthCarolina and mathematics Project201, Patternsin Alabama. It was also used inschools Arithmetic is a complete set of materials served by television stations inMinne- for Grades 1-6, consisting of a consumable apolis, Minnesota; and Green Bay,Mil- student workbook and a consumable waukee, and Madison, Wisconsin.Over teacher's manual for each grade, 34 video- 100,000 student workbooks weredis- tapes of 15 minuteslength for Grade 1 tributed in 1967-1968. Patterns inArith- and 64 for each of Grades 2-6.The meticisdistributed nationally by the programs forGrades 1-5 have been de- National Center for School andCollege veloped and tested; Grade 6will be Television, Bloomington, Indiana. completed during 1968-1969. Since the Proceeding from the outline of content television portion of the program is only used in Patterns in Arithmetic, asecond one or two15-minute lessons per week phase of the mathematics projectis the for 32 weeks, the classroom teacher is a development of a prototypicinstructional kindergarten-Grade 6, that will very important partof the teaching team. system, The televisionportion introduces and move inthe direction of individually explains the key concepts being taught, guided education in elementarymathe- and the supportive material isthen used matics, rather thaninstructional televi- learning and to apply the sion. At the present time,the instruc- to reinforce of kinder- concept in many situations. tional units for the equivalent Field testing of Grades 1 and 3 pro- garten and Grade 1have been developed under- grams wasconducted in Alabama and for arithmetic. Related research is Wisconsin with over 9,000 students. In way toascertain how wellchildren of 56

the 1967-1968school acquirevarious tried out during varyingcharacteristics year infive elementaryschools of about pre-concepts,andrelated being concepts, of 500 enrollmenteach. Revisions are cognitiveskills.Nearly 4 children from schools. correctly assign the made in viewof feedback first-grade age can The R & Dstaff has identifiedexisting, numbers through 99 toobjects and sets. related to each identify the correct nu- instructional materials Also, most can objective. Eachschool has alsopartici- merals, but someleft-right reversal errors When the instruc- pated inidentifying materials. in writing aremade. Well-specified of objectives,the assessment essential for these sequence pro- tional procedures are instruments,and theplacement achievements. cedures aresufficiently refined, computer The third phaseof the mathematics of the assessmentand place- the developmentof com- management project involves ment isplanned. puter managementof individualizedmath- developmental re- Already existing ma- The resultsof the ematics instruction. search on theprototypic reading system terials have beenidentified, and teaching research on reading are developed for use in and exploratory procedures have been incorporated ineight technical reports, the individualized programin the inter- and three work- anticipated that the three theoretical papers, mediate grades. It is Three mainconclusions from procedures developed ing papers. general strategy and the research are asfollows: (1) Resultsof forcomputer managementof mathe- indicate thatthe pro- subsequently be applied to standarized tests matics will totypic systemin its first yearin multi- computer managementof reading and of functions as well orbetter subject-matters of theele- unit schools other relevant than other programs.(2) Instructional mentaryschool. procedures fordeveloping children'sabil- The researchresults of themathematics and stateliteral main incorporated in sixtechnical ity to formulate project are ideas derivedfrom readingneed to be reports and oneworking paper. roles of various types instructional developed. (3) The The Center'sprototypic of cues shouldbe considered inearly system inelementary reading,Project the reading instruction. 204,kindergarten-Grade6,isin 203, a prototypicinstruc- development. Objectives In Pro ject second year of tional system inelementary science,the arerelated to six majorcategories: word been studiedbetween comprehension, studyskills, relationship has recognition, several organismicand situationalvari- self-directed reading,interpretive reading, ables and alearner's ability toform and creativereading. Theobjectives with- correlational, andtheo- se- classificational, ineachcategoryaretentatively within severalof the thefirstyear, retical concepts quenced.During conceptual schemesdeveloped by the 1966-1967, 150 exercises weredeveloped Teachers Association: children's skill attainmentin National Science to assess force, biologicalcell, chemical andphysi- behavioral terms.Paper-and-pencil group ionization, andecological being constructed tosupple- calchange, tests are now systems.Also, the concepts(scientific, ment theindividual assessmentexercises. related to environ- will permit morerapid social, and political) The group tests mental management arepresently being and subsequentplacement of assessment identified. each child in the system. The results ofthe researchand develop- The prototypicreading system was 57

ofhigh, incorporated thateighth-gradestudents ment activitiesin science are medium, and low IQlearn the concepts in six technical reportsand four practical especially effective of the principalresults well. The program is papers. Some with high IQ students.Studies are under- obtained are asfollows: (1) Theoretical are the way toascertain why certain concepts concepts arelearned by children at readily by studentsof earliest in Grade 3,but only when com- acquired more specified characteristicsin order toiden- prehensible mechanicalmodels are used to tifythe more preciseconceptual and illustratethetheoretical concepts;(2) associated with ef- and correlational maturational factors Some classificational ficient learning. Acomplete prototypic concepts canbe learned earlier,but only systemfor junior highschool grammar, with instructionwhich enables thechild literature is in theplan- experiences withthe composition, and to havesensory ning stage, the main contentfor grammar labels, properties,and/or instances ofthe related children to having beenidentified and the concept (3)The ability of objectiveshaving been de- form scientific conceptsis more highly behavioral veloped. related to maturity asrepresented by thus far related school than to IQwithin a The results of research grade level in to thetransformational grammar arein- grade level. few scheme "the particle corporated in fivetechnical reports. A Study of the of the more importantconclusions are as natureof matter" hasbeen extended to students' performance of concepts related to follows: analysis of include a taxonomy programed materialshowed an also the developmentof a on the the scheme and average timeof 21 minutesrequired to related instructional systemfor use in and an over-all error time, a prototypic complete each lesson Grades 2-6. At this perlesson. Sex and IQ comprised of a listof concepts, rate of 7.3 per cent system showed highly consistenteffects: on every instructional procedures,instructional ma- highest, the for the purposeof test, thehigh IQ group scored terials,and tests, low group scoredlowest, and themedium teaching conceptsabout the particle na- high and the has been developed goupscored between the tureof matter, low groups. Theresults from the experi- initially and is beingtried out in Grades mentsalso indicated thatfemales tended 2-6. than males. prototypic instruc- to scorehigher on the tests In Project 202, a Feedback was asignificant factor, the isbeing developedin tionalsystem fee d backgroupscoringconsistently English language andcomposition f'orthe no-feedback group. Stu- lessons of higher than the junior highschool. Twenty-two writingexercises in transformational dents whoreceived programed instruction scored significantlyhigher (p .01)than grammarhave been developed as partof receive writing The materialshave students who did not the total program. exercises. proved moderatelysuccessful in teaching concerning theteach- school students to construct In 205, a project junior high ing and learningof concepts inverbal characteristic of maturewriters. A Semi- sentences argument,Thinking Critically: Each lesson,accompanied by aworksheet to Verbal Argu- apply the con- Programed Introduction toallow the students to has been written inprototypic form cepts and processeslearned, can be com- ment of critical minutes with a 7 to8 tofosterthe development pleted in about 20 thinking abilities inhigh school students. per cent eirorrate. Field testresults reveal nnt

A taxonomy ofcritical abilities in the has been established in sevenelementary evaluation of verbal argument,based on schools of Wisconsin, in a fewelementary the Toulmin model, and ahierarchical schools in other states, and in some parts Central to outlineof conceptsweredeveloped of three junior high schools. initially and provided the contentfor the the environment is a new organizationfor 18-chapter text. The text is writtenwith elementary schools. three modes of presentation.Traditional The organizational hierarchyof the textbook form is used in presenting new multiunit school consists of groups at linear programing provides im- three distinct levels of operation. Atthe concepts; of mediatepracticewiththeconcepts; classroom level is the unit, consisting branching programing offers reviewwhen personnel in four roles: the unitleader, or Accompanying the textare professional teacher who teachesfrom necessary. regular or seven testsof abilities critical to assessing half- to two-thirds time; the testimony and reasoning inverbal argu- staff teacher whose primaryfunctions are ment. The tests mayalso be used tor to plan, conduct, andevaluate instruction; text. the teacher aide who assumes many non- instructionwiththeprogramed of Teachers whose classes participatedin the instructional tasks formerly required refinement and validation of the tests teachers, such as grading papersand work- have subsequently used the tests asin- books, assisting children tolocate ma- structional devices. terials and so on; and theinstructional The semi-programed material hasbeen secretary who assumesother non-instruc- pretested with a limited sample ofhigh tional functions formerly assigned tothe school sophomores. A larger testing pro- teacher, namely the typing andreproduc- planned. The tests have been given tion of materials and thekeeping of gram is or to severalthousand students in order to studentrecords.Studentteachers, gather reliability data and to ascertain interns, also participate in someunits. student norms. Results of the taxonomic Each unit is charged withplanning and investigation of thisproject are incor- conflucting the total school experiencefor porated in an occasional paper.Other a roupof children, ranging from about papers in progressinclude the results of 75 :o 175 students. work on the semi-programedmaterials, At a second level oforganization, the language variablesinargument, and a rrincipal and the unit leaders constitute a improvement normativestudyonstudentcritical- e r ma ne n t instructional The principal thinking abilities. committee for the building. chairs the group, which meetsweekly. OutputsandResultsfromProgram This committee may involveconsultants 3--Facilitative Environments from the central office, the StateDepart- ment ofPublicInstruction,or other Project 301 of Program 3 isinvolved agencies. Deisions madeby the com- with developing and testing anenviron- mittee are communicatedand executed facilitate children's learning, re- by the unit leaders. ment to level is the search and development activitiesof the R At the third organizational & D Center andother agencies, and system-wide policy committee.Chaired pre-service and in-service teachereduca- by the superintendent or hisdesignee, this tion. This environment, with itsrelated committeeincludesotherelementary organization, personnel, andprocedures, principals of the district, representative for each child is teachers, consultants, and objectives as translated unit leaders and achieved through the variousactivities. other relevant centraloffice staff. It meets either of the other Printed materials andvideotapes are being less frequently than developed by the R & D Centerwhich will groups, butits operation is onekey to the be used in 1968-1969by personnel of the successof the multiunit school. of the multi- Departmentof PublicInstruction of The organizational pattern teacher-education in- unit school thusdiffers from that of the Wisconsin and four classroom stitutions in establishingmultiunit schools traditional,self-contained throughout the state and inimplementing school in three ways. First,personnel in dissemination of R the unit workhorizontally in teams or astate-wide model of teacher & D Center outputs. committees,thusutilizing of Program 3 (302) strengths and capitalizing uponspecializa- The second project is developingmodels for plannededuca- tion and interestsof all the staff. Second, first objective of this the replacement of separateclasses with tional change. The non-grading and re- project is todevelop and test system-wide large units permits local school systems lated continuous pupil progress.Third, mechanisms which role is canemploy in utilizingknowledge and roles are differentiated. One new generated l'y the added, that of the unitleader. Also, there innovations of the type redefinition of the usual Center. The otherobjective is to organize is considerable knowledge about personneland organiza- roles of principal,teacher, consultant, functions in educational teacher aide, andinstructional secretary. tional roles and agencies for improvinglearning in schools. Results of three years ofresearch and anticipated from the development associated withthe multi- Four outputs are activities of this project.One is informa- unit school areincorporated in six tech- tion andknowledge regardingthe func- nical rep9rts, oneoccasional paper, and change- elementary tion and effectsof a system-wide four working papers. Seven The second isknowledge schools operateii in themultiunit pattern agent team. about the natureof appropriate training in 1967-1968 inWisconsin. The organiza- regard to human procedures and environ- of school personnel in tion and related andproblem-solvingcompe- ment have proveneffective in producing relations in tencies. Thirdis a revisedmodel for largegainsinpupilachievement, the change and development conceptualizing and managing facilitating the research and the fourth is a setof revised activities of the R & DCenter including process, instruments for measuringselected vari- its prototypic systemsof instruction in science, and moti- ables related to change in aschool system. reading, mathematics, initiated change- vation, and in pre-serviceand in-service Three school systems agent teamslate in 1966-1967.Various teachereducation.Individually guided human relationsand education is beingexecuted well in the inputs, especially problem-solving training,analysis of data multiunit schools. Here,the school's ob- experimental and for each child by the collected from both jectives are outlined control systems, andinterpretations of unit personnel. Anappraisal system is change-agent team meet- implemented. In turn, eachchild is pro- the recordings of ings have beenprovided to each team. perly placed in one-to-oneand inde- the small-goup ac- Data are beingcollected regarding pendent study activities, penonnel -of thechange-agent teams, tivities, class-size activities,and large unit personnel, and students. activities. The whole rangeof the school other school ,

positions throughoutthe United States Theoretical statementsregarding planned and Canada. Four post- change-agent teams, and in Brazil educational change, doctoral fellowscontinued their prior and humanrelations training areincor- accepted new positionsat occasional paper. Themain positions or porated in an Indiana StateUniversity, Universityof preliminary conclusionsafter thefirst of Illinois, and Uni- change-agent teams Colorado, University yearof operation of versity of Wisconsin.The entirestaff of follow: (1) There islittle systematicde- the for the R & D Centeris involved in velopment inthe change process upgrading of itsresearch and during thispreliminary continuous school systems development capabilitiesthrough Center- The Guba-Clarkschema (re- stage; (2) supported seminars,colloquia, and work- vised) used as abackdrop to examinethe change process is notsufficient to provide shops. data upon which tobase the descriptive Projections firmconclusionsabouteducational change as it occurswithin a school sys- development under Most of theresearch and tem; (3)The change-agent teams fall into Programs1 fully committed to a activities currently study are not yet and 2. These programswill expandwith role wherein theyfunction at .a high objectives as at present. systematically diagnosing much the same effectiveness in Program 2 willprobably require alarger problems, planningaction, transforming resourcesthan Pro- action, andevaluating action share of the Center's strategy into gram 1since Program 2projects tend to results. be orientedtoward more expensivedevel- Program 3,Facilita- with Training opmental activities. Outputs Associated tive Environments,isprojected as an function after FY 69.The students administrative One hundredfive graduate projection is thatthe environmentswill be wereemployed on R & Dprojects during schools; thusfurther pursued maintained by the the first three years.The students development and testingby the Center majors in theseUniversitydepartments: More specificprojec- agricultural and exten- will not be required. adult education, tions for Program1 includethe continua- sioneducation, Chineselanguage and project throughthe and public tion of each current linguistics, communications formulation and testingof a relevant address, curriculumand instruction, con- in a schoolsetting. policy sub-theory or model servationeducation, educational The use of the computerin on-line re- studies,educationalpsychology,ele- for initiation in FY69, guidance and search is projected mentaryeducation, English, and initial research oncomputerassisted counseling,humandevelopment, projectedfor FY 70. communications, mathe- instructionis linguistics, mass Neurological . andpharmacologicalre- matics,mechanical engineering,political radio and broad- search on learningis under investigation as science, psychology, another Program 1 concern. recreational education,science casting, The projectionsfor Program 2include education, and speech.Twenty-eight stu- of each projectthrough the PHD duringthe the continuation dents were awarded the developmentand testing of arelevant first three years.The 23 PHD recipients system.The academic year ac- prototypicinstructional during the 1966-1967 major effortswill continue atthe ele- cepted R & Dteaching and administrative 61

education until childrenof fifth mentaryschool level in reading,mathe- mentary matics, and science. Aproject in social grade age achieve atleast a high as current studies will be initiated inFY 69. The sixth-graders in readingand other lan- present speechand English projects are guage arts,mathematics, science, and so- expected to terminate uponcomplete cial studies. At that time, adecision will testing of the prototypic systems.Com- be made as to what canbe done through puter managementof individually guided R & D forfurther improvement inele- FY 69. In mathematics will be initiated in mentaryeducation in comparisonwith FY 70 computer managementof the potential benefits thatmight accrue from is pro- individually guided reading system moving upward intothe junior high jected. The Centerplan is to continue its efforts toward the improvementof ele- school or middle school.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Concept Learning Technical Report No. 1 Klausmeier, H. J., Davis, J. K.,Ramsay, J. G., Fredrick, W.C., & Davies, M. H. problem solving: A bibliography,1950 1964. Concept learning and York: Academic Press, Klausmeier, H. J., & Harris, C.W. (Eds.), Analysesof concept learning. New 1966. identification as a function ofinstructions, labels, Lynch, D. 0. TechnicalReport No. 6. Concept sequence, concept type,and test item type. function of monetary incentives, Kalish, P. W. Technical ReportNo. 8. Concept attainment as a competition, and instructions. method of presentation Smuckler, N. S. TechnicalReport No. 27. Conceptformation as a function of and ratio of positive tonegative instances. identification as a functionof cognitive style, Davis, J. K. TechnicalReport No. 32. Concept procedures. complexity, and training learning, Grades six, Fredrick, W. C. Technical ReportNo. 44. Informationprocessing and concept eight and ten, as a functionof cognitive style. of material and typeof Ramsay, J. G.Technical Report No. 58. Conceptlearning as a function of type classification. and concept identification asfunctions of Miller, W. & Davis J. K.Technical Report No. 54. Retention 62

concept complexity,method presentation, stimulus exposuretime, and conditions of recall. and selected ability test Jones, D. J.Technical Report No. 51.Relationships between concept learning variables for an adult population. Lemke, E. A., Klausmeier, H. J., &Harris, C. W.Technical Report No. 11.The relationship of selected cognitive abilities to concept attainmentand information processing. complexity, method of Fredrick, W. C.Technical Report No. 3.The effects of instructions; concept presentation, and order of concepts upon a conceptattainment task. from figural and verbal instances, Ramsay, J.G. Technical Report No.4. The attainment of concepts by individuals and pairs. performance of Fang, M. C. S.Technical Report No. 10.Effect of incentive and complexity on students from two social classbackgrounds on a concept identificationtask. Technical Report No. 18. Bourne, L.E., Jr., Dodd, D.H., Guy, D. E., & Justesen,D. R. Response-contingent postfeedbackintervals in concept identification task. Bourne, L. E., Jr.Occasional Paper No.7. Concept learning andthought. toward school as a Sweet, R. C.Technical Report No. 15.Educational attainment and attitudes function of feedback in the form ofteachers' written comments. Olton, R. M., Wardrop, J. L., Covington,M. F., Goodwin, W. L.,Crutchfield, R. S., Kalusmeier, H. J., thinking skills in fifth-grade & Ronda, T.Technical Repint No. 34.The development of productive c hildren.

Computer Models of Concept Attainment Model of the concept attainment Baker, F. B.Occasional Paper No.5. The development of a computer process: Apreliminary report.

Task and Training Variables in HumanProblem Solving

Davis, G. A., Train, A. J., & Manske, M.E.Technical Report No. 26. Trial and error vs. "insightful" problem solving: Effects of distraction,additional response alternatives, andlonger response chains. and theory in human problem Davis, G. A.Occasional Paper No. 2.The current status of research solving. Davis, G. A., Manske, M. E., & Train, A.J.Occasional Paper No. 6.Training creative thinking.

Rule Learning learning of Fletcher, H. J. & Garske, J. P.Technical Report No. 50.Logical inference in discrimination young children. and Grogg, T. M.Technical Report No.55. A developmentalstudy of sign-differentiated non-sign-differentiated conditional discriminationlearning.

Project Motivated Learning "Motivated Staats, A. W., Minke, K. A.,Goodwin, W. L., & Landeen, J.Technical Report No. 22. Learning" reading treatment withadditional subjects and instructional-technicians. applied to remedial Van Mondfrans, A. P.Technical Report No. 60.Learning principles and procedures reading with normal and educablementally retarded fourth-, fifth-, andsixth-grade children. 63

the "motivated learning" cognitivetraining Staats, A.W.Technical Report No. 59. Replicationof procedures with culturally deprivedpreschoolers. language: A learning analysis of their Staats, A. W.Occasional Paper No. 1.Emotions and images in acquisition and function. 6. Manual of administration Staats, A. W., Van Mondfrans, A.P., & Minke, K. L.Working Paper No. and recording methods for the Staats"Motivated Learning" readingprocedure.

Peer Group Pressures on Learning

group pressure on memory. Allen, V. L. & Bragg, B. W.Technical Report No. 30. Effect of Allen, V. L. & Bragg, B. W.Technical Report No. 31.Effect of socialpressure on concept identification. Allen, V. L. & Levine, J.M. Technical Report No.33.Creativityand conformity. Allen, V. L. & Levine, J. M.Technical Report No. 41. Consensusand conformity.

Mathematics addition of Van Engen, H. & Steffe, L. P.Technical Report No. 5.First-grade children's concept of natural numbers. of the plane sections of Boe, B. L.Technical Report No. 13.Secondary school pupils' perception selected solid figures. children in four levels of Steffe, L. P.Technical Report No. 14.The performance of first-grade three IQ groups when solving arithmeticaddition problems. conservation of numerousness and of Steffe, L. P.Technical Report No. 21.The effects of two variables onthe problem-solving abilities first-grade children. the Harper, E. H. & Steffe, L. P.Technical Report No. 38.The effects of selected experiences on ability of kindergarten and first-gradechildren to conserve numerousness. of ratio and Steffe., L. P. & Parr, R. B.Technical Report No. 49.The development of the concepts fraction in the fourth, fifth, and sixth yearsof the elementary school.

Analysis of Mathernatiis Instruction elementary Romberg, T. A., Fletcher, H. J., & Scott, J.A.Working Paper.A measurement approach to mathematics instruction.

English Language and Composition G. Technical Report Blount, N. S., Klausmeier, H. J.,Johnson, S. L., Fredrick, W. C., and Ramsay, J. relationship of selected No. 17.The effectiveness of programedmaterials in English syntax and the variables to the learning of concepts. A comparison of the writingof Blount, N. S., Johnson, S. L., &Fredrick, W. C.Technical Report. eighth- and twelfth-grade students. The effect of a study of grammar on Blount, N. S., Fredrick, W. C., &Johnson, S. L.Technical Report. the writing of eighth-gradestudents. Studies of students of low Blount, N. S., Fredrick, W. C.,Johnson, S. L., & Dilts, B.Technical Report. mental ability in the acquisitionof grammar concepts. 64

Verbal statement, Fredrick, W. C., Blount, N. S.,& Johnson, S. L.Technical Report. Comparing symbolic notation, and figuralrepresentation of grammar concepts.

Science of static and dynamicmodels in Pella, M. 0. & Ziegler, R. E.Technical Report No. 20. The use teaching aspects of thetheoretical concept the particle natureof matter. between levels of maturityand levels of Carey, R. L. TechnicalReport No. 36. Relationship understanding of selected conceptsof the particle nature of matter. effectiveness of twomethods of instruction in Voelker, A. M. Technical ReportNo. 39. The relative of physical and chemicalchange to elementaryschool children. teaching the classification concepts relationship between concept Stauss, N. G.Technical Report No. 40. Aninvestigation into the attainment and level of maturity. advance organizer in teachingselected Triezenberg, H. J. Technical ReportNo. 42. The use of an concepts ofecological systems. of force attained and Helgeson, S. L. TechnicalReport No. 43. Therelationships between concepts grade levels. maturity as indicated by comprehension, and Carey, R. L. PracticalPaper' No. I. Lesson plansand tests of knowledge, the particle nature of matter. application for selected conceptsof the conceptual scheme evaluating the conceptsrelated to Stauss, N. G. PracticalPaper No. 2. Materialsused in teaching and the biological cell inGrades 2-6. No. 3. Testing for conceptsof ecological systems. Triezenberg, H. J. Practical Paper comprehension, and Helgeson, S. L. Practical PaperNo. 4. Lesson plansand tests of knowledge, application for instruction in conceptsof force, Grades 2-6.

Reading Wojtal, P. Working Paper No.7. Prototypic Otto, W. R., Saeman, R.,Houston, C., McMahan, B., & development in the elementaryschool. guide to reading skill children's ability to formulate Otto, W. R. & Barrett, T.C. Technical Report No.57. Two studies of and state a literal mainidea in reading. relevant picture on thecomprehension of Koenke, K. Technical Report No.56. The effects of content the main idea of a paragraph. Working Paper No. 3. Mechanicalaids in the teaching ofreading. Otto, W. R. & Houston, C. of reading material and Schotanus, H. D. TechnicalReport No. 29. Therelationship between difficulty attitude toward reading. of memory span and cue patternsin word Weissglass, R. R. Technical ReportNo. 16. The effect recognition. reading a short story for acreative purpose on Smith, R. J. Technical ReportNo. 28. The effects of student attitudes and writing. and deductive group Burmeister, L. E. TechnicalReport No. 12. Anevaluation of the inductive disabled readers in eighthand ninth approaches to teachingselected word analysis generalizations to grades. Reading and the culturally Otto, W. R., Askov, E.,& Houston, C.Theoretical Paper No. 10. from the annual institute inreading, 1966. disadvantaged: Selected papers No. 2. Materials for Otto, W. R. & Ford, D.With the assistance of EuniceNicholson. Working Paper 65

teaching adults to read. Investigations of the roleof selected cues in Otto, W. R. & Cooper, C.Technical Report No. 53. children's paired-associate learning. school achievement: Otto, W. R. OccasionalPaper No. 4. The relationshipof reactive inhibition and theory, research, and implications. transition from manuscript to Otto, W. R. & Rarick, G.L. Technical Report No.47. Effect of time of handwriting, spelling, andreading. cursive writing uponsubsequent performance in

of Concepts in Verbal Argument Verbal Concepts in Speech:The Teaching and Learning

Paper No. 9. A taxonomyof concepts and Allen, R. R., Feezel, J. D.,and Kauffeld, F. J. Occasional critical abilities related to theevaluation of verbal arguments.

Project MODELS

L., Prasch, J., & Goodson,M. R. With anintroduction by Warren G. Klausmeier, H. J., Goodwin, W. development and Findley. Occasional Paper No.3. Project MODELS:Maximizing opportunities for experimentation in learning inthe schools. Working Paper No. 1. Guidelinesfor initiating Cook, D. M., Klausmeier, H. J.,Cook, R., & Loose, C. A. an R & I Unit. Cook, D. M. Working PaperNo. 4. A Wardrop, J. L., Tagatz, G. E.,Klausmeier, H. J., Kennedy, B. J., & plan for field testing R & IUnits. Working Paper No. 5. ProjectMODELS: Klausmeier, H. J., Cook, D. M., Tagatz,G. E. & Wardrop, J. L. of pupil learning and forconducting educational A facilitative environmentfor increasing efficiency research and development. The development of afacilitative environment Smith, R. J., & Klausmeier, H.J. Working Paper No. 8. for learning and researchthrough R & I units in thesecondary school, 1966-1967. Pingel, L. Technical ReportNo. 19. Klausmeier, H. J. Cook, D. M.,Goodwin, W. L., Tagatz, G. E., & research in R & I unitsof local Individualizing instruction in language artsthrough development and schools, 1965-1966. Espeseth, C. & Grout, C.Technical Report Wardrop, J. L., Cook, D. M.,Quilling, M., Klausmeier, H. J., units of two elementaryschools of Manitowoc, No. 35. Research anddevelopment activities in R & I Wisconsin, 1966-1967. Shuman, E. TechnicalReport Cook, D. M., Wardrop, J. L.,Tagatz, G. E., Quilling, M.R., Kamla, D., & units of two elementaryschools of Janesville, No. 45. Research anddevelopment activities in R & I Wisconsin, 1966-1967. J., Baldwin, R. W., &Loose, C. A. Quilling, M. R., Cook, D. M.,Wardrop, J. L., Klausmeier, activities in R & I unitsof two elementary Technical Report No. 46.Research and development Wisconsin, 1966-1967. schools of Milwaukee, Research and development Klausmeier, H. J. & Quilling, M.R. (Eds.) TechnicalReport No. 48. 1966-1967. activities in R & I Units offour elementary schoolsof Madison, Wisconsin, & Wardrop, J. L.(Eds.) Technical ReportNo. 52. Research and Klausmeier, H. J., Quilling, M. R., 1966-1967. development activities in R & Iunits of five elementaryschools of Racine, Wisconsin, 66

Models for Planned Educational Change

Goodson, M. R. & Hammes, R. TheoreticalPaper No. 11. A team designed for school systemchanging.

Methodological Studies

Goodwin, W. L. Technical Report No. 2. Theeffects on achievement test results of varyingconditions of experimental atmosphere, notice of test, testadministration, and test scoring. Biaggio, A. M. B. Technical Report No.7. Relative predictability offreshman grade-point averages from SAT scores in Negro and white Southerncolleges. Conry, J. J. Technical Report No. 23.Validity of the rearrangement exercise as apredictor of essay writing ability. Porter, A. C. Technical Report No. 24. Achi-square approach to discrimination amongoccupations, using an interest inventory. Houston, T. R., Jr. Technical Report No.25. On the construction of Latin squaresconterbalanced for immediate sequential effects. Fletcher, H. J. Technical Memo S-68-1. Possibledifficulties in interpreting statistical analysesusing group means as theexperimental unit. Houston, T. R. Technical Memo C-68-1. N-wayanalysis of variance--ANOVAH. STIMULATION (3-12) RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTCENTER IN EDUCATIONAL

PROFESSIONALSTAFF Leonard Pikaart,Associate Professorof Math- Robert L. Aaron, AssistantProfessor of Reading Assistant Professorof ematics Education Elizabeth C. Aderhold, Director of the Centerand Early Childhood Education M. J. Rice, Deputy Jr., AssistantProfessor of Professor of SocialStudies Education James M. Alsobrook, Professorof Psychology KennethS.Ricker,Associate Jerry B. Ayers,Assistant Professorof Science Science Education Education G. Edith Robinson,Assistant Professorof Mathe- Professor of Geography John M. Ball, Associate matics Kathryn A. Blake,Professor of SpecialEducation Shelton L. Root, Jr.,Professor of Language Carl M. Blue, Professorof Special Education Professor of Physical Education Robert T. Bowen, Jr., Richard Rystrom, AssociateProfessor of Reading E ducation Professor of SocialStudies Eugene Boyce,Professor of EducationalAdmin- Robert N. Saveland, Education istration Associate Professorof Albert B. Callaway,Professor of Reading Andrew L.Shotick, David A. Corsini, AssistantProfessor of Psycho- Special Education logy John W. Shrum,Professor of ScienceEducation Curric- Sue W. Cromartie,Associate Professor of E. M. Simons,Associate Professorof Music ulum and Teaching Assistant Professorof Child Education of Therry N. Deal, HazelD.Simpson,AssociateProfessor Development of Music Reading James E. Dooley,Associate Professor of Education Assistant Professorof Educa- B. G. Smith, Instructor Sarah A. Duncan, Doyne M. Smith,Professor of Educational tional Administration Co-Director of theCenter Administration Warren G. Findley, Charles D. Smock,Professor of Psychology and Professor ofEducational Psychology Visiting Professor Research Professor of PhysicalEduca- Ralph B. Spence, B. W. Gabrielson, & DevelopmentCenter tion Assistant Professorof Mathe- of Physical Education Leslie P. Steffe, P. E. Gober, Instructor of matics Education Thomas M. Goolsby, Jr.,Associate Professor Assistant Professorof Psycho- Educational Psychology G. Sidney Strain, Assistant Professor ofSocial logy Michael L. Hawkins, Rachel S. Sutton,Professor of ElementaryEd- Studies Education Professor of Mathematics ucation Joseph R. Hooten, Jr., Murray H. Tillman,Assistant Professorof Educa- Education tional Psychology E. D. Jacobs, AssistantProfessor of Reading Professor of LanguageEducation Associate Professorof Educa- Mary J. Tingle, Oscar T. Jarvis, E.PaulTorrance, Professorof Educational tional Administration Assistant Professor ofCur- Psychology Bettye L. Jennings, Irving P. Unilcel,Assistant Professorof Psycho- riculum and Teaching Professor of Social StudiesEduca- logy Everett Keach, L. RamonVeal, AssociateProfessor of Language tion Education Paul E. Kelly, Professorof Educational Sociology Associate Professorof Phys- Associate Professorof Educa- Marilyn F. Vincent, James B. Kenny, ical Education tion Administration Frank Wachowiak,Professor of Art Robert B. Kent, AssistantProfessor of Art Associate Professorof Ed- Kingston, Professorof Educational Wendell W. Weaver, Albert J. ucational Psychology Psychology Assistant Professorof Professor of PhysicalEduca- Charlotte L. Williams, Clifford G. Lewis, Special Education tion Center; Dean, of Mathe- J. A. Williams,Co-Director of the M. L. MaHaffey,Assistant Professor College of Education;Professor of Educa- matics Education tional Administration George E. Mason,Associate Professor ofReading Professor of Educational Associate Professorof Math- Paul Wood, Assistant William D. McKillip, Psychology ematics Education of William R. Zeitler,Assistant Professorof Science E dit haB. M ills,AssistantProfessor Curriculum and Teaching Education 68

RESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT CENTERFOR EDUCATIONAL STIMULATION(3-12)

Warren G. Findley University of Georgia

Development Center Rationale for the Center The Research and in EducationalStimulation at the Univer- this alternative. By American education ischallenged by sity of Georgia accepts world of increasingly the same token, we reject amaturational the demands of a readiness for learning rapid change. To date,the response has view that waits for organized educa- of various sorts todevelop on schedule. been largely to extend Intellect develops in response tostimula- tion farther intothe life cycle for more in an effort to tion, so we plan tointervene to this end. and more individuals by the recent writings increase by conventionalinstruction the We are encouraged in of men like Bloom,Hunt, Hebb and reservoirof cognitivecompetence related earlier and con- American society.This approach has its Bruner and the revolts serve to tinuing work of Piaget onhow the infant limits and current campus world. An earlier startis in. underline them: simpleprolongation of masters his order. Bloom's findingsthat 50% of adult the adolescent-student statusis insuffi- defined by age 4 against the need and intellectual capability is cient and comes up stirred us as well as desire to assume an adultrole. One clear and 80% by age 8 have earlier and others. Of course, thelearning based on alternative is to start education development is achieved intensify its impact bycumulative effects this intellectual over alonger period, as he points out,but achieved through increasedunderstanding developeffective cogni- early stimulationof cognitive of the amounts by which schooling as be increased and the ment iscrucial. We take early tive competence can departure for thisdevelop- proceduresthroughwhich maximum the point of can ment. increases in such effective competence cumulative follow-upof be developed. An intensive 69 whatever can be or is achieved early, The preceding ideas were synthesized through improvement of schooling in the and stated as an hypothesis thus: lower grades, is equally in order. Here the The basic hypothesis that unifies findings appear to be that continuously the whole program of activities of this adapted instruction can increase the early Research and Development Center is gains,while unimaginative reliance on that early and continuous intellectual present procedures in the schools rapidly stimulation of children, ages 3 through clissipates the advantages of an early start. 12, through structured sequential learn- Lengthening the school year and school ing activities will result in higher levels day in some measure should help if used of ultimate achievement than would imaginatively. In any event, there remains otherwise be attained. the opportunity to do better whatever we To give further specificity to the aim of do for all children, whether they start "higher levels of achievement", a two year schooling atanearlyageoratthe increment was postulated. Thus, we pro- conventional age of six.In the end, posed as a goal by which to succeed or fail adolescents will stand better prepared to in our longitudinal efforts that children assume adult roles earlier with greater who had started at age 3 and had been competence. Hopefully, they will take full stimulated in continuous fashion by pro- advantage of opportunities for advanced grams and materialstailored to fit their education. Certainly, advanced specializa- gains by prior stimulation, would by age tion can come earlier for the many who 12 exceed expectations on appropriate will need it. But they will also be better standardized achievement tests by two prepared if they drop out at any stage, yearsor two grades.Of course,this whether or not they return for further presumes the concurrentdevelopment by organized educationlater. The educa- others, or by us, of measures needed to tional dollar will have gone farther in any appraise important outcomes not cur- of these eventualities. rently represented in achievement tests. Avowed GoalsIn the original proposal Intermediate goals were set as follows: for this Research and Development Center 1.By age6,after three years of inEducationalStimulation,submitted preprimary educational stimulation, December 1, 1964, three major objectives chifdren will exceed expectations of its work were stated, as follows: onappropriatestandardized 1. To probe the limits of cognitive, achievement tests by one year or aesthetic,motor,andaffective one grade. learning in children with the pur- 2.By age 9, after an additional three pose of establishing new normsfor yearsofprimaryinstruction learning,particularlycognitive employing materials and methods learning; sequentially related to their earlier 2. To provide field tested structured learning gains, the same children material conducive to early and willexceed expectations by 1.5 continuous stimulation; and years or 1.5grades. 3.To disseminateresearchfindings It was recognized that attainment of and materials to users as quickly the long-term goal of two years advance in and as widely as possible in such a the various competencies by age 12 could way asto improve educational be expected only if early progress toward policies and practices. such goals was promising. Consequently, although persistence of achievement gains sistent effects, but in a total on- through age 12 is the fundamental crite- going curriculum so that success in rion, appraisal of progress.toward such particular areas of cognitive devel- goals needs to be made and reported at opment is not achieved atthe ex- the intermediate check-points indicated. pense ofneglecting other areas of This requirement gives even greater urgen- learning. cy to theneed for developing new pro- 4. A central emphasis on cognitive cedures for validly appraising early pro- development is essential, but is to gress.Hopefully, such instrumentation be accomplished in a curriculum will keep pace with the development of that takes account of youngchil- instructional materials and procedures for dren'sresponsivenesstoactive, stimulating cognitive growth at the pre- game-like approaches. What starts primary level. as fun,becomes satisfying in itself. These successively more specific and "Play with an agenda behind it" moreimmediate goals of achievement gradually takes on any necessary need to be understood in a framework of work-study qualities. Side effects, combined urgency and impact which in- favorable and unfavorable, are to be volves at least the following major theses: noted. 1.The presenc need is for generally 5.As intimated earlier, theappraisal higher intellectual competence to of outcomes will require not only operate successfullyand happily in development of new measures for ourrapidlydevelopingtech- important outcomes currently not nological society. Compensatory ef- well measured, but reinterpretation fortsforthoseculturallydis- of old, seemingly well-established advantaged are important, nay es- instruments in tile light of the new sential, to make our goals of equal conciitions created by systematic opportunitytruly realizable, but early intervention through school- the demand is broader. All children ing. need to be helped to realize their A brief historical footnote is inorder potentials more fully, to raise maxi- here. The emphasis in the Georgia Re- mum and intermedialze, aswell as search and Development Center onearly m in imumcompetence,sothe schooling antedates the NationalLabora- thrust of the early effort needs to toryinEarlyChildhoodEducation, be not only continuous, but uni- launched in 1967 with a National Co- versal. ordinating Center at the Universityof 2.Starting all early in school not only Illinois and satellite centers atfive other tends to equalize the early stimula- universities:Arizona, Chicago, Cornell, tion of all children, now so uneven Peabody, and Syracuse. Moreover, Project in our culture, but makes possible Head Start got its start in the summerof earlier the stimulation and motiva- 1965, a scant two monthsbefore the tion of the culturally limited child University of Georgia Researchand Devel- by his advantaged peers. opment Center inEducational Stimula- 3. The effectiveness of early and con- tion came into being. Ourfocus on ages tinuous stimulation through school- 3-12 remains, of course, onthe effects of ing needs to be demonstrated not stimulation via schooling throughoutthe only longitudinally to show per- pre-adolescent period. ,

field collaboration Methods Used to AchieveGoals experience of full-scale lends credibility to theend-products of educational stimula- A fundamentalfeature of the approach early and continuous the longitudinal tion when theseend-product approaches of the Georgia Center is elsewhere. study. If earlier schooling isgood, it must aredescribed for possible use Substantive Area Programsof Stimula- show not only immediate,but persistent of pro- effects. Earlier than wehad expected, it tion The pattern established is of stimulation related tocurriculum has been possible tolaunch schooling at grams areas,incorporating their ownresearch age 3for a cross-sectionof the children in each of seven (60 per age group)of a suburban county and evaluation activities, major fields:language arts, mathematics, with a mix similarsocio-economically, and mental ability science,social science, art, music, ethnically, and in measured other programs to the nation as awhole.* In addition, we physical education. (Three cut acrossthe several fieldsand will be have other publicschool populations of has a pro- in rural discussed later.) Each program three-year-olds and five-year-olds coordinator from theappropriate and urban settings,variously disadvan- gram teacher trainingdepartment at the Uni- taged. the general Experimentation in a bonafide field versityof Georgia. Under direction of thesecoordinators, teams of center, integral to apublic school system, aswell as advantages. professorsand graduateassistants has disadvantages as curriculum materials Therigorousand systematiccontrol semble or develop and proceduressuitable for th e..several whichcharacterizeslaboratoryexperi- which they are to limited scope cannot be main- levels of the school in ments of substantive area programs tained. Even thecollaboration expected be used. These schools has to be follow varying models.Gagne's model of of teachers in laboratory follewed systema- sacrificed somewhat whenteachers ac- hierarchical structure is tically in science andmathematics, some- knowledge a responsibility tothe local language arts and instructional service as what less rigorously in khool district for fine arts. On theother hand, thesocial well as experimentation.Personnel in the units imply no set school system outside theinstructional science and history units engaged in thecollaborative effort, sequence. is on both teachers and supervisors, exert an Presently,the chief emphasis preparing materialsand instructional pro- influencethatcomplicatesanyfield units. Since the study, especially alongitudinal one. On cedures for preprimary first major bloc ofthree-year-olds entered the other hand, asindicated earlier, the study in the fall of 1966, stimulative approaches ofthis R & D the longitudinal subjected to these they will completethe preprimary cur- Center need to be riculum in May 1969. Twosubsequent age hazards as an integral partof demonstrat- finish the problems of cohorts of 60 pupilseach will ing their applicability to amended versions of the samecurriculum the schools. Also,efficiency is served by by which time it is combines research in 1970 and 1971, using a model that expected that programsof preprimary interactively with developmentand field will have been de- for research and/or instructionalunits testing, with problems veloped, field testedand refined in the revision emergingfrom the efforts at pilot testing on application of best thought based on past longitudinal groups, after small scale in individualclasses and/or research and experience.Furthermore, the a 72

concurrentlywithfieldtestingwith A Coordinator of Programs isto give variouslydisadvantagedgroups inthe the necessary leadershipto assure that the other centers. seven program coordinators for the sub- Active liaison is being maintained with stantive areas of stimulation have the other research and developmentcenters opportunity to shareideas and work concerned with the learning of children toward an overall unifiedprogram. Re- and with the National Program in Early gularly scheduled meetings of the sub- Childhood Education for research find- stantive area coordinatorsare to be sup- ings, tried materials and procedures,even plemented by individual consultations. In collaborativestudiesofparallelap- this way, it is hoped that the approaches proaches. Wherearrangements can be in the various programs will be duplicative made,strategiesdifferingfromour only by specific intention and that the "separate disciplines" approach will be maximum contribution to the develop- followedand evaluatedintermsof ment of generalized cognitive skills will be comparable data. achieved. Wherever possible, currently available Activedialoguebetween classroom curriculum materialsare being adapted for teachers and the program coordinators use at earlier ages. But this adapting for willbefostered.This coordinator of the youngest children commonly involves coordinators will seek tosee that alloca- breaking down units intended for primary tions of time among the substantiveareas children into smallersegments, or pro- of stimulation at various levelsare reason- ducing preliminary instructional material ably balanced and donot place a heavy not generally required with older children. overload on a classroom teacher, and that Conseque ,tly, the preprimary units have alltheseactivitiesareproperlyco- required and will continueto require ordinated with the functionalprograms considerable time in writing, field trial described below. and revising during thenext three years. Functional Programs-Three programs The severalprograms are at different cut across these seven substantive area stages of development, but all will require programs:evaluation,influencing vari- the full period of threeyears to reach aibles, and administration of continuous satisfactory levels of refinementto war- stimulation.They must bediscussed rant dissemination. In science, the parallel separately. development of preprimary and primary The evaluationprogram has as its chief sets of materials under a preconceived function the appraisal of learningout- primary program, will result in parallel comes at the natural check-points: age 6, production of the materials by 1973 and at the transition between the preprimary 1974, respectively, rather than by 1971 and primary units;age 9, at the transition and 1974,as in language arts, mathe- between the primary and intermediate matics and social science. In art, music, units; and age 12, at the end of the and physical education, FY 1968-69 will intermediate unit. In addition, thispro- represent their first year of operation; gram has responsibility for discovering or current plans call for instruction to begin developing new procedures for supple- at age 5 and extend to age 12, with menting standardized achievement tests. instructional packages to be readyat the Further, thereisthe establishment of dates projected for the other fields, 1971 valid measures ofsome initial capacity of and 1974, respectively. children as they enter theprograms, en- classes over a period and reinterpretation the children in intact tailing the evaluation of years. Itremains to design a patternfor of standard instrumentsfor that purpose. schools to the normal operational usein Finally,aspecialresponsibilityis ofadvantages bank for retrievalof all facilitatemaintenance design of a data gained from earlystimulation by insuring accumulated evidencerelevant to describ- advanced to class- achievement, including that such children are ing and evlauating room groupsin which theywill be given description of instructionalinput for each given to Special studies the furtheistimulation ordinarily groupof children studied. similarly developedabilities. of factors likelength those with will need to be made We are activelyinvestigating a planof of school day andschool year as the subject by subject, the full meaningof "con- achievement grouping, Center explores in a largeconsolidated elementaryschool tinuous" stimulation. experi- Influencing variables is a termfor a to whichchildren with preprimary determine the ef- encein one of ourfield centers are programof studies to this plan, muchlike social and environ- promoted. Under fects of personal, Stoddard's Dual ProgressPlan, the chil- mental variables onschool learning. It is teacher- 1968-69 will be re- dren will workwith language arts presumed that FY specialists half theday and withteacher- quired to generate anintegrated program the emphasis is upon specialists in theother several subjects of such studies. Present other half day in groupsorganized by such factors aslogical reasoning and ver- in each subject. improving learning.The levelof achievement bal mediation in Thus, a child maybe in a moreadvanced interacting variablesof concern are as- language arts than inmathe- home and neighborhood group in sociated with the matics if hisachievement in thesesubjects on onehand, and withthe teacher and Several differs. other schoolfactors, on the other. Supporting Programs -In addition to of these developmentssuggestincreasingly are ones with the evaluation the normal supporting programs, close collaboration for disseminationand field centers.An program. Forexample, parent andteacher attitudes toward intensive programof dissemination to styles of teaching, parent major groupswithin the statehas been schooling,teacher-pupilinteractionre- the field centers recognized effectuated and visits to lated to aggression-docility, are have been a sourceof impact onthinking sourcesof variation affectinglearning, yet education in the state. valid and about preprimary a majorproblem is developing Education Conference of them for usein The 21st Teacher reliable measures atthe Georgia Centerfor Continuing situations involving youngchildren. Devel- 1968 wasattended teacher observa- Education in January opmental scales, based on by over 200 majoreducators in the state tions ofchildren's growthalong signifi- from the Re- already in processof and heardseveral speakers cant continuums, are search andDevelopment Center, among being developedjointly. education and trial others, talk onearly childhood A major programis the design under the theme"The World ofthe of an organizational patternfor enhancing addresses of this con- effect of stimulation.Add- Child". The major the continuous ferenceconstitutedthesubstance of ing on instructionat theend of an of the Journalof unique prob- Volume 1, Number 3 effective sequence presents Development inEducation have been able to Research and lems. An ,:pproach we this spring. Major accountsof the Center's employ in somefield centers is tokeep 74

presented at national those partially trained inthe longitudinal activities have been of meetings including thoseof the American study. The fact that these programs Educational Research Association, the De- stImulation are in process ofcontinuous revision means a currentlack of pub- partmentof Elementary School Princi- training of pals, the Associationfor Supervision and lishable materials. In-service the As- teachers withtheseevolving materials Curriculum Development, and but little is suf- sociation for ChildhoodEducation Inter- gives hopeful promise, national. A motion picturefilm, in pro- ficiently finished to warrantdistribution. of revision, is now available tohelp The narrative accountwhich follows con- cess account- tell our story. Ourcurriculum materials stitutes the most helpful current for the preprimary level arescheduled for ing of progress. extensive trial in four centersof Project Development of Programsof Stimula- Follow Through widely scattered overthe tion Progress to date inthe areas of language arts, mathematics,science, and country. with varying preci- The field centers program meritsspecial social science indicate mention because of itsbasic place in the sion structural sequencesfound effective operational structure of the Researchand at the preprimarylevel. In the language Development Center in EducationalStim- arts, work onthe skills of word recogni- discrimination has yielded ulation. All our programs arebeing tried tion and visual field cen- a tentativecurriculum for those children in ongoing school situations at reading instruc- ters thatoffer a total curriculum to the who are given beginning children in attendance. Furthersignifi- tion as early as age 3.In essence, this be found in the fact that consists of introducingthe child to the cance is to of basic con- working relationships haveinvolved an rudimentary understanding for field centers ventions in reading -book, page-turning, efficient symbiotic model left-right, return in which the Researchand Development front-back, top-bottom, leadership and consultant sweep,discrimination of letter andword Center has given the nature service to systems withTitle I and Title fragments - so that he masters Elementary and and purpose of readingwhile still at the IIIprojects under the Sequence in Secondary Education Act of 1965,while levelof being readto. assumed "picture-reading" and anticipationof out- the systems have in the process for the large operational costs. InClayton County comes areother readying activities and in Oconee and OglethorpeCounties reading act. Evidence from our ownresearch studies we havebeen associated with innovative children's speech is programsunder Title III broader in scope of morphology in but focused being used to refine sequencesfor intro- than our immediate interest, for fours and enough to give us support.The same can duction of word recognition and sup- fives. Physical acitivity, evenof handling be said of Title I tollaboration ef- port in Athensand Gainesville, Georgia. and markingsis being found more fe c tivethanpassive"sitting"type Classroom Accomplishments to Date approachesatbothlevels. "exercises," like ahopscotch with words dartgun shooting of Present accomplishments maybe stated on the squares or experience and find- words (on leaves) off trees,have this in two chief ways: quality of activity as well as gamemotiva- ings relevant todevelopment of programs of stimulation, andachievement data for tion. 75

Integration into the total language arts preprimary level. Under the newly ap- programof oral language projects and pointed program coordinator, a sequential prior developments in written composi- curriculum beginning at age 3 will be tioninthe English Curriculum Study developed,using a separate disciplines Center (funded for 1963-68) are to be approach. As the language arts program is achieved as the program moves forward. able to draw on the English Curriculum Currently, the reading progress of each Study Center, the social science program childisbeing made thebasis for his is able to draw on the Elementary Anthro- spelling, his spelling lessons being mastery pology Curriculum Project (funded for of words he has most recently learned to 1964-69)formaterials developed and read. tested for grades 1-7, not only to provide Inscience,a "process"emphasis- a point of departurefor preprimary in- observing, classifying, measuring, etc. - for struction in that area, but as a model to ages 3 and 4leads naturally into applica- guide development of new units of in- tion of these processes in "content" set- structionin the other socialsciences. tings in the more advanced preprimary Other commercially developed primary and primary curriculum units. The AAAS level materials for the social sciences are "Science a Process" materials are being being given preliminary trial at preprimary used as a point of departure. Five pre- levels. primary curriculum units were tried in Pupil Achievement - Present progress in two field centers in 1967-68and will be the longitudinal study can be reported retried in revised form in 1968-69 along only for some who have had two years with two additional units; four primary c on secutivestimulation.Fragmentary units are in process of preparation f'orfirst fmdings on some with only one year of trial in 1968-69. stimulation at age 3 or 5 can be added. Inmathematics,twoparallelcur- The first group to move from one year riculum development projects are being of preprimary instruction at age 5 to a conducted at different centers. One begins second year of primary instruction at age at age 3 and hasfurther units under 6 constitute a kind of front wave with development for ages 4 and 5, starting minimum input.In both years, these with a posited hierarchical scheme of children were receiving the first round of basic mathematical concepts. The second stimulations planned with minimum ad- programstartswith five-year-olds and vance opportunity.Nevertheless,these seeks to "repackage" commercially avail- children averaged a statistically reliable able materials currently offered for use in 0.2 grade ahead of their peers who lacked first grade. A game-like mode of presenta- preprimary instruction, on the Metro- tion and learning shows promise. politanAchievementTest,PrimaryI Insocial science, work to date has Level, in word recognition, word discrim- proceeded without adherence to a strict ination, reading comprehension, and arith- chronological sequence. Projects in eco- metic concepts and skills. nomic conceptsat gade 4 and pro- Those completing two years of pre- grammed instruction in anthropology at primary instruction beginning at age 3 and grade5,as well asdevelopment of a age 4,respectively, showed substantial geography curriculum for K-3, have pro- achievement on the same test. The 59 ceeded pari passu with exploratory trial of who began at age 4 averaged just short of units on customs and local history at the 0.5 of the year's progress for first graders 76

older children. They national norms in regard toword designed for use with on the offered as hopefulindications of what recognition,worddiscrimination,and are maybe expected when afull, tried pro- readingcomprehension,. andmore only after the arithmetic concepts and gram isin use. However, marginal gains in been carried throughin skills. Of this groupof 59, 39 met the full sequence has of 1969, 1970, and 1971will we have a Durkin requirementof identifying out to what canbe context 18of 37 words most commonin series of approximations all but 4 of the re- done with a full programof successively basal readers, and refined materials. Atthat point, a much mainder fell at orabove C level on the achieved if we indicating strongershowing must be Metropolitan Readiness Test, continue to entertainthe likelihood likely success in firstgrade reading. Of the are to 3, a total of 14 of attaining ourlong-term goal of two 59 who began at age by age 12. passed the Durkintest,8 who were years' advancement encouraged by theirteachers to attempt Estimate of ProjectedSuccess the achievement testaveraged as well as theolder group,while scores of the students of human remaining 51 onthe Metropolitan Read- Like all mature 21 already at the C problems, scholars andpragmatic adminis- iness Test showed trators alike,those responsiblefor the level. Center in Edu- Another way ofdescribing end-of-two- Research and Development cational Stimulation atthe Universityof yearsreading achievement isin terms of make and Georgia arenaturally hesitant to progressthrough pre-primers, primers, predictions of future outcomes. readers. As of May1968 after two years strong 4 and 5, these 59 Yet the investmentof time and money of instruction at ages positivp assumptions children were distributed asfollows: 10 in involved necessitates the primer, 17 in of a substantial nature.So, with proper the first reader, 11 in humility we offer ourmotivating expecta- the third pre-primer,15 in the second tions. pre-primer, and 6 inthe first pre-primer. of projected success Thus 53, or all but 6,this year reached a In the estimation the evaluations ofpupil achievementplay level of mastery reportedfor only 49 of that single year of preprimary adual role. Notonly do we predict 60 aftera measured student successin masteryof schooling asfive-year-olds in 1966-67. environ- instruc- cognitive goalswithin the school The 59 children with two years indicate the valueof the total tion at ages 3 and 4 weredistributed thus: ment will program,with its developedmaterials and 2 in the firstreader, 6 in the primer, 5in the 28 in the second procedures. At one andthe same time, the third pre-primer, developed evaluationprocedures will be- pre-primer, 17 in thefirst pre-primer, and product for 41 come anintegral part of the 1 still in thereadiness materials. Again, who would use our first pre-primer com- dissemination- to those of the 59 past the curriculum approaches, sothat they may pareswith 24 of 60 whocompleted only four- judge their successthrough their students' one yearof preprimary schooling as mastering the cognitivetools of year-olds in 1966-67. success in Itmust berepeated that thedata living. hope to present a presented above arebased on only limited In particular, we the program in itsinitial systematic analysisof the value of various exposure to standard instruments,like the Stanford- stages ofdevelopment and with measures 77

Picture Vocab- analysis of interactions ofvariables from Binet and the Peabody school ca- ulary Test, as well as new instruments we dIferent stages of children's and others may devise,for setting ex- reen. dey1elop- pectations at early agesof what children We see as a feasiblegoal the 6,9, and 12 on ment of aplan of teaching childen in may attain at ages that is an ititegral achievement measures. Thesepredictive school from an early age only in terms part oftheir total schooling. AsWith all studies will be discussed not will conti ue to of limited expectanciesunder ordinary dynamic systems, schook; change, so our solution can notbestatic conditions,but increased expectancies only under modified conditions. Newachieve- one. Rather,it must be related no they bave been and arc!,but ment measureswill be adopted, adapted, to schools as to schools invarious stages ofbecoming ordevised to appraise cognitive outcomes Variations in in the form of logicaland coping skills not adapted to new demands. published tests, as the length of theschool day and school currently measured by Our well as instruments growing outof the year areclearly to be anticipated. of the curriculum ownstudiesinvolvingthesevariables needs and experience others. area programs.A particularly promising should prove instructive to retrieval We are currentlycaught up in the approach is through systematic transition in our of teacher observationsby interviewing problem of providing for broad variety ot standardized ownfield centers. These centersprovide a teams. A designing adapt- test goals can,of course, be measuredby realistic laboratory for ableorganizational patterns for more presently available instruments. is the fact The program oninfluencing variables general use. Clearly emerging evidence that introduction ofearly education into may beexpected to contribute schooling onto on theinfluence of environmentalvari- aschool system by adding associated with the front of thestandard educational ables, particularly those unlike the home. To the degreethat funding process createsunique problems anythat may result fromadding at the permits, studies ofhome interventions later may retro- will be included andreported as they end of the process. The Teacher vari- actively affect earlierfeatures but ordi- affect the learning programs. degree. Students ables of personal style willbe included as narily only to a limited have gone on to furtherstudy in the past; descriptive informationassociated with larger opportunities to go on reported learnings if morerefined inferen- newer and All these data have enabled studentssimply to achieve tial conclusions are limited. heights from the stand- teacher, and other background greater individual on home, the beginning,how- variables will be incorporatedinto a data ard base. Adding at establishes a whole setof new bases. bankwithpupilcharacteristicsand ever, When growing numbers comewith earlier achievements,records of instructional the established school organization patterns, schooling to "first grade," programs, practices of goodteachers for inducting and length of schoolday and year, to the standard comprehensive eval- literal"newcomers" into provide the basis for schooling have to be morethan uations of thesevariables and their inter- system of achieved. Methods of adapted moderately.The entire institu- actions on learning has to undergo transi- statistical analysis possiblewill extend to tion of schooling Establishment of the tion. Institutionalchange of this funda- multivariate analysis. necessarilyinvolve data bank promises the necessarybasis for mental nature will 78

adjustments until will be an account ofhow to adapt this somecompromises and ongoing pro- institutionalized early schooling approach to earlier schooling becomes be of two sorts: at a newstarting point for mostchildren cedures. This will need to Whatever emerges as a (1) how to adaptthe organization of the an& most systems. local elementary school toenhance the commondenominator of earlyschooling of new further progress of theseearly learners, will do so to the accompaniment the transition for methods of institutionalorganization and and (2) how to smoothe training. Our anyof these children whosefamily mobil- substantial in-service teacher them into otherschool field centers representurban and rural ity may bring investigation of systems.Thecurrentexperimentin situations for continuous only one possible the problems of transition. achievement grouping is coordinated regimen approach to the firstproblem. We shall By 1971, under a administrative de- of interaction among thecurriculum area remain alert to other coordinators, a first approxima- vices to try. Ourpackaged product will program of our own evaluated tion to a suitable preprimary programwill include a distillation dissemination, having experience and reportsof others. The be ready for general will require been worked over each yearin the light of transition to other systems the designing of a report,with supporting the field testing experienceof that year with re- and of accumulatedknowledge drawn evidence, of each child's status other studies. It spectto schoollearnings, couched in from active liaison with constructive reaction will be a guide based onthe premise that terms conducive to begin in each curri- by the school towhich the child is there is a place to ample opportu- culum area in relation tothe others and transfering. There will be that point will depend nity to refine thisprocedure year by year. that progress from said will de- on the ageof introducing the program Pupil evaluation we have of scribe the ultimateeffectiveness of our (age 3, 4, or 5)and the efficiency schooling. The goals to teaching and learning inthe local situa- version of early of succeed or fail by that werereported at tion. It is quitelikely that the amount by age 6, 1.5 content ineach curriculum areadepen- the beginning (one year years by age9, and two yearsby age 12) dent on reading willbe geared to its of the compatibility with the timeand process arebased on gross estimates Thus, amount ofeffect required to justifythe required to teach the reading act. still hold to numbers of units in naturalscience and cost ofearly education. We these goals as practicaluntil tested. Cost- social science will beelective, dictated by worth, how- evidence of effectivenessin our field benefit evaluations of their by the ever,will be a part of theultimate centers undervarying conditions, complicated beginning age of a schoolsystem's pre- evaluation. But this becomes if indirect social benefits areincluded. primary effort, and bylocal preference. kinds of Evaluative procedures will bekeyed to the The roles and costs of many several curriculum areas, aides, for example, willhave to be worked unitsinthe social value of usefulemploy- including observationalprocedures and out. The product evaluations, as well as test exer- ment vs.welfare support is acomplicating the experiment cises or taskevaluations. The interaction factor. Nevertheless, as will also be in- progresses, the costsassociated with each of influencing variables be computed findings. group's early education can cluded as warranted by measured outcomes A fundamentalcontribution we trust and related at least to of their social, in school achievement.All may then judge enter upon the assessment the amounts of thelearning gains and as well aseconomic value.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS AND JOURNALARTICLES 1968. Anderson H. E., Jr., and Bashaw, W.L. Discussion effects onfirst grade themes. AER Journal, (in press) Anderson, H. E., Jr., Kern, F. E.,and Cook, C. Correlationaland normative data for the progrssive matrices with retarded children.Journal of Social Psychology, 1967,67, 221-225. progressive Anderson, H. E., Jr., Kern, F. E.,and Cook, C. Sex, braindamage, and ra ce effects in the Psychology, 1968. (in press) matrices with retardedpopulations. journal of Social Relative importance of reading Anderson, H. E., Jr., White, W. F.,Bashaw, W. L., and Olson, A. V. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1967, 24 readiness factors as perceivedby various teacher groups. 899-902. intelligence achievement, and Anderson, H. E., Jr., White, W. F.,and Stevens, J. C. Student creativity, teacher classroom behavior.Journal of Social Psychology,1968. (in press) children. Ayers, Jerry B. An evaluationof the use of science: A processapproach with pre-school age Science Education, 1968. (in press) and reliability of the PPVTfor pre-school Ayers, Jerry, and Bashaw, W. L.An evaluation of the norms subjects. Educational andPsychological Measurement, 1967, 27,1069-1075. coefficients. Bashaw, W. L. and Anderson, H. E.,Jr. A correction forreplicated error in correlation Psychometrika, 1967, 32, (4). modifiers. Bashaw, W. L. and Anderson, H.E., Jr. A developmentalstudy of the meaning of adverbial 1968, 59, (2), 111-118. journal of Educational Psychology, deaf Blake, Kathryn, Ainsworth, S. W.,and Williams, Charlotte.Effects of induction and deduction on Annals of the Deaf, 1967, 112, ft and hearing individuals' attainmentof first-order concepts. American 606-613. deduction and retarded, normal,and superior Blake, Kathryn and Williams,Charlotte L. Induction and (in press) subjects' concept attainment. AmericanJournal of Mental Deficiency, 1968. and superior subjects' attainmentof Blake, Kathryn A. and Williams,Charlotte L. Retarded, normal, verbal concepts at two levels ofinclusiveness. Psychological Reports,1968. (in press) normal, and Blake, Kathryn A. andWilliams, Charlotte L. Use ofEnglish morphemes by retarded, 80

of Documents, August, superior children equatedfor CA. Monograph.Washington: Superintendent 1968. NEA Journal, April, 1967. Clayton County seeks some answers. Children, 1968. (in press) Jeannine P. New horizonsin kindermath. Young Deal, Therry N. and Maness, in early childhoodeducation. Deal, Therry N.Implications of theconference for teacher training Journal of Research andDevelopment in Education, 1,(3), 41. reward-nonreward ratios onchildren's performance in a Endsley, Richard C.Effects of forced Psychology, 1968. (in press) discrimination task. Journalof Experimental Child stimulation. Journal ofResearch and Development in Findley, Warren G. Earlyeducation as continous Education, 1, (3), 46-50. testing. Editor andco-author of introductory Findley, Warren G.Educational and psychological chapter. Review ofEducational Research,February, 1968. psychoeconomic planning. GeorgiaPsychologist, 1967, 20, Findley, Warren G. Thefuture is behind us: (5), 5-6. Georgia MathematicsCouncil Newsletter, Fall,1967. Hooten, Joseph R. Newdirections for new ages. Journal of A guide to elementarygeography content. The Imperator, William.The conceptual model: Geography, November, 1967. Athens, Georgia: Researchand Jennings, Bettye L. ADirector), of EarlyChildhood Education Projects. Development Center inEducational Stimulation,April, 1968. happening in the socialstudies. High SchoolJournal, February, 1968. Kelly, Paul E. What's New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Kent, Robert B. ArtEducation: Strategies ofTeaching. Englewood Cliffs, 1968. Bashaw, W. L. The simple structureof social maturity at the Kim, Y. H., Anderson,H. E., Jr., and Educational and PsychologicalMeasurement, 1968, 28, (1),145-153. second grade level. achievement and basicability. Kim, Y. H., Anderson,H. E., Jr., and Bashaw,W. L. Social maturity, Psychological Measurement, 1968,28, 535-543. Educational and of Elementary School Lund, Jeanette B. Anoral language programfor pre-school. Department Principals Quarterly, Spring,1968. reading instruction. TheReading Quarterly, 1968,4, (3), Mason, George.Research implications for 16-20. reading. The ReadingTeacher, 1967, 21, Mason, George.Preschoolers' concepts of to the teacher:Teaching the social studies. McLendon, Jonathon C.and Penix, F. C. What research says NEA Journal, 1968.(in press) achievement in performanceclasses. Personnel andGuidance Muma, J. R. Peerevaluation and academic 580-585. Journal, February, 1968, Journal of Speech and Hearing Muma, J. R., andBrown, B. Removing segmentsfrom a speech sample. Disorders, 1967, 32, 121-125. quality aberrations:Personality and Muma, J. R.,Laeder, R. L., and Webb, C.E. Adolescent voice of Speech and HearingResearch. June, 1968. social status. Journal of Psychology, 1967, 19, Noble, Clyde E. Thelearning of psycho-motorskills. Annual Review 203-250. olds in an impersonalsituational Orcutt, L. E.Conformity tendencies amongthree-, four-, and five-year Reports, 1968. (in press) task. Psychological stability of the WISC factor structure Osborne, R. T., Anderson,Harry E., Jr., andBashaw, W. L. The Behavioral Research, 1967, 2,(4), 443-451. at three agelevels. Multivariate An analysis ofthe Osborne, R. T. andTillman, M. H. Normal andretardate WISC performance: stimulus trace theory.Journal of Mental Deficiency,1967, 72, (2). Elementary School Journal,December 1965, Rice, Marion J. Improvingelementary geography. The 126-138. Social Education, March, Marion J. Materials forteaching anthropology inthe elementary school. 1968, 254-256. The Journal ofGeography, Rice, Marion J. Tit,:teaching of geography(translated from the French). December, 1966. for education. Journalof Smock, Charles D.Children's conception ofreality: Some implications Education, 1968, I, (3), 30-37. Research and Development in Harvard Educational Review, Smock, C. D. Review of Bruner,J., et al. Studies incognitive growth. Summer, 1967. problem-solving abilitiesof Steffe, Leslie P. Therelationship of conservationof numerousness to Arithmetic Teacher, January,1968. first-grade children. The of blind and sightedchildren Tillman, Murray H. andWilliams, Charlotte L.Associative characteristics Journal for the Educationof the Blind, 13, (2). to selectedform classes. International form classes for Williams, Charlotte. Associativecharacteristics of selected Tillman, Murray and 459-468. and intelligence.Psychological Report, 1968, 22, children varying in age creative-aesthetic approach toschool Torrance, E. P. and Fortson,Laura. Creativefunctioning and the readiness. Education, 1968.(in press) of developing Laura, and Diener,Carolyn. Creative-aesthetic ways Torrance, E. Paul, Fortson, Development in Education, I,(3), intellectual skills amongfive-year olds. Journalof Research and 58-69. fulfill educationalresponsibilities to young White, William F. Discussion summaryof local activities to Research and Development inEducation, I , (3), 7-8. children. Journal of of teacher behavior asperceived by White, W. F. and Anderson,H. E., Jr. A studyof scaled dimensions students. Journal ofPsychology, 1967, 65, 223-232. Meaningfulness of stimuliand retarded,normal, and Williams, Charlotte L. andBlake, Kathryn A. 1968. (in materials. The Journalof Special Education, superior subjects'classification of verbal press) H. Effects ofinduction and Williams, Charlotte L.,Blake, Kathryn A.,and Ainsworth, Stanley for deaf and hearingsubjects. Teacherof the deduction on initial-letterclassification performance Deaf, 1968. (in press) educational and psychologicaldevelopment of children Wood, Paul and Deal, Therry.Testing the early Research, 1968, 38, (1),12-18. ages 3-6.Review of Educational AND DEVELOPMENTCENTER IN CURRICULUM MATERIALSDEVELOPED BY RESEARCH EDUCATIONAL STIMULATION

Language Arts andVerbal Learning: the pre-primarycurriculum. Pre-primary Aaron, Robert L.and Mason, George E.Reading program for July, 1968. or grade onelevel. Second draft, forlimited distribution. the pre-prbnarycurriculum. Pre-primary Aaron, Robert L. andMason, George E.Writing program for July, 1968. or grade onelevel. Second draft, forlimited distribution. Pre-primary level. Seconddraft, for limiteddistribution. Jennings, Bettye L. Exercisesin oral language. July, 1968. 82

Mathematics:

Hooten, Joseph R., Jr. and Strickland, James.Teaching three year olds classification strategies. Pre-primary level. First draft, pilot material, not for publicdistribution. Fall, 1967. Perrodin, Alex F. and Larsen, Mary Juhan. Suggestedmathematics activities for five year olds. Per-primary level. Second revision, pilot material, for limiteddistribution. July, 1968. Robinson, G. Edith. Connectiveness and separation. (Geometry).Primary level. First draft, pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year. Robinson, G. Edith. Construction of selected geometric figures. (Geometry).Primary level. First draft, pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year. Robinson, G. Edith. Equivalences under certain transformations (Geometry).Primary level. First draft, pilot material, not for public distribution, 1967-68 academic year. Robinson, G. Edith. Shadows of geometric figures (Geometry).Primary level. First draft, pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year. Robinson, G. Edith. Transformations of the plane (Geometry).Primary level. First draft, pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year. Steffe, Leslie. Concepts of numerousness. Pre-primarylevel. First draft, pilot material, not forpublic distribution. 1967-68 acadeniic year. Steffe, Leslie and Carey, Russell. Conservation oflength. Pre-primary level.First draft, pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68academic year. Steffe, Leslie and Carey, Russell. Conservation oflength relations. Pri-primary level. First draft,pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year. Steffe, Leslie and Carey, Russell. Length comparison. Pre-primarylevel. First draft, pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year. Steffe, Leslie and Harper, E. Harold. One-to-Onecorrespondence. Pre-primary level.,First draft,pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year. Steffe, Leslie. Transitivity. Pre-primary level. Firstdraft, pilot material, not for public distribution. 1967-68 academic year.

Science

Ricker, Kenneth S. Heat energy. For ages 6, 7, 8. Firstdraft, pilot material, not for public distribution. September, 1968. Ricker, Kenneth S. Sound variations. For ages 6, 7, 8. Firstdraft, pilot material, not for public distribution. September, 1968. Zeitier, W. R. Pre-primary science program, levels 1, 2,and 3 (Tentative). For ages 3, 4, and 5. First draft, pilot material for children ages 3 and 4.Revised edition for children age 5. Not forpublic distribution. September, 1968.

Social Science

Ball, John M. A bibliography for geographic education.Geography curriculum project, publication number 68-2. For general distribution. July, 1968. Dooley, B.J.,Blackwood, Barbara, and Hunt, Ann.Concept of culture, adapted fromthe Anthropology curriculum project materials, Universityof Georgia. Kindergarten; grade onelevel. Revised edition, for general distribution. April, 1968. 83

Dooley, B. J., Blackwood, Barbara, and Hunt, Ann. Customs and mores. Nursery 3, 4;kindergarten; grade one level. Second edition, for general distribution. October, 1967. Dooley, B. J., Blackwood, Barbara, and Hunt, Ann. Gainesville: Our city -- anhistorical profile. Kindergarten; grade one level. First draft, for general distribution. February, 1968. Dooley, B. J., Blackwood, Barbara and Hunt, Ann. Getting Acquainted. Nursery3, 4; kindergarten; grade one level. Second draft, for general distribution. August, 1967. Dooley, B. J., Blackwood, Barbara, and Hunt, Ann. Jonesboro: A narrativeprofile. Kindergarten; grade one level. First draft, for generaldistribution. February, 1968. Imperatore, William. Earth: Man's home. Geography curriculumproject, publication number 68-1. Kindergarten; grade one level. Revised edition, for general distribution.Spring, 1968.

Art

Kent, Robert B. and Grossman, Marvin. A pre-primary art program,No. 1. Kindergarten level. First edition, pilot material, for limited distribution. September, 1968.

Music

Dooley, James E. and Williford, Betty L. Music composition asstimulation for music learning. Grade three level. First edition, subject to revision, for general distribution. August,1968. Simons, Gene M. and Williford, Betty L. Developing basic conceptsof music. Kindergarten, grade one level. Pilot matieral, not for public distribution. August, 1968.

Physical Education

Gober, Billy and Albertson, Larry. Early childhood stimulation inphysical education through movement exploration. .Nursery 3, 4;kindergarten; primary level. Pilot material, not for public distribution. September, 1968.

UNPUBLISHED DISSERTATIONS

Aaron, Robert L. A study of the relationshipsof certain Students' characteristics to the reading achievement of selected disabled readers who participate in theGeorgia Summer Reading Program. Ed. D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1967. Aderhold, Elizabeth C. Doll play behavior as a function of age.Ph. D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1967. Akridge, Robert L. The measurement of three interpersonal responsestylesaggressive, detached, and complientamong intermediate gradechildren. Ed. D. dissertation University of Georgia, 1968. Allen, Jerry C. Visual perception and oral languageproduction. Ed. D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1968. Biesbrock, Edieann F. The development and use of astandardized instrument for measuring composition ability in young children (grades two andthree). Ed. D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1968. (Jt. spons.--Eng. Curr. Study Cen.) Cox, Arthur, The effects of early educational stimulation onselected behaviors of first grade children. Ed. D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1968, Desphande, Anant S. Development of a battery for the lower continuumof basic achievement of 84

common knowledgeand skills. Ed. D. disseration, University of Georgia,1968. Dooley, Bobby Joe. Teaching economics toculturally disadvantaged children: A comparisonof selected materials as measured by pupil testperformance. Ed. D. dissertation, University ofGeorgia, 1968. Kim, Yungho. The factor structure ofsocial maturity and its relation tointelligence and achievement. Ed. D. Dissertation, University of Georgia, 1967. Larsen, Mary Ruth Juhan. Itemperformance of five-year-old subjects on theStanford-Binet. Form L-M. Compared with the standarizationsample. Ed. D. dissertation, Universityof Georgia, 1968. Mills, Editha B. An experimental study inthe use of literary models in writtencomposition. Ed. D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1967. Myers, Robert E. Relationships ofteacher orientations and effectivenessunder inductive and deductive teaching methods. Ed. D. dissertation,University of Georgia, 1968. Nesbitt, Mary C. Auding achievementof first grade pupils related to selectedpupil characteristics. Ed. D. dissertation, University of Georgia,1968. Pasternack, Thomas L. Qualitative differencesin the development of yieldingbehavior in elementary school children, Ph. D. dissertation, Universityof Georgia, 1968. Powell, Lacy D. Designing,initiating, qd administering a program of continuouseducational stimulation. Ed. D. dissertation, Universityof Georgia, 1968. Thomas, Georgelle, The use of programmedinstruction for teaching anthropology inthe fifth grade. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Georgia,1967. Tillman, Murray H. A comparison ofthe factor structure of blind andnormals on the Verbal WISC. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Georgia,1966. Williams, Charlotte L. Divergentproduction characteristics of academicallyand artistically gifted adolescents. Ed. D. dissertation, Universityof Georgia, 1966.

FILM

Educational stimulation in the pre-school years. 85

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHING

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

C. Norman Alexander, AssistantProfessor of Sociology J. Victor Baldridge, AssistantProfessor of Education andSociology Robert N. Bush, Director of the Centerand Professor of Education Elizabeth G. Cohen, AssistantProfessor of Education Sanford M. Dornbusch, Professorof Sociology Janet D. Elash off, AssistantProfessor of Education N. L. Gage, Chairmanof the Executive Board of the Centerand Professor of Education and Psychology Frank B. Hawkinshire, AssistantProfessor of Education Robert W. Heath, Research Associate,Education Robert D. Hess, Professor ofEducation Kenneth E. Knight, Assistant Professorof Business Administration Robert H. Koff, Assistant Professorof Education Henry M. Levin, AssistantProfessor of Education andAffiliated Faculty of the Department of Economics Frederick J. McDonald, Professor ofEducation and Psychology M. David Merrill, VisitingAssistant Professor ofEducation John W. Meyer, Assistant Professorof Sociology Robert L. Politzer, Professor ofEducation and Romance Linguistics W. Richard Scott, AssociateProfessor of Sociology Fannie R. Shaftel, AssociateProfessor of Education Joan E. Sieber, AssistantProfessor of Education Richard E. Snow, Assistant Professorof Education G. Wesley Sowards, AssociateProfessor of Education Carl E. Thoresen, Assistant Professorof Education Paul Wallin, Professor of Sociology Richard L. Warren, Research Associate,Education 86

CENTER FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN TEACHING

Robert N. Bush and N. L. Gage Stanford University

The Stanford Center for Research and three "domains" of variables:the be- Development in Teaching began its work havioral, the personological, and the in- in September 1965. A part of the School stitutional.These terms denote events of Education, it provideda new setting that occur at increasing "distances" from for collaborationamong professional edu- the point of impact of the teacher on his cators and behavioral scientists. Its aim, as students in the classroom. The behavioral stated in the original proposal, is "to domain refers to those variables which improve teaching in American schools." deal with the observable, objectively de- scribable behaviors of teachers and pupils The Center's Evolving Goals in the classroom. Personological variables are traits and characteristics of teachers In this effort, we distinguish between and pupils, not directly observable in the teacher effects and teacher education. classroom but rather inferred from re- Teacher effects refer to relationships be- sponses to tests, inventories, and rating tweenteacherbehaviors and charac- scales. Teachers' attitudes, values, cogni- teristics (independent variables) andpu- tive abilities and styles, traits, and charac- pils' achievement and changes (dependent teristics are all variables in the personolog- variables). Teacher education refersto ical domain. relationships between teacher behaviors The Center has been concerned with and characteristics (dependent variables) how the role of the teacher is being and teacher educationprograms and pro- affectedbysocialandtechnological cedures (independent variables). changes and by the social and administra- Using the above distinction, the Center tive forces in the school district and the originally grouped its research efforts in individualschool.These changes and 87

forces constitute the institutional domain. their severity. But the Center's program in The Center has examined the organiza- this problem area will seek to determine tionalcontextof teaching,thepro- how the concept of heuristic teaching, fessional socialization of the teacher, and applied in the environment we call the other aspects of the institutional setting. open school, canhelp contribute to over- During the academic year 1967-68 the all solutions. Center reformulateditsprograms and goals. Three major problem areas were Research Efforts at the Stanford Center defined, stemming in part from previous research of the Center. The first problem The scope of the Center's research is area,heuristicteaching,reflectedan perhaps best shown by describing indi- urgent demand for moreeffective and vidual projects and investigations within informed teaching and a more precise the framework of the domains and prob- definition of the teacher's role in the lem areas sketched above. The following contextofsocialandtechnological account summarizes theCenter's past, change. We see heuristic teaching as teach- present, and future asof July 1968. ing aimed at developing self-motivated and sustained inquiry, emphasizing affec- The Behavioral Domain tive as well as cognitive processes, and placing a high value upon the uniqueness 1. An Overview of Research onTeaching of each pupil, teacher, and learning situation. It is contrasted with didactic teach- An obvious need in the early stagesof ing, in which the teacher dispenses infor- the Center was a survey of current litera- mationtopassivepupils.The term ture which might haverelevance for the "heuristic" connotes only a part of what Center's researchers. The resulting paper we see emerging,but we have not yet (Gage & Unruh, 1967) dealt withthe been able to find a better single term for proposed revolution in teaching ("describ- the cluster of questions we wish to inves- ing" vs. "improving" in research onteach- tigate. ing; two convergences on conceptionsof The second problem area, the environ- teaching), models of the domain of re- ment for teaching, derives from our con- search on teaching, the relation of theo- viction that schools must be so organized ries of teaching to theories of learning,the and operated as to permit a new kind of need for synthesis, and views on promis- teaching and learningtotakeplace. ing directions in research on teaching. Schools as now organized tend to dis- courage the kindof teaching and learning 2. Studies of Microteaching,and Training we havecalled heuristic. We are asking in Technical Skills of Teaching how the learning environment can be modified in the direction of the "open" Microteaching grew out of a technique school, defined later in this paper. being developed at Stanford when the The third problem area, teaching the Center began. It is a scaled-downteaching disadvantaged,arises from theurgent exercise, wherein the traineeteaches a needs of the poor of our cities and certain lesson of about five minutes to a small minority groups. It would be foolish to groupof pupils, typically about five in blame the schools alone for these prob- number, and attempts only arelatively lems or to expect them alone to reduce specific aspect of the teachn's task,such 88

as making an assignment, usinga visual teaching will be recognizedas part of aid, handlinga discipline problem, or what we have termed "heuristic" teach- engendering a cognitiveset. Microteaching ing. is "real" teaching in that the pupilsare The research has been carriedout in not actors and do not hear thesame connection with the secondary teacher lesson twice. After thetrainee has taught educationprogramatStanford;the the lesson, he viewsa videotape recording internsinthis program thusserve as of his behavior which he discusseswith a "subjects"bothforthe experimental supervisor trainedto make helpful and studies of technical skills and for studies tactfulsuestions. Thenthetrainee aimed at improvingor modifying the immediately reteaches thesame lesson to teacher-trainingprogramatStanford. adifferentgroup of pupils and also Three broad categories of variables have repeats the cycle of discussion and criti- been manipulated: (a) the demonstration cism while observing thenew videotape component of teacher training (various recording. The technique has beenused kindsofinstructionsor performance extensively with studentspreparing for models); (b) the conditions ofpractice internship at the secondary school levelin (variations in the amount and timing of the teacher educationprogram of the interns'practice and in the choice of Stanford School of Education. lessons); and (c) feedbackarrangements One key arpect of microteaching7the (viewing of videotapes of teachingper- selection ofa small, identifiable, specific formance, with variations in thecues by sequence of teaching behaviorled toa which the subject is helpedto analyze his more general concept: "technical skills" behavior). in teaching, or specific teaching behaviors Followingare some of the hypotheses that are used ina variety of teaching or conclusions which hAve emerged from situations and are tosome degree inde- the technical skills work: pendent of the subjectmatter or the kinds 1.For initial learning ofa complex of students being taught. teachingperformance,wherethe The long term goal of the Technical trainee teaches thesame lesson as the Skills project has beento define a set of model, a preferredstrategy is to show a skills making for effectiveteaching; to model performing the desired behavior, determine the effects of theseteaching but with no non-instances of the be- behaviors; and to determine howto train havior in the modeltape. A second teachers to use these skills. The dependent learning trial, using both instances and variablesare thus the specific technical non-instances of the desired behavior, skills desired; the independentvariables then introduces discrimination training. are training procedures, such as modeling 2.Students who first taughtone and feedback. lesson and thentaught a different Implicit in this researchis a certain lesson showeda marked decrease in conception of teaching style. We have performance. been most interested in those behaviors 3. Two trainingconditions were least likelyto be reproducible by non- found to be particularly effective: (a)a human means suchas texts, films, tele- combination of perceptual modeling vision, and computers. Wesee the teacher (videotaped model ofa teacher per- as a stimulator of inquiry and a guide of formance), positive instances only, fol- self-directedactivity.This concept of lowed by teaching thesame lesson as 89

that demonstrated; (b) symbolic model- lowed by their own teaching and sub- ing (written description of a lesson) sequently by feedback with an experi- with instances and non-instances of the menter present to analyze theirteaching desired behavior, followed by trainee's performance. Threedifferent technical teaching his own lesson. skills (reinforcing students for participat- 4.In the development of "inquiry ing in class discussions, probing, and the questioning," models of pupil responses use of silenceand non-verbal cues to to teacher behavior were morelikely to stimulatediscussion) were learned on be effective than models of teaching three successive days. An experiment at behavior. San Jose State College, with elementary 5. A general hypothesis emerging school interns, applied two treatments from the technical skills research is that (modeling with and without an experi- negative instances or non-instances ef menter present) to thelearning of the the desired behavior are effective only three skills just cited. The effectiveness of when they can be used in a discrimina- the treatments will thus be tested across tion-trainingstrategy.Theseresults the learning of three different skills. seem to accord with abody of psycho- Trainees in the above experiments have logicalliteraturethat encourages in- exhibited differential reactions to treat- structors to avoid indtecinglearning by ment, such as positive and negative emo- indirect means, except when such learn- tional reactions. They have also seemed to ing can be linked to ways of finding the demonstrate different cognitive strategies patterns of the behavior tobe learned. and capacities as they viewed model or 6.If the trainee, while viewing a feedback videotapes. Studies are under videotape of his performance, is sys- way to determine howsuch characteristics tematically cued to look for specific interact with kinds of treatment by inves- kinds of behavior to be learned, his tigatingpossiblerelationships between learning is likely to be improved. But trainees' scores on perceptual and verbal cueing during a feedback session (as ability measures and the kinds of models distinct from a modeling session) added (perceptual or symbolic) presented. This nothing to the improvement in per- line of inquiry is related to the aptitude- formance. This experiment leads to the treatmentinteraction studies described hypothesis that when effective cueing below under Heuristic Teaching. can be providedduring a modeling An important element in the project session, it is not necessary to add the has been the attempt to follow up the cueing component to the feedback ses- training program by examination of the sion. trainees' behavior after a full yearof Two related investigations, whose data teaching. Videotapes of microteaching ses- have not yet been fully analyzed, deal siotis at the beginning and end of the with the interaction between training- Stanford secondary interns' summer 1967 method and thetechnicalskill being training period, and at the end of their learned. An experiment at Stanford used full year's teaching in 1968, have been three types of training conditions:(a) combined with test data and are being symbolic modeling (transcript of a les- examined to discover possible effects of son); (b) perceptual modeling (videotape the Technical Skills project. of the same lesson); (c) a brief written An interestingextension of micro- description, which the trainees read, fol- teaching and the technical skills approach 90

iscalled-learner-monitored teaching." teacher's ability to explain does not de- Equipment providing for immediate audio pend entirely upon the particular lesson and visual feedback in various possible being taught on a particular day to a combinations during a teaching session particular group of students, and that has been designed and in part constructed. students' ratings of various dimensions of Through a master control station and their teacher's performance correlate sub- learnersatellitestations,theteacher- stantially with how much they learn from subject may receive predetermined com- that performance. Unruh (1968) found ments or specific inquiries and reactions that videotaped lectures provided more from both pupils and observers. valid cues than typewritten transcripts, The Technical Skills project has re- transcriptscombined withvideotapes, sulted in production of a 30-minute color audiotapes, or both, or audiotapes and film, "The Technical Skills of Teaching," videotapes combined. The most important in which the concept is explained and correlates of effectiveness, as measured by demonstrated. adjustedmean comprehensionscores, Papers resulting in whole or in part appeared to be student-rated teacher prep- fromtheprojectincludeMcDonald aration and presentation, the cognitive (1968a and 1968b), McDonald & Allen level of the presentation, use of an out- (1967), and Orme (1967). line,andcoverageofthematerial. The Technical Skills project will con- Responses relating to personality variables tinue as a project on Training Studies and vocal quality did not discriminate. within the new problem area of Heuristic These results should be useful in the Teaching. Further investigations will con- search for less subjective and perceptual, centrate on the technical skills which are and therefore more objective and be- or seem to be directly related to eliciting havioral, correlates of effectiveness. complex, inquiry-oriented pupil behavior. Rosenshine (1968) found four of 72 variableswhich discriminated between 3. TechnicalSkillsofTeaching: high- and low-scoring teachers, as meas- Explaining ured by their students' adjusted mean achievement scores. These were (a) rule- The "effectiveness" of teachers in pre- example-rule-pattern, (b) explaining links, senting explauations or lectures to their (c) gesture, and (d) movement. Dell & classes has been an area of investigation. Hiller (1968) used a computer to count This project was based on the assumption kinds of words appearing in the tran- that the explaining aspect of the teacher's scribed protocols of the teachers' explana- role will continue to have some signifi- tions. High negative correlations between cance despite the increased use of various "vagueness" (words such as almost, gener- media other than .the teacher (television, ally, many, maybe, and most) and effec- programmed instruction, films, and the tiveness were' found. Explaining links cor- like) for didactic instruction. Four studies, based on the same set of related .37 and .38 with effectiveness. data, were completed and described in a To the extent that lecturing or verbal symposium on "The Teacher's Explaining exposition forms part of any classroom Behavior" at the February 1968 AERA situation, the above findings should have meeting. The first study (Belgard, Gage, & relevanceindetermining thekind of Rosenshine,1968)indicatesthatthe explaining behavior found most effective. 91

4.Role-PlayinginTeachingDecision- as a group with its own norms, values, and Making Skills status systems, was developed. The subject matter of the course thus examined The impact of role-playingon the the behavior of its studentsas well as the cognitive and affective life of the learner, "established knowledge" about teacher- and its implications for teacher training student classroom interaction. Thecourse techniques, have beenan area of investiga- was designed to be self-evaluating; in tion. The data have been collected andare analyzing the data, the students learned being analyzed. Meanwhile,a training something about empirical evidenceas seminar in role-playing is being conducted well as group life ina classroom situation. with a group of secondary interns, and Smallgroup researchwillcontinue documentary and training films have been within the new Heuristic Teachingpro- made. gram and later in the program on Teach- Further work will be carriedon in the ing the Disadvantaged. new program on Teaching the Disadvan- taged described below. 6.Teaching for Divergent Thinking (Ef- fects of Computer-Assisted Instruction) 5. Teaching in Small Groups The effects of computer-assisted in- An early assumption by the Centerwas struction have been of interest to investi- thatinterpersonalrelationships,and gators concerned with teaching for diver- specifically working with pupils in small gent thinking. A study of first rulers groups, will play an increasingly impor- receiving reading and mathematic, instruc- tant part in the definition of the teacher's tion by CAI and by conventional instruc- role. Three lines of inquiry have been tion was conducted. (Sears & Feldman, followed. 1968). The results showeda significant An experimental training programat effect from fall to spring; the CAIgroup Stanford fora group of 26 secondary started higher than the non-CAI in social English and social studies teacherswas behavior scores but declined, while the one line of inquiry. Follow-through was non-CAI group increased over theyear in provided by verbalreports on the teach- social behaviorscores. The relationships ers' perceptions of the smallgroup classes between IQ, reading, and mathematics they themselves conducted the following achievement testscores, and achievement fall and by videotape recordings madein as measured by a standardized test and by the classes of teachers who had and had progress on the computer differed in not participated in the workshop. interesting ways for the classroom and Experimental trainingprograms with CAIgroups.Normally,oneexpects Stanford interns have provided themeans achievement and academic variablesto be of investigating thekinds of learning correlated. The CAI treatment, designed experiences within a conventional class to individualize instruction, appears to (lectures, discussions, reading, and reflec- have reduced these relationships. tive writing) and in a "human relations" approach to teacher training.Datareduc- 7. A Taxonomy of Teaching Behavior tion and analysis are inprocess. An experimental course usinga labora- A pool of items designed to serveas a tory approach, focusing on the classroom behavior-descriptive systemwas developed 92 and categorized. The initialpool was "secondaryignorance" was coined to based on a review of existing observa- denote this phenomenon of one's not tional instruments; additional items were knowing that he does not know. Ways of written to fill in gaps. A computer-based teaching children to recognize when alter- system was developed tofacilitate the use native answers exist have been investi- of the item pool. A category generator gated and reported. (Sieber, 1968b) One program is used to structurethe entire aim of this project ia to improve under- pool or subsets of the pool according to standing of the ways in which secondary any categorysystem supplied by the ignorance, or inappropriate certitude, is investigator. A rating form generator pro- typically expressed in various contexts, gram is used to prepare ratingforms for and to provide teachers with examples of the supervisors of the Secondary Teacher inappropriate certitude and methods of Education Program. teaching students to generate and handle The system will be utilized in connec- "subjective response uncertainty." tion with the Intern Data Bank (described This research line will be continued in later in this report) and other research as the program on Heuristic Teaching, with it is relevant. obvious implications for the program on Teaching the Disadvantaged. New lines of 8.Photography of Attending Behavior inquiry are described later in this report. Time-lapse 35mm photographyhas 10.Effects of Anxiety Upon Intellectual been used to collect and analyze data on Processes the attending behavior of students in their classrooms. Filmstrips of intern teachers In a. project on the determinants of and their classes have been developed. complex information-processing behaviors Rank-difference correlations among three in children, the relation between anxiety measures of attention in nineclasses were level and failures in problem-solving strat- identified. egies in fifth- and sixth-graders has been investigated(Sieber & Kameya, 1967; 9. Uncertainty Studies Sieber,1968c). Two forms of experimental intervention to reduce anxiety or There are theoretical grounds for be- encourageitsfacilitatingeffects were lieving that uncertaintythe recognition tried:(a) provision of memory support, of ambiguity or of alternative goals and and (b) brief training programs designed solutionsand"uncertaintybehaviors" to reinforce attention toproblem-relevant underlieinquiry-orientedthinking and stimuli and to stimulate encoding and other complex cognitive processes. An evaluation of such information. Prelimi- early study indicated that lower-class chil- nary results on the memory-support por- dren (grades 1, 2, 4, and 6) had difficulty tion of the experiment suggest thatthe both in generating and in using construc- interference of anxiety with short-term tive alternative solutions to problems, and memory couldbe offset by a variety of that an apparent increase in curiosity at external aids such as diagrams or notation- the second-grade level did not continue to al systems which problem-solvers could be develop. taught to use. Further research includes a Childrenarcofteninappropriately study of the effects of anxiety, IQ, and certain of their answers; the expression task difficulty on concept formation with 93

and without memory support. effects of teachers on pupilattitude and achievement. 11 Computer-AssistedInstructionin A pilot study dealing withthe change Teacher Education of pupil attitudes yielded the somewhat disturbing result that teachers ratedhigh Ways of usingcomputer-assisted in- in the performance of certainskills tended struction (CAI) inteacher education have to have a negativeeffect on pupil attitude been investigated.Ininstruction on a toward the subject (Politzer, 1967). statistical procedure for processing test In the basic study,videotapes were the teach- scoresof students, a classroom group made of 15-minute segments of scored higher (though notsignificantly) ing performance of a groupof French on a criterion testthan did the computer teachers. Criterion measures ofspeaking, group. A groupwhich proceeded through listening, and writing in French were later the program in a standard,linear manner administered to alt pupils. An instrument scored higher (again, notsignificantly) on for rating teacher-student interactions was a criterion testthan did a group allowed developed and applied. Preliminaryresults to make greateruseof 'theflexible, indicate that teachers whose pupils were branching capabilities of the computer. on thewhole more successful (as meas- The projects described abovedeal with ured by achievement) showed asignifi- behavioral variables having generalappli- cantly higher proportion ofrelatively un- cation in the teaching process.The follow- controlled to strictly controlledclassroom ing two projects haveconcerned them- interaction than did theteackrs of the selves with the developmentof technical less successful pupils. teaching of Work on foreign language teachingwill skills as they apply to the focus of the specific subject-matter areas. continue under the new Center, concentrating onthe problem of Teaching: Foreign teaching the disadvantaged.The research 12. Technical Skills of of trans- Languages willinvestigate the problems ferring experience gained inteaching a teaching of the Thisproject aims at improvingthe second language to the training of foreign languageteachers by "second dialect" representedby the lan- (a) producing materials and programs to guage usedin and beyond theschool. train, and instruments toevaluate, foreign language teachers, and (b) studyingchar- 13. technical Skillsof Teaching: Social acteristic classroom behaviorsof good and Studies poorlanguage teachers identified in terms This project investigated useof video- of their effects on pupils. in Three publications have beenproduced tapes inconjunction with a course methods. A Social (Politzer,1966a,1966b;Politzer & social studies teaching Bartley, 1967). The proceduresoutlined Studies Teacher AppraisalGuide was based on the developed. Copies of someof the video- in these publications were school general researchinmicroteaching and tapes navebeen prepared for local modeling. The subsequent phaseof the systems andfor the staff college of the U. project establishes thereliability of the S. Army Civil DefenseSchool. The project above all, their has been described at meetingsof social rating instruments and, educators and validityin terms of the studyof the studies leaders and teacher 94

Students'Cognitive journals. 2.Teachers'and in articles for educational Preferences in Mathematics

The Personological Domain Recent researchhas given much atten- Attitudes and Their Cor- tion to the existenceof "cognitive styles." 1. Teachers' A CognitivePreference Inventory was relates developed to identifypossible differences preferences of bothteachers An early Center project wasaimed at in cognitive and learners, andtheir possible interactive developingmethodsfordetermining relations (Travers, Heath &Cahen, 1967). between teachers' atti- causal relationships In this instrumenteachOf30 mathematics tudes towards pupilsand pupils' attitudes concepts isexpressed in threedifferent towards their teachers(Yee & Gage, ways:verbal, symbolic, andgraphic. One 1967). A second project, astudy by study indicated thatboth teachers and meansof diagonal factoranalysis of a students of mathematics mostoften pre- 100-item inventoryof pupils' perceptions ferred the symbolicoption. A further will have as of their teacher, wasaimed at determining study presently under way of teacher independent variablesteaching mode, the whether five a priori categories distinction, and merit (cognitive,affective,disciplinary, verbal-symbolic-graphic would .be the student's preferencefor mode of motivational, and innovative) withpupil (Zwirner, Beck, mathematicalexpression, supported empirically achievement as thedependent variable. Cronbach, & Gage, "PupilPerceptions of Analysis of 'About Teachers': a Factor 3.Pupillometry in theStudy of Teacher myTeacher," tentativelytitled and in Attitudes preparation). Afurther study investigates relationships between scores onthe a Recentfindings suggest thatinteresting Factor Analysisof "About my Teacher" visual stimuli andmental activity in arith- tentatively titled and inpreparation). A metic problem-solvingproduce pupillary the Center is in- further study investigatesrelationships be- dilatation. Research at finding to education. tween scores onthe California F Scale and tended to apply this and teach- A photographicpupillometer was de- Kerlinger's Educational Scale 7 Certain theoretical of inquiring questions in signed and completecl. ing interns' use issues involving the natureof the visual the classroom in theearly stages of their stimuluspresentation weredeveloped. teaching. Techniques for scoringand analyzing The Center hasdeveloped a collection pupillometric data wereincorporated into of research instrumentsfor the measure- two computer programsusing inputs from ment ofteacher personality andcharacter- the high speedoptical scanning ofphoto- istics. A 300-itemEducational Opinion graphic film. Adetailed survey ofthe Inventory wasadministered to some 160 literatureisnearly completed.Several last Stanfordinterns,andwillbe factor pilot studies weremade and are in the analyzed. Further work onthe validation stagesof data analysis. Onestudy was and characteristics presented at the 1968AERA meeting of teacher personality 1968b). Other reports against classroombehavior is being carried (Koff & Hawkes, preparation. out. are in 95

finalanalysis. A The project hascollaborated with Cen- data are undergoing other second phase of this projectwill compare ter andStanford staff in several efficiency of teaching of research. A studyof "Structural the decision-making areas that of individualteachers. and Interpersonal Componentsof Teach- teams with ing Style: a Study inPupillary Response" 2. TheProfessional Socializationof the .has been made; theanalysis of the data is nearly completed. Teacher and con- The difficulty of measuring toidentify and trolling for a wide varietyof compound- Thisprojectaims examine factors thataffect role expecta- ing effects meansthat much additional before the tion and commitmentin teachingand basicresearchis necessary Questionnaires generalization can be madethat change in influence career mobility. interest, atten- wereadministered to one schooldistrict's pupil diameter indicates approximately 1200 teachers; amodified tion, or cognitivecomplexity. version was administered toadministrative and counselingpersonnel in mid-year. In The Institutional Domain analyzing the data, theproject staff will Context of look for changes inthe attitudes and 1. The Organizational expectations (withparticular emphasis on Teaching the perceivedcharacteristics of the successful teacher and onrole definition and In an effort toidentify organizational inexperienced and ex- influence the decision- expectations) of elements which and of administrative making behavior ofclassroom teachers, perienced teachers and questionnaire data and counselingpersonnel. extensive interview Further work onprofessional socializa- from 16 elementary and16 secondary the equally from con- tion of the teacheris described in school teachers, drawn for Teaching. ventional and modifiedschools and from section on Environment teachers, were first-year and experienced of Teachers collected and analyzed.Tentative con- 3.Occupational Attitudes clusions, which will beuseful in further The purpose of thisproject is to investi- research, are summarizedin the Center's gate theformation of occupationalatti- First Annual Report (1967). their relation to Another study dealt withthe problem- tudes among teachers, style of teaching dominant socialvalues, and the con- solving efficiency and of group differencesin such teamsorganizedwithandwithout sequences asked attitudes. Pretesting hasbeen completed 4 designated leaders. The teams were the following to solve the same twoproblems under on a60-item scale with time limits. occupationak attitudedimensions: con- standardized directions and contributions, of each of these groups formity, creativity, social The work sessions and security. The recorded on audio tape.Additional financial reward, status, were items are currentlybeing revised. informationwasgathered from each members' percep- teaching team on its of Teachers in Openand tions of the way inwhich they carried on 4.Case Studies their team worlc,attitudes toward their Closed Schools team experience,and preferences for as- arrangements, signment in the nextschool year. The Innovations in structural 96 teaching responsibilities, scheduling pro- problem-area focus. Much of this work is visions, and pupils' class assignments are alogicalextension of projects begun widely considered to make school ex- under the previous formulation .and has perience more meaningful for teachers been described earlier in this report. Here and pupils. Evidence is being accumulated we attempt tocomplete our description about teacher behaviors that are modified of the present status of the Center's by such innovations and those that are research and development on the crucial not. The data gatheringbegan with a case problem of heuristic teaching. study of aschoolwith a traditional structureandorganization.Particular 1. Training Studies emphasis has been given to the teachers' patterns of interaction withothers, with Research on the technicalskills of teaching seen as a series of social en- teaching is continuing, with emphasis on counters whosesignificance varies accord- the skills most directly related to eliciting ing to the activity base of the encounter, complex, inquiry-oriented pupil behavior. the population involved, and the physical Modeling and feedback variables will con- setting. tinue to be manipulated. The new re- In the 1968-69 year, the projectwill search will emphasize training in combina- expand the study to include a more tions of skills; pupils' question-asking as a innovative, or "open," school. If possible, function of the teacher's modeling and the study of the original traditional school reinforcement; and pupils' question-asking will be continued to take advantage of a over a seriesof lessons. forthcoming shift in its pupil population and socio-economic background. 2. Aptitude-TreatmentInteractionin Heuristic Teaching 5. The Teacher in 1980 One of the Affiliated Projectsof the An early concern of the Center was a Center has been a study of interactions broad study of the future role of the between aptitudes and instructional treat- teacher, in the course of which extensive ment variables.Included as "aptitudes" interviews, seminars, and panel discussions arecharacteristics and styles of both on the topic wereconducted. A thorough teachers and learners. The teacher's char- review of the subject will appear as a acteristics and styles of teaching canbe research memorandum. investigated both as aptitudes with respect Ithas become clear that the entire to teacher training programsand as treat- orientation of the Center is toward deter- ment variables that interactwith student mining the role of the teacher in a period characteristics and styles of learning (apti- of heightened social and technological tudes) in producing student achievement. change., Accordingly, "The Teacher in Two studies, with particularimplica- 1980" has been terminated as a separate tions for heuristic teaching,will be con- project. ducted. The first of these will examine extemporaneous andheuristic aspects of Heuristic Teaching teaching and learning in closelycontrolled teacher-pupil dialogue situations, sothat We turn now to consider the work important stylistic variables canbe de- being conducted under the Center's new fined and related to other aptitudesof 97

second study will tion in producingdifferences in subjective teachers and learners. A nonstructured in completeclass- responseuncertainty. While investigate interactions films were found toincrease subjective rooms.Evidencefromearlierstudies responseuncertainty underinstructions to indicates that thecorrelations between structured and student achieve- generatediverse hypotheses, student aptitudes inproduction of systematically according films were superior ment may vary uncertainty undercue-attend- to thecharacteristics and stylesof their response relationships cannot be anceinstructions. A"surprisal" measure teachers. Such of the informationvalue of a particular elucidated from the measuresof average of responses was This second studywill responseor group class achievement. devised; this measure wasused in a study seek to identifypositive and negative between teacher aptitudes which confirmedthe interaction correlations between stimulus structure andlearning task. and treatments andstudent aptitudes and achievements. It is hopedthat these and 4. Experiments onHeuristic Behaviorsin other studies willelaborate a morediffer- entiated view ofteacher training and Disadvantaged Children teacher roles andwill suggest additional studies with dis- for development. Three experimental teaching skill variables advantaged children arein process. One the assumption that Studies study will examine 3. Uncertainty middle-class children arerewarded for and readilylearntaskpersistence,while Preliminary research andtheorizing has impulsive in a way identified a numberof cognitive skills minority youth are that interteres withit. It such adifference which underlielearning to avoid pre- be important to seek to judgments and to make correct is found, it may mature improve persistence.The study will assess useof available,although oftendis- self-reinforcement on task Ways of teaching the effects of organized, information. persistence, therelation of expectancyof these behaviors willbe investigated. self-reinforcement, and the A firstand exploratory studywill success to itself on which uncertainty effectsoftaskpersistence examine the degree to achievement. A secondstudy will test the behaviors are found inlower-middle-class effectsof modeling treatments ona fifth-grade children andthe extent to admit the existenceof which these behaviors canbe taught to child's learning to ambiguity. Lower-classchildren will ob- such children. Asecond will be a two-year children expressing adding new variablesand servemodels of other experiment doubt in ambiguousproblem-solving situa- covering grades 1, 4,8, and 12 inmiddle- exposed to schools. A third studywill tions. Theeffects of being and lower-class and use of these models,presented on videotape,will deal with the acquisition third study stemsfrom the teaching interns. be tested. A uncertainty skill by hypothesis that manyminority-group chil- In recent research,preliminary results because of estimation of dren respondimpulsively partly indicate that accuracy relativelypoorinformation- subjective response uncertaintyis a gener- oftheir processing :capacitiesand are rewardedfor alizedtraitacrosstasksandisun- discriminative per- thinking ability. oversimplification of correlated with divergent ceptual and cognitive processes.Variables Another studyfound a significant inter- if such children action of task structureand task defini- will be manipulated to see 98

physiological telemetry canbe learn to controltheir hoped that canbe helped to added to themeasurementsin thestudy. impulsivity byteaching careful cuedis- by simplyincreasing the crimination, or The Environmentfor Teaching amountof contingentreinforcement received. Teaching today isshaped by crisisand of a schoolexperience changethe crisis of the 5. Small GroupResearch that isdysfunctional for too many and youth,and change in the trainingof nation's children and Exploratory studies as a consequenceof organizational interns are in process.A first studywill The environ- type of technologicalinnovation. examine the extentto which a believe to be mostnecessaryfor training improvesthe ment we call the social interaction effective teachingis one that we conduct ofeffective groupactivity and We see the openschool as styles inclassrooms. A "open" school. heuristic teaching displaying highorganizationalflexibility. second study will assesshow an inquiry- ischaracterized by adif- contrasted to asensitivity- Such a school oriented, as ferentiated staffingplan, flexibleschedul- oriented, group processcanbe used to evaluation offaculty, provi- learn heuristicteaching ing, collegial help interns to sion forfurther careerdevelopment, and collaboration styles. arrangementsfor genuine with the communityorneighborhood it Teaching andthe Teacher's research 6. Heuristic serves.Much of theCenter's Sense ofPersonal Competence efforts in this.problem areawill con- variables thataffect these with their centrate on Beginning teachers' concern characteristics. Theprojectsdescribed personal adequacyand competence by current own effectiveness in the below willbe conducted mayreduce their Center's staffand by new is theinfluence members of the To be studied members fromthe Departmentof Sociol- personal inadequacy, con- School of Business. of feelings of ogyand the Graduate ceptions of one'sself, and actualclass- the way internteach- the Teach- roomexperience on 1.ProfessionalSocialization of think aboutthemselves in theteaching Development .= isthat erand His Career process.A basicassumption emphasis on focused on how heuristic teaching,with its In 1967-68this project challenge, will beanxiety- effects of thefvst year inquiry and for many the socialization provoking andthus aversive affect thebeginningteacher's also produceresistance of teaching definition of teachers and may senseof autonomyand his and anxiety instudents. Thestudy will teacher. Theproject will of teachers are the successful informal determine which types of nowdeal with theformal and moreresponsive tospecific sequences of "inducting"the beginning techniques inreducing exces- process the experi- treatment study will also teacher and"resocializing" sive anxiety.If feasible, the who changesschool sys- of modelinginquiry enced teacher describe the investigate methods tems.The projectwill seek to behavior forstudents. Partof the study adequately, to assessits develop methodsfor process more with more will attempt to impact onteacher behavior counselors toadviseteachers estimate the mostprob- training students. It is certainty, and to faced withinquiry-oriented 99

of the investigationwill be the conceptof able outcomes, in termsof teacher be- formal organizations of alleviating the authority systems in haviors, of specific ways developed at Stanford.Authority systems beginner's initial fearof teaching and the the process by problems in his first areanalyzed in terms of experienced teacher's which the performanceof organizational year in a newschool system. A partof the participantsis evaluatedand organiza- project is a studyof the ways inwhich punishments are dis- within tional rewards and newteachers achieve autonomy tributed. This concerhas been success- the school organization.We are partic- organizations in the the above processes as fully applied to five ularly interested in United States and twoin Nigeria. Within they affect openschools. this frame ofreference, the teamwill evaluation and authority Organization andInnova- study patterns of 2. Innovative in schools, therole of theprofessional tions in Teaching teacher in abureaucratic organization(the orientation of educational innova- school), and the status Whether, and how, teachers as it relates totheir professional tion is introducedinto a school isaffected lines of inquirywill of that school's organiza- behavior. Additional by the nature examine thesocial contextof teacher- tion. To beconducted is a rigorousfield particularly with respect highly structured and student relations, study employing a students' educationaland occupational extensive interviewtechnique to explore a to wide range ofpropositions andtheories aspirations. of organizational abouttheprocess Disadvantaged change in schools.These include the Teaching the characteristics of thechange agent, in- student tends to the recep- The disadvantaged novation as a decision process, conventional educational sys- tivity of a socialenvironment to change, reject the tem,first by failing toachieve its cur- and financial resourceallocation as an by drop- The information ricular objectivesand ultimately instrument of change. ping out of it. His parentsand community obtained will represent animportant step comprehensive anti ac- tend to regardthe present system as toward a more bureaucracy whichthey description of the innovation pro- merely another curate have little power toinfluence. cess.The ultimate goalof the project will that research anddevelop- be to generate a setof procedures or We believe that can be used as ment onthe educationof the econom- innovation plans ically disadvantaged mustitself become guidelines for introducingchange in ma- socio-psychological setting schools. involved in the terials and creating open oftheschools.Parents,community become partici- in the AuthorityStructure groups,and teachers must 3. The Teacher pants in,rather than objectsof, the design of the Stanford Depart- of education. Six members The teachers arethe primaryobjects of of Sociology haveformulated an ment our concern.The present-dayteacher is extensive andintegrated research program life of the sociological concepts to often remotefrom the cultural bringing certain disadvantaged child,unable to influence bear on the questionsof educational the curriculumhe at- the school contextof decisions about organization and tempts totranslate to thechild, and teaching. Thetheoretical basis formuch 100 inadequately supported by trainingand its own educationalproblems. resources to overcomethe barriers sepa- and DevelopmentalField rating the disadvantagedpupil from rele- 2. A Diagnostic vant educationalexperiences. Study to The Center's new program attempts introduce of availablere- Professionals attempting to concentrate a portion consider the feelings, sources onthe problems of teachingthe changes often fail to of the ex- thoughts, and attitudesof the participants disadvantaged, making use Efforts to involve perience and skills peculiar tothis Center. in the teaching system. the system's participantshave in the past Teaching seemed time-consumingand unproduc- 1. ACommunity-Centered impossible to ignore partici- Laboratory tive. Yet it is pantinvolvement in the educationof the economically disadvantagedchild. The Center proposes to try out a means study in a highschool for entering an economicallydeprived A pertinent system servingboth high incomeand community to conductbasic research and will identify. development on the teaching processes: economically depressed areas develop four groups ofinformants, representing The aims of the approach are to teachers, and adminis- teaching programs that aremeaningful to students, parents, and local trators. Theseinformant groups, meeting students, to engage parents "brainstorming" ses- community leaders in this process,and to separately in taped and retraining sions, will identifyproblems that they develop ways of training of techniques will teachers of the disadvantaged. know about. A variety the Center be used to establishhow each particular As an intervention strategy, the problem, andhow they proposes toestablish a Community-Cen- group sees located in the identify the forcescontributing to the tered Teaching Laboratory, of changing these community to be served.The Teaching problem and ways Laboratory can serve both as alaboratory forces. At this point,four mixed groupsmade and as a field stationwithin the com- each of the four close relations upof participants from munity. It would maintain begin planning for with the schools, butwould also serve to original groups would of parents, change. These groupswould attempt to link community life, concerns problems posed existing formal institutionsand agencies, reach an agreement on school. The Lab- and develop position papersto be sent to and teaching in the Finally, the recommenda- oratory would servefor a period of two or the total group. tions of each groupwould be presented to threeyears,and might well thenbe working on the phased out as an operatingentity. The the entire body of persons tested programs developedwithin the problem. could then be instituted inthe program 3. The Use ofSmall Groups to Improve schools of the community. andSelf- Arrangements for theLaboratory have A c ad emicCompetence been made with theelementary school Respect inAcademically Disadvantaged system in aneconomically deprived com- Children munity. The precisefunctions and strat- To be conductedis a study aimed at egies of the Laboratorywill be developed problem students as thecommunity itself begins todefine helping "failures" and 101

become more effective by using the strong school-community committees, parents' interpersonal forces that can be developed clubs, and mutual aid committees can deal within carefully composed and directed with school problems; and (c) provide small groups. Such students are assumed other aids for both the classroom teacher to have a varietyof assessable aptitudes. and participants from the community. Such assessment will serve as a basis for carefully composing small groups to serve Center Service Operations as adaptivemilieux. Students in these goups will betold that their primary The following service functions at the function is to learn skills that will enable Center are an integral part of its operation them to tutor younger children. Appro- and contribute directly to its research. priate tasks, questions, and objectiveswill be established. The plan calls for minimal adult intervention. The work should yield 1. Microteaching Clinic a varietyof training and retraining .techniques for use by teachers. TheCenter'sMicroteachingClinic serves both as amedium of instruction 4. A Training Syllabus for Teachersof a and a vehicle for research. During the Second Dialect summer quarter,beginning teaching interns are trained inthe microteaching A new project will undertake develop- procedures described earlier. After video- ment of a syllabusfor the teaching of tapes of their teachingperformances have standard English as a second language or been analyzed, they are placed in the dialect.Itis assumed that the "first" Intern Data Bank. dialectof the disadvantaged may be another English dialect or even another 2. Intern Data Bank language, though not usually in its standard form. This project will apply the The Intern Data Bank contains data on techniques of second-language teaching 170 intern teachers collected at thebegin- which are most appropriate for the special ning of their training in June 1967, at the problems of teaching standard English to disadvantaged children. end of the summer period of that training, and again in May 1968 after they had had 5. Procedures and Techniques for Restruc- a yearof teaching experience. Other data turing School-Community-Teacher Re- have been collected and stored on mag- lations in Impoverished Areas netic disks or in other forms. The Data Bank includes data on teaching behavior The project aims to improve teaching in 45-minute classes recorded on video- by using a teamincluding teachers, an tape; ptipil achievement in response to experienced community action specialist, that behavior; pupil reaction to the lesson; educational researchers, and representa- intern reaction to his own teachingof the tives of the communityto develop and lesson; pupil ability; intern ability; and test handbooks, manuals, orother com- intern attitudes, personality, and life his- munications materials which will (a) train tory. These data arebeing used to assess parents to support theeducation of their the effects of training and experience on children;(b) show how policy-making teaching performance. 102

3. Research Methodology Unit Far West Regional Laboratoryfor Educa- tional Research and Development. A pro- The general purpose of theResearch ductive relationship with San Jose State Methodology Unit is to ensure thatthe College is extending the Center's workin Center's projects use thebest possible research and development on teacheredu- approaches to problems of design,sampl- cation to the elementary level.The Center ing,measurement,statisticalanalysis, maintains close contact withthe ERIC computation, data processing,and inter- Clearinghouse on Educational Mediaand pretation. Its services are available toall Technology at Stanford, and withother researchers at the Center. R&D Centers.

4. Publications, Dissemination, andMedia The Ou tlook Ila Unit Much has been accomplishedduring the Center's life thus far; much remains tobe This new unit centralizes the Center's done. Many of the problems inherent in dissemination activities. It is responsible. organizing, staffing, andadministering a for the Center's publications and reports, complex research organizationhave been editorialservices, and library.Italso resolved.Specific contributions to our coordinates the activities of the previous knowledge about, and methodsof con- units on Film Production andVii:leotape ducting research on, the teaching process Service. have been developed and widelydis- seminated. The Center's problem focus Relations With Other Agencies has been redefined. We loolc forward to an intensified effort extending the research The Center maintains close relation- and development already initiated and ships with the school districts whichhave creating new ideas in problem areas as yet served as sites for its work and withthe unexplored. 103

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tech. Rept.: SCRDTTechnical Report.) (Res. Mem.: SCRDTResearch Memorandum.

differentiated teachingstaff. Res. Mem. No. 6,March 1967. Allen, D. W. A in explaining:Evidence on its Belgard, M. R., Rosenshine,B., & Gage, N. L.The teacher's effectiveness with students' ratings. Res.Mem. No. 10 (Rev.ed.), May 1968. generality and correlation Improving Teacher and art of educatingteachers. In S. M. Elam(Ed.), Bush, R. N. The science Kappa, 1966. Pp.35-62. (a) Education in the UnitedStates.Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta The Role of theTeacher: LookingForward.Essays Bush, R. N. Teaching:The formative years. In State College, Greeley.Denver, Colo.:Publishers commemorating theDiamond Jubilee, Colorado Press, 1966. (b) the role of the teacher.Theory into Practice,1967, 6, 246-251. Bush, R. N. Redefining development in teachereducation. Res. Mem. No. 32,May Bush, R. N. Newdirections for research and 1968. higher-order questioningskills. Claus, K. E. Theeffects of modelingand feedback variables on dissertation, Stanford University,1968. Unpublished doctoral Paper presented atthe meeting of Dell, D., & Hiller, J. E.Computer analysisof teachers' explanations. Educational Research Association,Chicago, February 1968. the American analysis of variance. Res.Mem. No. 14,November 1967. Elashoff, J. D., & Abrams,A. Missing data in A Report ofthe Research on cognitive aspectsof teaching. InThe Way Teaching Is: Gage, N. L. for Supervision andCurriculum Development Seminar onTeaching.Washington, D. C.: Association Education Association, 1966.Pp. 29-44. and the National (Ed.),Improving CollegeTeaching. need for process-orientedresearch. In C. B. T. Lee Gage, N. L. The Pp. 244-248. (a) Washington, D. C.: AmericanCouncil on Education, 1967. Educational Sciences: AnInternational Journal, Gage, N. L.Psychological conceptionsof teaching. 1967, 1, 151-161.(b) prepared the new roles ofteachers required byeducational innovations. Paper Gage, N. L. Research on Roles of TeachersRequired by Educational for the InternationalConference on the Changing 1967. (c) Innovations, Berlin, October No. 1, March 1967.(d) pressing concerns ofeducational research. Res. Mem. Gage, N. L. Three methods.Phi DeltaKappan, 1968, 49, Gage, N. L. Ananalytical approach toresearch on instructional Mem. No. 2, March 1967.(a) 601-606. Originally Res. 1968, 49, 399.403.(b) science contribute tothe art of teaching?Phi Delta Kappan, Gage, N. L. Can Encyclopedia of EducationalResearch(in press). Gage, N. L. Teachingmethods. In R. L. Ebel(Ed.), Originally Res. Mem. No. 33,July 1968. (c) presented at the J. C., & Shutes, R.E. Generality ofability to explain. Paper Gage, N. L., Fortune, February 1966. meeting of the AmericanEducational ResearchAssociation, Chicago, formulations for research onteaching.Review of Educational Gage, N. L., &Unruh, W. R. Theoretical Originally Res. Mem. No. 8,July 1967. Research,1967, 37, 358-370. of a criterion oflecture Gorth, W. P., Allen, D.W., Popejoy, L. W., &Stroud, T. W. Validation effectiveness. Res. Mem. No. 26, March 1968. Gross, R. E. Teacher education for the social studies.Education,1967, 88, 130-135. Gross, R. E., & & McCormac, R. C. Video tapes in the preparation of the social studies teacher. Educational Screen and Audiovisual Guide,1967, 46(9), 30-31. Hiller, J. E. An experimental investigation of the effects of conceptual vagueness on speaking behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1968. Koff, R. H. The definition of a cognitive control principle: A case of diminishing returns. Res. Mem. No. 16, December 1967. (a) Koff, R. H. Dynamics of task and process: The classroom as social organism. Res. Mem. No. 15, November 1967. (b) Koff, R. H. Preferences of teacher trainees for teaching situations: The reaction to teaching situations test. Res. Mem. No. 22, May 1968. Koff, R. H., & Feldman, D. H. Systematic changes in adult word-association norms 1910-1967: Implications for the language of the classroom. Res. Mem. No. 28, April 1968. Koff, R. H., & Hawkes, T. H. Personality correlates of sociometric status. Res. Mem. No. 21, May 1968. (a) Koff, R. H., & Hawkes, T. H. Sociometric choice: A study of pupillary response. Res. Mem. No. 20, February 1968. (b) Koff, R. H., & Warren, R. L. Pre-theoretical considerations of uncertainty: An aspect of classroom communication. Res. Mem. No. 19, January 1968. McDonald, F. J. Applying the language of behavioral models to teaching acts. Res. Mem. No. 3, March 1967. McDonald, F.J. A model of mathemagenic behavior as intervening variables in classroom communication. Res. Mem. No. 30, April 1968. (a) McDonald, F. J. Training teachers as a research tool. Res. Mem. No. 24, February 1968. (b) McDonald, F. J., & Allen, D. W. Training effects of fec lback and modeling procedures on teaching performance. Tech. Rept. No. 3, 1967. Orme, M. E. J. The effects of modeling and feedback variables on the acquisition of a complex teaching strategy. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, 1967. No. 67-4417. Politzer, R. L. Performance criteria for the foreign language teacher. Tech. Rept. No. 1A, 1966. (a) Politzer, R. L. Practice-centered teacher training: French. Tech. Rept. No. 1, 1966. (b) Politzer, R. L. An exploratory study of the relation of teacher competence and performance to pupil attitudes toward foreign language learning. Res..Mem. No. 13, October 1967. Politzer, R. L., & Bartley, D. Practice-centered teacher training: Spanish. Tech. Rept. No. 2, 1967. Rosenshine, B. Behavioral predictors of effectiveness in explaining social studies material. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1968. Salomon, G., & Snow, R. E. The specification of film-attributes for psychological and educational research processes. Res. Mem. No. 27, March 1968. Sears, P. S. The study of development of creativity: Research problems in parental antecedents. Res. Mem. No. 29, April 1968. Sears, P. S., & Feldman, D. H. Changes in young children's behavior after a year of computer-assisted instruction: An exploratory study. Res. Mem. No. 31, May 1968. Sieber, J. E. Individual differences in decision making. Res. Mem. No. 23, February 1968. (a) Sieber, J. E. Overcoming secondary ignorance: Learning to be uncertain.Elementary School Journal (inpress). Originally Res. Mem. No. 17, January 1968. (b) Sieber, J. E. A paradigm for applied research on modifications of the effects of test anxietyon intellective processes. Res. Mem. No. 25, February 1968. (c) Sieber, J. E., & Kameya, L. I. The relationship between test anxiety and children's need tormemory support in problem solving. Res. Mem. No. 11, September 1967. 105

Snow, R. E. Brunswikian approaches to research onteaching. Res. Mem. No. 4, March 1967. (a) Snow, R. E. Response complexity and experimentaldesign. Res. Mem. No. 5, March 1967. (b) Snow, R. E. Toward a model of teacher-learner interaction.Res. Mem. No. 18, January 1968. Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching.Proposal to establish the center. 1964. Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching. Firstannual report. 1967. Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching.Second annual report. 1968. Travers, K. S., Heath, R. W., & Cahen, L. S. Preferences for modesof exptession in mathematics. Res. Mem. No. 7, May 1967. Unruh, W. R. The modality and validity of cues tolecture effectiveness. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: UniversityMicrofilms, 1968. No. 68-6501. Yee, A. H., & Gage, N. L. Techniques for estimatingthe source and direction of causal influence in panel data. Psychological Bulletin (in press). Originally Res. Mem.No. 9, August 1967.

FILMS

Available for distribution:

1. Microteaching: What's That? 1967.Explains microteaching from the perspective of a teaching intern. 30 min., color. Price $200; rental $30. 2. Technical Skills of Teaching. 1968. A master teachermodels three technical skills: silence (listening), reinforcement, probing. Commentary by F. J. McDonald. 30 min.,color. Price $200; rental $30. 3. Teachers and Classes. Covers classroomdiscipline situations. 40 min., BW. (Address requests to Stanford University School of Education.) in process:

1. Role-Playing. On role-playing as a teaching technique in aclassroom situation. 20 min., BW.

For research only:

1. Intern Data Bank Storage Films. Thirty-two 40-min. BWfdrns, each recording an intern's teaching behavior. 2. Intern Data Bank Time-Lapse Films. Thirty-two 40-min. BWfilms on interns' teaching behavior. 3. Math Presentation Mode Stimuli. Thirty-sic 5-min. BWfilms, showing 12 lessons presented in each of three ways. 106

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

William A. Bennie, Professor and Director of Student Teacher Department of Curriculum knd Instruction Oliver H. Bown, Co-director of the Center, Professor of Educatio Psychology Charles Victor Bunderson, Assistant Professor of Computer Scieces and of Educational Psychology; Director, Laboratory for Computer-Assisted Instruction David P. Butts, Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction Ozro Luke Davis, Jr., Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction Harvey Dingman, Associate Professor of Educational Psyc ology Edmund T. Emmer, Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology Frances Fallan Fuller, Associate Professor of Educational Psychology; Research Scientist, Personality Research Center June Gallessich, Assistant Professor of Educationalsychology Glenadine E. Gibb, Professor of Mathematics Education, Department of Mathematics and of Curriculum and Instruction Wayne H. Holtzman, Dean, College of Education, Professor of Psychology and Education Ira Iscoe, Professor of Psychology and Educa on; Director, Mental Health Training Program Sara Lundsteen, Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction Ilyde I. Martin, Professor of Curriculum and Instruction Shirley L. Menaker, Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology Gregg B. Millen, Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Instruction Robert F. Peck, Co-director of the Center and Professor of Educational Psychology Robert F. Schenkkan, Professor ofadio-Television-Film; Director, Communication Center Linda Lee Schmidt, Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology Walter F. Stenning, Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Psychology Michael P. Thomas, Jr., Associate Professor of Educational Administration Donald Veldman, Associate Professor of Educational Psychology N. H. Wittner, Director, Research and Development, Austin Public Schools; Coordinator, Austin Public Schools William G. Wolfe, Professor of Special Education; Director, Special Education Instructional Materials Center L. Jean York, Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Instruction 107

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTCENTER FOR TEACHER EDUCATION

Robert F. Peck and Oliver H. Brown The University of Texas at Austin

The Evolution of the Center individual personal assessment wereused as thepoint of departurefor self-ex- Although the Center was officially es- ploratory sessions with studentteachers. tablished in September, 1965, as a part- The assumption was thatincreased self- nership of The Universityof Texas, the knowledge, acquired in a supportive, con- would induce a per- Texas Education Agencyand the Austin structive atmosphere, School District, the lcind of work it carries sisting tendency to be morealert to one's before in a own actionsand their consequences. A forward began ten years such self- programto experimentwith ways ofcorollary premise was that self-insight and the knowledge would lead to firmer,realistic improving both the of socialinsight of young teachers.This self-assurance and an augmented sense work was supported by the HoggFounda- self-worth. tion for Mental Health. In1958, the Experience with this formof feedback NIMH supported this work on an ex- demonstrated very quickly itsadditional panded scale, with a grant for afive year value in establishing anemotionally signif- between the demonstrationprogramcalledMental icant, one-to-one relationship Health in Teacher Education. student and hiscounselor/instructor, in Several theoretical propositions under- contrast to therelative anonymity main- lay this work. One was that openness to tained in the conventional program.In how frequently experience isatrainable characteristic. addition, it was striking Drawing on experience withthe assess- students were unaware ofthe relevance of ment and trainingof business executives, theirpersonal,behavioral and motiva- tothekind of thetechniqueof assessment-feedback tionalcharacteristics counseling was introduced. Theresults of teacher they wouldbecome. Increased 108 awareness of the inevitability and legit- cited by Gage as primary components of imacy of such influences frequently drew the effective teacher:1 (1) rational auton- the student into his own, professional omy (his "organized, clear-thinking be- educationinamuchdeeper,self- havior").(2) positive interpersonal atti- motivated way. tudes ("warmth"), and (3) openness to Further development of counseling pro- pupil ideas and actions ("indirectness"). cedures and revision of the curriculum to Thus, operational measures were created fit the developmental process which stu- for each of the major propositions. dents were found to follow was increased While the purpose of the experimental by 1962, resulting in experimentation treatments was to increase the teaching with 8mm. sound movies as a second kind effectiveness of students in these three of feedback data. Students were given the respects, as well as in other ways, there is opportunity to see themselves teaching, a very important,central difference be- and to discuss why they acted as they did tween this personalized approach to the considering both their own natures and improvement of teaching and the ap- the characteristics of the teaching situa- proach known as micro-teaching which tion. was being invented at about the sametime The ultimate, practical point of these atStanford University. Micro-teaching, exploratorytrialsinvolvedasecond having identified a number of specific theoretical assumption: that openness to kinds of teaching behavior which are experience is a generalizing characteristic. thought to be desirable, then coaches all Alert, healthily-toned acceptance of the students in a rather similar fashion to facts of a teacher's own behavior, it was practice each of the desirable teaching felt, would induce more alert recognition tactics, one at a time. Thus, all students and more sympathetic understanding of are uniformly encouraged to doless lec- his pupils' actions and feelings. turing and ask more questions, as a way of A third set of theoretical propositions permitting and encouraging intellectual was also at issue. It was assumed that the initiative on the part of their pupils. The style of the feedback counseling would end result, it is hoped, is the development induce increasing autonomy in the stu- of a reasonably uniform style of teaching dent teacher: more willingness to assume which all students will adopt. responsibility and initiative, and growing In the personalized approach to teacher skill and discriminatory judgment in mak- educationdevelopedat Texas, which ing independent analyses and independent might be termed "macro-teaching" for decisions. This was thebestway,it contrast, somewhat the same ultimate seemed, to prepare teachers who would effectsaresought but witha major spontaneously encourage just such auton- difference in the method of approach, and omy of feeling and judgment in their with a somewhat different conception of pup ils. the desired end state. Starting from the It might be noted here that factorial observable fact that each student has an analysis of a complex assessment program idiosyncratic set of motives and his own turned up, among other things,three style of coping with life, the ultimate goal dimensions which closely resemble those of this training process is not to turn out

1Gage, N. L. Can Science Contribute to the Art of Teaching? Phi Delta Kappan, XLIX:7, March 1968, pp. 299-403. 109

development of adiversified batteryfor shaped into one"ideal" teachers who are assessing thepersonalitycharacteristics of behavior pattern,but to help eachstudent increasingly objective meas- effectiveness in using teachers, and develop increasing of teachingbehavior were devised.In personal style.For example, a ures the new his own would be 1962,atthe same time as naturally reserved,quiet student experimental study wasbegun, an NIMH shown how toevoke active responses obtained for basicresearch on a that are perhaps a grant was from children in ways newkind of measurement,"Computer but nonethelessin insure littlelessreserved AnalysisofPersonality."To keeping withhis ownbehavior style. He com- showman synergy,all these operations were would not beshown a dramatic bined into a unitknown thereafter asthe of a teacher,and urged toemulate the Centerof The style of the"born PersonalityResearch ebullient, dramatic University of Texas. the outsetof the actor." approach simply re- Meanwhile, since The personalized MHTE project in1958, a largenumber of different teachershave very cognizes that faculty membersof the Collegeof Educa- different waysof evoking childlearning engaged in revisingthe each teacher tobecome tion had been and it encourages curricular contentof the pre-serviceed- in his ownparticular done in increasingly skilled ucation program.Often, this was Thus, a fourthproposi- professors from two or wayof doing it. teamplanning, by tion mightbe stated, that anidiosyncratic teacher, three departments. approach to thetraining of each of EducationalPsychol- pressing concernsand From the side tuned to his most ogy,colleagues changedboth the nature his individualbehavior style, is aneffec- of topicsinthe autonomy, andthesequence tive way tohelp him achieve psychological. area.From analmost ex- warmth and opennessin his dealingswith in 1957 ontest-theory clusive emphasis by 1962 pupils. and classicalchild development, There was agood deal ofclinical and changed to aninterdis- experimental evidence tosupport the content was some ciplinary approachdescribable as "Be- these propositions;but much morerig- Foundations ofEduca- testing andbetter havioral Science orousexperimental tion". This coursecontent wasboth log- procedures wereneeded. Con- measuring ically andoperationallycross-linked with sequently, in 1962 acontrolled experi- in thecurriculum begun, under aU.S.O.E. grant students' experiences ment was coursesin classroomparticipation and entitled "Personality,Teacher Education Moreover, as waslater Behavior." The purpose was student teaching. turned out and Teaching measuredsystematically, there the effectsof the feedback pro- of topics which to test and the to be anoptimal sequence cedures on boththe trainability began with thestudents' own most urgent transferability of opennessin the pre- Only laterdid theytransfer Success depended cru- concerns. service teacher. their attention,(and their newknowl- cially on thecooperation ofthe teacher behaviors and the Principal and edge) to issuesof child education facultyand of the children. Highland ParkElementary teaching of of stu- teachers of Major revisionand realignment School, and onthe cooperationof many experiences wereinitiated in faculty members inthe high dent learning high school Curriculum andInstruction.Increased em- schools of Austin. phasis was given tothe idiosyncraticneeds The MHTEprojectresultedin the 110 of the student And to the particularschool back counseling. situation in which he was placed. From the start of the MHTEproject, As seems to have been trueall over the another change was made inthe way the country, when the entirebody of begin- college students were taught. It was cerning education students at The University tainly not a total changefrom earlier of Texas was polled, as early as1958, practice, but new, systematicemphasis their most pressing recommendation was was given tocollege teaching procedures that they be given at least a tasteof actual which minimized lecturingancl maximized teaching responsibility at theearliest pos- independent study andstudent-initiated faculty discussion of issues whichimmediately sible point in their training. The practical class- involved in the exploratory studybelieved concerned them in their that this was a sound principle.There is room experiences.For example, there was "on the onedevice which worked verywell as a nothing like actual involvement learning firingline"to captureattention and first exercise for the students in secure strong egoinvolvement. Conse- to applypsychological and sociological quently, two alternatestrategies were principles to a case study of anindividual. developed for supplying this kindof early The attention of youngcoeds, especially, experience. At the levelof elementary wasalmost magnetically capturedwhen education the program alreadytook stu- they were given, for theirfirst case study, dents into public classrooms inAustin as biographicaland personaldata on a "observers." After careful planningwith young,unmarried, engineer who had just finished his college work and wasapplying the faculty of the HighlandPark School, asked to do a in 1962, both controland experimental for his first job. When students were given actualteaching re- "blind" analysis, including adiscussion of sponsiblity early in their firsteducation his potentiality as a husbandand father, male course, inthe junior year. This progressed as well ashis career potential, both they and female students put inseveral times until, by the end of the semester, thought which were carrying asmuch teaching respon- the amount of work and sibility as many people inthe conven- they ordinarily gave to anintroductory tional program were in theirterminal case studyof a school child. Thereafter, of course, their assignmentsdid move to semester ofstudent teaching. always with At the secondaryschool level, it was studies of child behavior, not possible to puthundreds of junior attention directed tosuch practical ques- school classes tions as, "What would youdo about this students into the same high his where other hundreds of seniorstudents particular characteristic if you were college instruction doing student teaching.Consequently, the teacher?" In short, the first education course at the junior year wasplanned so as to involvestudents in turned into a teachinglaboratory. the very kinds of instructionalexperiences was which they are enjoined topractice with The stpdents took turnsteaching each matter and other and acting as "pupils."This was an children:relatingsubject imperfect analogue of actual highschool theory to issues whichstrongly concern teaching, but it still constituted agenuine the learner, providingfor independent rich, fast analysis of facts which arethen checked teaching experience. There was evidence, and flexibly- feedback among the students asthey took against empirical another. Eight milli- leddiscussionof issues which have turns teaching one and about meter movies wereused here, for feed- immediate curricular relevance 111

shich the students are also strongly con- a teaching certificate. For thefirst time, cerned. Thus, the college instructors in measures ofmotivational and personality this program were attempting, even more characteristics were added to the assess- than usual, to provide living models of the ment battery required ofallteaching kind of teaching which their students candidates. No student is ever excluded would hopefully do when they went into from training on the basis of this battery; the school room. but the College of Education now pro- The study which began in 1962 has just vides selective career counseling for stu- been completed. Considering the very dents who display problems. Such coun- limited amount of experimental inter- seling is offered to all other students, as vention which was possible amounting, on well, and is now voluntarily sought by at the average, to about an hour and a half least a third of all candidates. of assessment feedback counseling and a When the new R & D Center for similar amount of video tape feedback Teacher Education was founded in 1965, counseling,the objectiveevidence for the work just described was one focal changes as a result of these experimental interest. Nonetheless, the mission of the treatments is both positive and encourag- new Center was much morebroadly con- ing. As contrasted with a control group ceived. Whereas theearlier work em- who otherwise received the same kind of phasized mainly psychological aspects of instruction, from the same instructors, teacherpreparation,andprimarily students who received the feedback in psychologicaltechniquesforinducing varyingcombinations showedpositive change, the national need clearly called change in openness to experience. The fora greatdeal of attention to the corollary premise was also confffmed that specific,professionalknowledgeand they increased in realistic self-confidence teaching skills required to meet urgent when faced with classroom problems. social and educational demands. ror ex- Secondly, their openness did transfer to ample, the fostering of independent intheir treatment of pupils. They showed a quiry by children was receiving strong number of signs of more "indirect" teach- attention as a much-needed change from ing practices in video tapes taken at the the passive memorization of facts and endoftheirtraining.Thirdly,they ideas. Perhaps the most successful move in showed more discriminating judgment and this direction was the A.A.A.S.-sponsored greater autonomy in conceptualizing and development of entirely new curricula and resolving school-related problems. Finally, teaching methods, known as "Science: A their feelings toward other people, in- Process Approach." Consequently, as a cludingchildren,showedincreased natural counterpart to the counseling ap- warmth and positiveness. proach for increasing teacher autonomy, Exactly how and why such changes the University Science Education Center occurred, and how they could be more added its forces to the R & D program, effectively induced, is the subject for a with its in-service program for training considerable part of the research in the elementary teachers in this new approach present R & D Center program. for which a Title III grant was secured for As a result of such studies, the Univer- its non-research aspects. sity of Texas Council on Teacher Educa- Nationally speaking, we also needed to tion introduced two administrativein- find better ways of educating teachers to novations for all undergraduates pursuing individualize their instruction of children. 112

Therefore, thq R & D Center took in a United States were explored resulting in new project,"Individualized Instruction the Southwest Educational Development Through Team Teaching," inaugurated at Corporation coming into being within a Brentwood Elementary School, with the matter of months as a cooperative en- collaboration of a faculty member of the deavor covering the states of Louisiana CollegeofEducation.Thisproject and Texas. planned to convert a conventional school During the second and third years, into a partially ungraded school, with Center staff members were involved in team-planning by teachers for the individ- two major undertakings. They were carry- ualization ot instruction. The R & D ing out experimental studies which had Center supplied two CAI terminals in the been planned in the previous years; but school. A member from the Math Educa- they were simultaneously striving to co- tion Center, and the College CAI Labora- ordinate both the conceptual design and tory began to develop math programs for the operation of all Center activities into a children on the computer, as a necessary genuinely unified master plan. firststeptoprovidea place where The individual projects begun in the teachers could learn how to use CAI first two years were moving forward. For facilitiesas part of theirinstructional example, a new system for describing the program. sequential interactions of teacher and This same program for individualizing pupils in the classroom was evolved, along instruction was then instituted in another with additional new dimensions derived elementary school populated almost en- fromempiricialanalysis of classroom tirely by Latin-American children from movies. This procedure was turned into a Spanish-speaking families at the lower video tape coding system (FAIR: Fuller income levels. Analysis of Interacting I4sponses) which In its first year the new Center took gave equal attention tochild behavior and over one other program which wasaimed to teacher behavior, iworder to permitthe at the unique need for teachers who could analysis of complete sequences of teach- work effectively with Spanish-speaking er-child interaction in the classroom learn- children in the Southwest. This was the ing process. A mechanized system was Bilingual Education Program accompanied developed and put into operation for by development of an in-service program coding video tapes and feeding the results of innovation and teacher education in directly to computer tape. Rapid com- the San Antonio schools. puter scoring permitsfast feedback to the Because the original plan cf. the R & D student teacher about his style of inter- Center included all phases c f dissemina- action with his pupils. This system also,of tion as well as research and development, course, permits verypowerful statistical the gradual clarification of national policy analyses, of many kinds, to reveal general into a separation of functions between the patterns of interaction that occurwith R & D Centers and the Regional Educa- different kinds of pupils or teachers; and tional Laboratories made it essential to it permits comparison of these objectified, see that bothfunctions were carried out, quantified measures with many cognitive but under the new division of responsibil- and emotional characteristics of both ities which national policy dictated. The teachers and pupils. Such studies are now possibilitiesof developing a Regional in progress. Educational Laboratory in this part of the A new experiment in live teaching

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experience for junior secondary education inary results indicating a number of de- students was undertaken. In this study, sirable effects from this instructional pro- the prospective teachers have a chance to cess. A teaching laboratory for secondary take responsibility for teaching children students was put into operation, involving early in their training. Their exposure is approximately 75% of all juniors in this short but genuine, and it is followed by part of the College of Education. video tape feedback counseling. In still another project, a twelve-unit Work continued vigorously on the de- series of movie-based instructional units velopment and validation of improved was developed, to show students the facts assessment procedures, including two new of life about working in a school as a systems for computer analysis of yro- formal and informal organization. jectivedata. As an out-growth of an On the assessment front, some new experiment in the second year, plans were concepts and new measuring instruments laid for the experimental study of child were adapted from the Cross National learning gains as a criterion for measuring Study of Coping Styles and Achievement, the effectivenss of personalized teacher which had been proceeding in the allied education. Personality Research Center from 1965 A science education program carried on. Pilot instruments were developed and out two experimental programs for train- tested, to measure both child and teacher ingundergraduates.Itdeveloped and styles of coping with problems of task tested several new instruments in an at- achievement, authority relationships, in- tempt to measure the kinds of gain in terpersonal relationships, anxiety and ag- initiativeand autonomous inquiryat gression. Plans were formulated for using which the teaching approach is aimed, but such instruments in future R & D work, as for which no one anywhere has developed part of the assessment procedures for adequate criterion measures. Ten studies evaluating the effect of teacher-training were completed, such as one on the on teacher behavior and on consequent effects of the inquiry program on child child learning. This assessment approach gainsinknowledge and aptitude test leads to objective coding of the sequential scores. behavior steps a person takes in reacting The team teaching program secured a to a problem. The codes reproduce most Title III operational grant which was able of the idiosyncratic nature of each in- to take over the equipping and maintain- dividual's behavior pattern; and they can ing of the media resource centers in the be computer processed to perform many schools. Studies were completed of team kinds of statistical analyses. planning phenomena. Other studies were While these activities were going on, completed on the effects of the over-all there was a major, continued press for the experience on children, as contrasted with unification of the total program of the children in comparable, traditionally or- Center. By April, 1968, a unified concep- ganized schools. tual scheme was spelled out which had The Bilingual program completed stu- been implicitin the activities of the dies of the efforts of this program on Center, but which had not previously childlearningand prepareditsfinal been stated in full, clear form. During this report. same period, the co-directorsworked out A self-pacedcourseineducational a new plan of organization for the Center psychology was launched, with prelim- which would both accurately describe and 114

effectively carry out the new 13rogram. where. These are characteristics which are Thus, within a period of about two and to be embodied in thetotal instructional a half years,this Center moved from a system. collection of projects which originated in 1. Teacher educators should, in a num- two colleges and fivedisciplines (Educa- ber of specific ways, instruct teachers in tional Curriculum and Instruction, Ed- the same way that those teacherswill ucationalAdministration,Educational eventually instruct their pupils. It has long Psychology, Psychology and Anthropol- been observed that people tend to teach ogy) to a single, coordinated plan of in the way they have been taught.If a operation. Needless to say, making the teacher is to follow the steps of instruc- plan work in all its parts, and attaining tional design which are illustrated below, truly successful articulation and integra- in describing the content of an instruction of all its aspects remains a major tional module, then the teacher educator undertaking for years to come. None- should do the same, thus giving the theless, to achieve this much accord on teacherfirsthandexperiencein going aims and operations among amulti- through the entire process. Similarly, the disciplinary team, in a Center which is teacher educator should use all of the simultaneously embedded within a univer- instructional procedures which he wants sity and within a complex public school the teacher to use. system, is something of anachievement in 2. There is some evidencefrom our itself. earlier research that there tends to be a typical sequence of concerns in develop- The Program of the Center ing teachers, much like adevelopmental task sequence for growing children. It The program of the Center has two ma- may be necessary tosatisify the early jor aims: concernsbeforeteachers candevote 1. Basic research on the effects of wholehearted attention to those aspects varied kinds of teacher education on of teaching which come later in the actual teaching behavior; and research on sequence. Therefore,the teacher prepara- the subsequent effect of such teaching tion program should take accountof behavior on relevant aspects of child teachers' most urgent concerns and pro- learning. vide experiences which will aid in their 2. The development of a teacher ed- resolution. Units of study thus should ucation system composed of a diversified followapsychologicallyrelevantse- array of manyrelatively small instruc- quence, notnecessarily a "logical" se- tional modules. Put together in differing quence, nor onewhich is uniform for all cominbations, such modules can be used teachers. in a flexible, often individualized manntr 3. Teachers in trainingshould be infor many kinds of teacher education. volved early and often in taking active When any one module is ready for experi- responsibility for the instruction of pu- mental testing, it can be tried out in many pils. They need to do this in anactively collaborating institutions,at both pre- involved way, not as passive observers or service and in-service levels. mere imitatorsof order-giving superiors. Certain guidelines have been deter- They need a chance to assess and learn mined for this program, representing the from their own particular way of going at fruits of previous research here and else- the job; they need personalizedfeedback, 115

thatis,not just impersonal criticism, he can proceed at his own best pace aimed at producing compliance with cer- through the system of modules and,with- tain generalized rules of "goodteaching." in certain limits, by a self-regulatedchoice Certainly, a blind reliance or exposure to of paths. This does not preclude grouping "practical experience" can lead to aimless together students who have similar inter- activity or even to destructiveeffects. ests and similarlearning needs; but it does Simulated teaching situations may be put the emphasis onindividual diagnosis more apt or more potentstimuli to of what each student needs. learning than the "real thing," in some 6. Any innovations adopted in ateach- instances. There seems to be no fully er education program mustinclude rig- adequate substitute, however, for an early orous, planned testingof every procedure, experience of responsible involvement to with constant feedback andsubsequent make students alert and to make them modification to insure the continual im- actively want to learn teaching skills. provement of the program.For too long, 4. Teacher education must be made the premises underlying muchof teacher personally meaningful for the students education have been unexamined,the involved. This may be one way to improve results have been inadequate, andthe the currently wasteful ratio where two or occasional adoption of untested, unval- three "teachers" are trained in teacher idated innovations has not begun to meet education institutions for every one who the needs of our society. will eventually teach more than a year or 7. In assessing any teachereducation two. From previous work atthis Center, it program ormodule, the ultimate criterion appears that one wayof making teacher is, "what teaching behaviorslead to pupil edicationmeaningfulisthroughper- gain and how can thesebehaviors be sonalizing and individually tailoring the produced?" Thus, the long range objec- training program, rather thansubjecting tives of the teacher education program are every incomingteacher trainee to the pupil gain, achieved through themedium same basiccurriculum and thereby failing of teaching behaviors that result inthe to interest and retain manywho might various forms of pupil gain forwhich the otherwise continue. In earlier research at schools are responsible. this university, we found strong evidence 8. To the maximum degreepossible, forthe proposition that only a hu- teachers in training should have an op- manized, personalized contact of student portunity to use a diversified,multi-media and instructorislikelyto reach the library of resources. This includesbooks, majority of college students, so thatthey of course, but also audio-visualmaterials learn, anything at all in a lasting manner. in the form of videotapes,films, .slides, Their intrinsic need for a personalized etc.It also includes experiencein the relationship opens or closes their percep- actual use of computer-assisted instruc- tual systems, and greatly facilitates or tion for their own learning,and hopefully deadens their learning.2 in the use of CAI methodswith children. 5. The total programfor any one 9. Teachers need to betaught concept student should be individualized so that systems whichwill aid them in recog-

2Peck, Robert F. Student mental health: the range of personality patternsin a college population. In Personality Factors on the Colkge Campus,The Hogg Foundation for Mental Health,The University of Texas, 1962, 161-199. 116 nizing significant patterns in their own designed to cause the teacher in training teiwiting behavior, in their response to to go through all of the stepsof the children, and in the response characteris- instructionalprocess. Theteacher will tics of different children. Several systems systematicallydesign and carry out a of classroom interaction analysis are al- teaching process aimed at getting a partic- ready available for this purpose and the ularkind of child to achieve certain Center provides coding services for use in specified objectives. Such modules show student instruction. the teacher how various kinds of teaching 10. Pre-service teachers need to be ex- strategies can be used, and how they can posed to a variety of school situations. be tested and improved. Often, itis not possible to do this by personal visits to many different schools. Contents of Each Module By the use of carefully selected or designed movie excerpts,however,itis In every module in the system, the possible to show student teachers vivid teacher educator works out the following examples of pupils of different ages, seven steps of theinstructional process, so ethnicbackgrounds,socio-economic as to get the teacher tofollow thesame levels, and language groups. It is possible seven steps indesigning the learning ex- to illustrate some of thesimilarities and perience for a child. The constructionof differencesinthe teaching of various every instructionalmodule includes these kinds of subjectmatter. Some of the steps: dramatic differences in teaching behavior 1. A statement of the premises, as- between self-contained classrooms and un- sumptions and rationale for the learning graded, team-teaching schools can sim- unit. ilarly be illustrated. Undoubtedly, effec- 2. Specification of the behavioralob- tive use of such simulation materials will jectives at which the module is aimed, not merely consist of exposing students to usually in terms of teaching behavior. them passively,butwillinclude very Such objectives range from the demon- carefully worked out and illustrated meth- stration of a very specific skill in handling odsforinvolvingstudentsinlively, a particular processof mathematical in- thoughtful discussion of the issues raised struction, for example, to the diversifica- by such films. tion of a teacher's repertoire of coping 11. The content of the professional ed- styles for dealing with varied problems, to ucation program must include informa- the development of increased, realistic tion on behavioral science principles, and self-confidence in dealing with a given faculty consultation on their application kind of child. to practical problems in the school set- 3. A complete package of the instructing. Much of this may be achieved tional materials to be used in this teacher through a degree of team teaching at the education module: for example, a prob- college level. For example, the discussion lem-posing film clip, a self-instructional of movie excerpts described just above computer program, apassagefrom a can be simultaneouslyled by representa- book, or other stimulus materials. tives of curricular and behavioral science 4. A verydetailed explanation and disciplines. illustration of how the instruction pro- 12. At least some of the instructional ceeds. This would be an instructor's guide, modulesinthetotalsystemwill be so to speak,for the teacher educator. It 117

would be designed to prevent, asfar as to careerconsiderations. mechanical 5. A detaileddescription of operations humanly possible, a woodenly perform application which might pervertthe very which the teacher educator can of the program. For in order to evaluatethe effects of his spirit and purpose Thisincludes example, rather thanrely solely on the instructionalprocedure. of the written both detailed assessment measures ap- imperfect communication objectives of word, a film clip orvideo tape might show propriate to the behavioral .the module, and instructionsfor using, a teachereducator instructing teachersin flexible, inquiry- adapting or redesigning them. the intended evocative, procedures are inducing manner. Thiscould be followed 6. When appropriate, explanation of ways in designed and built into themodule for by a detailed children's learning which the teachereducator could video assessing the effects on make of teachers who haveachieved the be- tape oraudio tape himself, and teacher educa- specific comparions withthe illustrative havorial objectives of the model, as a way of checkingthe accuracy tion module (ormodule sequence). the intended 7. Suggestions andillustrations for re- with which he is carrying out for teacher educa- instructionalprocedure. The arrayof designing the module should include the tion based on acyclical use of feedback teaching procedures procedures built following: data from the evaluation Modeling procedures--thisincludes into the module. a. Different modular sequenceswill be effective lecturing, if itillustrates an the need for expert-at-work; movies whichillustrate developed in response to specialized training forteachers in dif- aneffective technique. concentrations, and b. Involvementproceduresuseof ferent subject matter on-the-line teaching assignments to get for teachers who willwork with spe- involved and con- cialized ages andpopulations of children. the student deeply however, that a great cerned; active involvementof students Itis anticipated, of a teaching manymodule sequences willhave value in analytic discussions whose ul- issue posed by a fiveminute movie. forallprospective teachers timate school assignmentis virtually im- c.Individualizingprocedures--pro- control. It is also materialsforself- possible to predict or gramming course modules paced study. anticipated that a good many developed initially forpre-service teachers d. Diagnosticproceduresdirecting in-service pro- the instructor's attention to anindivid- mayhave equal value for ual student's point offorward progress, grams. and providing a set ofalternative pro- In essence, thiswhole program looks cedures from which a next-step pre- toward the evolutionof an ever-growing, diversified "library" ofmodules. In addi- scription can be drawn. inherent flexibility ofthe e.Personalizing procedures--studyof tion to the the student as a person, usingvarious modular approach, andthe practical util- video tape perform- ity of having manyself-contained instruc- assessment data, teacher educa- ancedata, and giving feedback coun- tional "packages" which seling to the student. Bothintellectual tors could usein many ways, this program considered. also has the advantageof introducing a and emotional factors are the design life-planisa rigorously scientific model in The student's unique teacher prepara- central issue, including but notlimited and execution of every

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of content and tion program. It alsoplaces the emphasis discusses the several kinds methods s ggested by thevarious task on what islearned by the teacher rather decides the ap- than on what the teachereducator does forces. The committee propriate proportionsand timing of var- alone. ious kinds of contentand instructional Moreover,itlays a foundation for coherent, measuring specific teachercompetencies, methods in order to make a Ultimately, this integrated system outof the modules in an objective manner. building. While might malce it possible toreplace teacher which the task forces are it would be entirelypossible to have task certification by course credits,degrees, isolation from one and years with certificationby measured forces working in another, such as one taskforce in science competencies. The initial target for the next two years education and another preparing programs evolution of a for social studies teaching, itis the con- of the Center's work is the would be system ofmodules for the undergraduate sensusof the Center staff that it ofelementaryschool amistake to have th'sproceed in mutual preparation isolation, as has usuallybeen the case in teachers. education. Certain interdisciplinarytaskforces the past in teacher Several modules will undoubtedlybe developed make up the CurriculumBuilding Program appropriate for which is the central,unifying activity of which will be uniquely force includes rep- elementary teachers whowill specialize in the Center% Each task another field of subject matter. resentatives of thefollowing groups: cur- one or people, to plan Nonetheless, even studentswho spend riculum and instruction experiences training in teachingmethods; educational their time in such training psychologists, to plan training inunder- need to have theirtotal education in- standing how and whychildren learn; fluenced by the ideas ofall groups repre- and sented in the taskforces. It is a truism public school principals, supervisors kind of subject teachertrainers; and threepeople to that learning any one matterinvolves simultaneous,interacting represent thethree methodological skills and emo- of personalization, assessment,and learn- effects of intellect, motivation Eventually, it is hoped tion. This is notonly true of children,but ing technology. Moreover, with a that instructors from Artsand Sciences of the teachers as well. disciplines can be added tothese task little appropriate compromise,it may well provepossible to designinstructional forces. for train- The central program is servedby four modules which are appropriate (School ing teachers in anumber of different research and consulting groups nre- Learn- subject fields. Indeed, oneof the Input, Personalization, Assessment, professional educa- ing Technology) andby three supporting solved arguments in Radio/TV, Dis- tion,whichis amenable toempirical services (Data Processing, degree to which certain semination). One major taskof the Cen- testing, is the is to work out aspects of theteaching-learning process ter's Executive Committee generalized across subject matterand a setof principles, during the nextsix to are what mixture conversely, where importantdifferences twelve months, for deciding teaching-learn- of modules will constitute asatisfactory occur inthe nature of the kind of ing process from onesubject to another. programfor one or another alternate hypoth- interdisciplinary, Experiments to test out pre-service teacher. This and will be worked outin the inter agency committee,meeting weekly, eses can 119

course ofdeveloping thisinstructional period available. In undergraduate train- system. ing, the timetable might allow two full years of work. An in-service programof teacher education might allow only a few Anticipated Products of the R & D Programweeks in a year. Systems could be put together from the total "library" of mod- Research Output ulesforuniform application withall teachers-in-training; but they would not A product of major importance will be have to be used that way. basic research findings about the effects The modules could also be used in a of teacher characteristics and of various much more individualized way. A teacher teacher education procedures on actual educator could guide different teachers to teaching behavior. Of necessity, such find- different combinations and sequences of ings must be validated in a final step learning modules to meet their individual where the teaching behaviors are com- needs. Ultimately, itppears possible to pared against the effects in child learning: do much of this in a self-paced manner. attitudinal and motivational, as well as intellectual learning. Through cooperation New Kinds of Teacher Educators with the Computer-Assisted Instruction Laboratory, the basic research foundation By active involvement in theresearch for instructional design will be further and teaching process, graduate students developed. Methodological advances are and post-graduatefellows will be pro- also expected in the assessment aspects of duced who have been systematically train- the program where good progress has edinthe pattern of the educational already been made in automating the artist-scientist. Still other teacher educa- assessment of personalcharacteristics so tors will learn throughparticipation in that large numbers of teachers and chil- cooperative programs jointly carried out dren can be studied in large scale, sys- by the R & D Center, other colleges, and tematic research designs. regional educational laboratories in several parts of the country.Several regional The Instructional Module Product laboratories and numerous colleges which educate teachers have already made plans A diversified array of multi-media in- tocollaborate with us. They identify structional modules will be produced for kinds of training modules which are need.- usein teacher education programs of ed, they supply ideas for the designof many kinds. Thesewill be ready for such modules, and they collaborate in experimental testing and possible adop- testing pilot forms of modules andmod- tion incolleges and universities which ule systems. Educators who have worked educateteachers,and in programs of with these materials will not only be able in-service education conducted by school to put testedinstructional procedures into systems and state agencies of education. practice in their institutions; they willalso A total system of modules will be be able to do a much more effective job constructed so as to give balanced atten- of designing new instructional programs tiontoallmajor aspectsof teacher adapted to the needs of their own institu- growth, to the degree possible in the time tions. 120

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books and Book Chapters Minneapolis: Burgess, 1966. Bennie, W. A. Cooperatingfor better student teaching. Johnson, & F. Perry (Eds.),Readings in Bennie, W. A. Compensatingcooperating teachers. In J. student teaching. Dubuque: Wm. C.Brown, 1967, 52-54. Kraft, & J. Casey (Eds.),Roles in off-campus Bennie, W. A. Compensatingcooperating teachers. In L. student teaching. Champaign:Stipes, 1967, 106-108. Kraft, & J. Casey (Eds.),Roles in off-campus Bennie, W. A. Studentteachers in your classrooms. In L. students teaching. Champaign:Stipes, 1967, 211. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Bessent, E. W., & Harris, B. M.Inservice education: Aguide to better practice. Prentice Hall, 1968, (in press).

H., & Freeland, Alma M.Intensive individualizationof teacher Fuller, Frances F., Pilgrim, Geneva Wm. C. Brown, preparation. In 1967 Yearbookof the Association forStudent Teaching. Dubuque: 1967, 262-328. experienced and Harris, B. M. A researchstudy of the effects ofdemonstration teaching upon inexperienced teachers. Austin:The University of Texas, 1966 studies. In 1967 Peck, R. F., & Richek, H. G.Teacher education for mentalhealth: A review of recent 217-325. Yearbook of the Associationfor Student Teaching. Dubuque:Wm C. Brown, 1967, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Veldman, D. J. FORTRAN Programmingfor the Behavioral Sciences, 1967.

Monographs

of the impact of in-serviceeducation program onteaching behavior. Ashley, J. & Butts, D. P. A study for Teacher Science In-Service Project ReportNo. 9. The Universityof Texas R & D Center Education. March, 1968. 121

The University of Texas,February, 1967. Bessent, E. W. (Ed.) Designsfor inservice education. Austin: P., Jr. Adoption andutilization of instructional Bessent, Walland, Harris,Benjamin, & Thomas, Michael television. Austin: Bureau ofLaboratory Schools, (in press).

C. E. A study ofteacher characteristics aspredictors in the successful Bohn, C., Butts, D. P. & Raun, Project Report No. 8.The implementation of an innovativecurriculum. Science In-Service University of Texas R & DCenter for TeacherEducation. March, 1968.

relationship between classroomexperience and certainstudent characteristics. Science Butts, D. P. The for Teacher Education. In-Service Project ReportNo. 7. The Universityof Texas R & D Center March, 1908.

Raun, C. E. A test ofinstructional decision making. ScienceIn-Service Project Butts, D. P., Breit, F., & 1968. Report No. 11. TheUniversity of Texas R & D Centerfor Teacher Education. May, Project Research ReportNo. Butts, D. P., & Raun,C. E. A study ofteacher change. Science In-Service Teacher Education (also acceptedfor publication in fall 1. The Universityof Texas R & D Center for issue of Science Education).January, 1968. Research C. E. A study inteacher attitude change. ScienceIn-Service Project Butts, D. P., & Raun, Education (also acceptedfor Report No. 2. TheUniversity of Texas R & DCenter for Teacher publication in fall issue of ScienceEducation). January, 1968. Science In-Service C. E. Does instructionchange student behavior in science? Butts, D. P., & Raun, for Teacher Education. Project Research ReportNo. 5. The Universityof Texas R & D Center March, 1968. C. E. A study ofstudent attitude and achievementchange. Science In-Service Butts, D. P., & Raun, Education. April, 1968. Project Report No. 10.The University of Texas R &D Center for Teacher behavioral changes in pre-serviceprofessional training. Butts, D. P., Steinbach,A., & Raun, C. E. On University of Texas R &D Center for Teacher Science In-Service ProjectReport No. 12. The Education. May, 1968. Austin: Hogg Foundationfor Mental Fuller, Frances F., & Bown,0. H. Look toward tomorrow. Health, The University of Texas,1966. Foundation Fuller, Frances F., Bown, 0. H.,& Peck, R. F. Creatingclimates for growth. Austin: Hogg for Mental Health, TheUniversity of Texas, 1966. 5: Evaluating teaching Lainkin, Bill D., & Veldman,D. J. ResearchMethodology Monograph No. effectiveness with a situationaltask. The University of Texas. E., & Butts, D. P.Science achievementof young children ofcontrasting McGlathery, G. Research Report No. 6.The University of socio-economic background.Science In-Service Project 2.,?.

Raun, & Autts, D. P. The relationship between the strategies of inquiry in science and student cviitive and affrctive behavioral change. Science In-Service Project Research Report No. 4. The University of Texas R & D Center for Teacher Education. March, 1968.

Veldman, D, J. LOSTAT-V basic statisticol computer programs for the CDC 6600. (First Revision). The University of Texas. October, 1967.

Vel.dman, D. J LDSTAT--I subroutine library for the CDC 6600. (First Revision). The University of Texas. October, 1967,

Veldman, D, J. Menaker, Shirley L., & Williams, D. L., Research Methodology Monograph No. 4: Manual Pr scoring the test of Directed Imagination. The University of Texas. 1967.

Veldman, D. J., & Peck, R. F. Research Methodology Monograph No. 2: The Pupil Observation SurveyTeacher behavior from the students' viewpoint. The University of Texas. 1967.

White, M. A., Raun, C. E., & Butts, D. P. A study of contrasting patterns in in-service education. Science In-Service Project Research Report No. 3. The University of Texas R & D Center for Teacher Education (Also accepted for publication in fall issues of Science Education). January, 1968.

Articles

Bessent, E. W. Inservice education--A point of view. In E. W. Bessent (Ed.), Designs for Inservice Education. Austin: The University of Texas, February, 1967, 12-28.

Bown, O. H. New frontiers in teacher education. Kappa Delta Pi Record, February, 1967, 3 (3), 98-105.

Bown, 0. H., & Fuller, Frances F. Innovations in counseling teachers in Ralph E. Van Atta (Ed.), Innovations in Counseling, 1968, 12th Annual Counselors' Conference, The University of Texas at Austin, February 16-17, 1968.

Bown, 0. H., Fuller, Frances F., Menaker, Shirley L., & Peck, R. F. Influence of counseling and film feedback on openness to pupil feedback in elementary teachers' filmed behavior. Proceedings of the 75 th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. 1967, pp. 259-360.

Bown, 0. H., Fuller, Frances F., & Richek, H. G. A comparison of self-perceptions of prospective elementary and secondary school teachers. Psychology in the Schools, January, 1967, 4 (1), 21-24.

Bown, 0. H., & Richek, H. G. Mental health of junior college students. Junior College Journal, 1966, 37, 18-21. Colleges Student Personnel Abstracts, 1967, 2 (3), 343 (abstract).

Bown, b. H., & Richek, H. G. The Bown Self-Report Inventory (SRI): A quick screening instrument for mental health professionals. Comprehensive Psychiatry, February, 1967, 8 (1), 45-52. 123

Bown, 0. H., & Richek, H. G. Phenomenal correlates of Jung's typology: Implications for teacher personality/teacher effectiveness research. The University of Texas, 1966. Journal of Analytical Psychology (in press).

Bown, 0. H., & Richek, H. G. Influence of extraversion/introversion on prospective teachers' self-perceptions. Paper presented at Southwestern Psychological Association 14th Annual Conven- tion, Houston, April, 1967. Elementary School Journal. (in press).

Butts, D. P. The classroom experience model. In E. W. Bessent (Ed.), Designs for inservice education. Austin: The University of Texas, February, 1967, 27-38.

Butts, D.P. Widening vistas--inservice education. Science Education, March, 1967, 51 (2).

Butts, D. P. The development of the TAB test. Science Education, 35 (3), March, 1968.

Butts, D. P., & Montague, E. J. Behavioral objectives. The Science Teacher, 35 (3), March, 1968.

Eaton, E, J. Tools for learning. TEXAVED Journal, February, 1967, 12, 13 & 20.

Gibb, E. Glenadine The years ahead, The Arithmetic Teacher, May, 1968.

Gregory, Thomas B. Teaching tasks, II: refocusing, Texas Journal of Secondary Education, Spring, 1968.

Harris, B. M. Teaching demonstration model. In E. W. Bessent (Ed.), Designs for inservice education. Austin: The University of Texas, February, 1967, 41-58.

McGuire, Carson & Fruchter, Benjamin A discrimination model for multivariate Q representations. Multivariate Behavioral Research, October, 1967, 2 (4), 507-528.

McIntyre, K. E. The laboratory approach. In E. W. Bessent (Ed.), Designs for inservice education. Austin: The University of Texas, February, 1967, 29-40.

Melcer, D. Educating Mexican-American children: A contemporary problem. Kappa Delta Pi Record, April, 1967, 3 (4), 165-167.

Millett, Gregg, Kysilka, Marcella, & Morse, Kevin R. Teaching tasks,I:clarity of instructional objectives. Texas Journal of Secondary Education, Winter, 1968, (in press).

Peck, R. F. Why should we teach elementary school children about the principles of human behavior? Journal of School Psychology, Spring, 1967.

Peck, R. F., & Menaker, Shirley L. Measurement of change in elementary teacher trainees during a two-year training period. American Psychologist, 1967, 22, 592.

Thomas, M. P., Jr. Inservice programs as organized learning. In E. W. Bessent (Ed.), Designs for 124

inservice education. Austin: The Universityof Texas, February, 1967, 59-73.

Veldman, D. J., Computer-based sentence-completioninterviews. Journal of CounselingPsychology, 1967, 14 (2), 151157.

Veldman, D. J., Clark, C. M. & Thorpe, J. S. Convergentand divergent thinking abilities oftalented adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology,56 (3), 157-163.

Veldman, D. J., & Menaker, S. L. Computerapplications in assessment and counseling.Journal of School Psychology, 1968, (Spring).

Veldman, D. J., & Otto, H. J. Control structurein public schools and the decisionand influence roles of elementary school principals and teachers.Education Administration Quarterly, 3 (2),149-161.

Veldman, D. J., Peck, R. F., & Richek, H. G.Personality correlates of the high school experiencesof prospective teachers. The Personnel andGuidance Journal, 1968, 46 (5), 473-477.

Papers

Ashley, James P. A study of the impactof in-service education program on teachingbehavior (Ph. D. dissertation). The University of Texas, August 1967.

Brandt, Dorothy Pauline The developmentand evaluation of an in-service program insocial studies and science for first-grade teachers. (Ph. D.dissertation). The University of Texas, August,1967.

Breit, F. D. A comparison of theeffectiveness of an inservice program and apreservice program in developing certain teacher competencies. (Ph. D.dissertation). The University of Texas, June, 1968.

Butts, D. P., & Raun, C. E. The interactionbetween curriculum variables and selectedclassroom student characteristics. The University of Texas,May, 1967.

Castaneda, Alberta M. The differentialeffectiveness of two first grade mathematics programsfor disadvantaged Mexican-American children. (Ph. D.dissertation). The University of Texas, August, 1967.

Fuller, Frances F. Behavioral sciencefoundations for elementary education: course contentordered by empirically derived concerns sequence of prospectiveteachers. The University of Texas, January, 1967.

Gallessich, June & Schmidt, Linda. Schooladjustment of first-graders in team-teachingand self-contained classrooms. The University of Texas, March,1968.

Garrard, Judith. The effects of prospectiveteachers' social class upon evaluationsby lower-class, Mexican-American children. The Universityof Texas, January, 1967.

Jameson, Gloria R. Thedevelopment of a phonemic analysis for an oralEnglish proficiency test for 125

Spanish-speaking school beginners. (Ph. D. dissertation).The University of Texas,1967.

McGlathery, Glenn E. An assessment of scienceachievemnt of pre-school and rust-gradechildren of contrasting socio-economic background.(Ph. D. dissertation). The University of Texas, June, 1967.

McGuire, C. & Rowland, T. The behavioralscience tondations of education. The University of Texas, 1967.

Menaker, S. L. Primary and intermediate studentteacher differences. The University of Texas, March, 1968.

Morse, Keying R.; Kysilka, Marcella;and Davis,0. L., Jr. Effects of different types of supervision on teacher candidates refocusing behavior. Unpublished research report, April 1968.

Ott, Elizabeth. A study of levelsof fluencand proficiency in oral English and Spanish-speakingschool beginners. (Ph. D. dissertation). The Universityof Texas, January, 1967.

Peck, R. F.; Bown, 0. H.; Fuller, Fances F; &Menaker, Shirley L. A study of elementary teacher education: Experimental-controlgroup comparisonsand changes over a two year training period. The University of Texas, March,967.

Peck, R. F.; Bown, 0. H.; Fuller, Frances F.; &White, Meda M. Affective interaction: The sequenceof filmed teacher pupil behaviors. The Universityof Texas, February, 1967.

Peck, R. F.; White, Meda;uller, Frances F.; & Bown, 0. H. Influenceof feedback treatments on self-evaluations of elemntary and secondary prospectiveteachers. The University of Texas, May, 1967.

Pena, Albar A. A cornarative study of syntactical structures of theoral language status in Spanish and English of disadvantaged fust-grade Spanish-speaking children. (Ph. D.dissertation). The University of Texas, August,1967.

Raun, Chester EThe interaction between curriculumvariables and selected classroom student characteristic.(Ph. D. dissertation). The University of Texas, June,1967.

Steinbach, Alan H. A comparativestudy of the effect of practice with elementarychildren or with peers in., the science methods course.(Ph. D. dissertation). The University of Texas, August,1968.

Veldman, D. J Scoring structure and report generatorfor the 36-Item OWSC Form. CAP project memorandum, January, 1967.

Veldinan, D. J. Influences of sex, verbalability, and quantitative ability on One-Word Sentence Completion Variables. The University of Texas,February, 1968.

Veldman, D. J.; Menaker, S. L. & Peck, R. F. Computerscoring of sentence completion data. The University of Texas, March, 1968.

oo. 174,4ivrn 126

Veldman, D. J.; Menaker, S. L., & Williams, D. L. The Directed Imagination methodfor projective assessment of teacher candidates. The Universityof Texas, March, 1968.

Williams, D. L.; Melcer, D. L. & Veldman, D. J. The Bender Gestalt Test andthe Wire Figures Test as predictors of reading achievement. The University of Texas, 1968.

. CENTER FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INHIGHER EDUCATION

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Joseph Axelrod, Visiting Research Educator.Associate Dean of Academic Planning and Professor at San Francisco State College. Harland G. Bloland, Postgraduate ResearchSociologist Sarah J. Cirese, Postgraduate ResearchPsychologist K. Patricia Cross, Coordinator of theDevelopment and Dissemination Section Troy Duster, Assistant ResearchSociologist Joanne Floyd, Assistant ResearchPsychologist Jerry G. Gaff, Assistant ResearchPsychologist Lyman Glenny, (Appointmenteffective January 1, 1969) Research Educator, Professor ofEducation and Associate Director of the Center Ellen M. Gumperz, Assistant Research Historian Ann M. Heiss, Assistant ResearchEducator and Lecturer in Education Paul A. Heist, Research Psychologist Algo D. Henderson, Visiting Research Educator;former director of the Center for the Study of Higher Education at the University of Michigan. Harold L. Hodgkinson, Visiting Associate ResearchEducator on leave from the deanship at Bard College. Mildren M. Henry, Assistant Specialist Terry F. Lunsford, Associate Specialist Warren B. Martin, Specialist T. R. McConnell, Research Educator andProfessor of Education Leland L. Medsker, Director for the Center and ResearchEducator and Professor of Education Martin Meyerson, Research Educator andPresident of the State University of New York at Buffalo Kathleen R. Mock, Assistant Research Specialist Kenneth Paul Mortimer, Postgraduate ResearchEducator Frederick C. Mosher, Research Political Scientist andProfessor of Political Science Ernest G. Palola, Research SpecialistClinical Psychology and Sociology. James G. Paltridge, Associate Director of the Centerand Research Specialist in Education Mary C. Regan, Assistant ResearchEducator and Assistant Professor at the University of California, Davis Janet H. Ruyle, Postgraduate ResearchPsychologist Barbara Sherman, Assistant Research Psychologist Dale Tillery, Associate Research Educator William A. Watts, Assistant Research Psychologistand Assistant Professor of Education, David N. Whittaker, Assistant Specialist Robert C. Wilson, Research Psychologist George D. Yonge, Assistant ResearchEducator and Assistant Professor of Education, University of California, Davis CENTER FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Leland L. Medsker University of California, Berkeley

The Mandate problems of higlier education.) In fact, the components and processes The mission of the Center for Research of education are so interrelated that an and Development in Higher Education is organized examination of any given prob- toassistindividuals and organizations lem necessarily involves consideration of a responsible for American higher education number of related questions. The question in improving the quality,efficiency, and of student accommodation in an institu- availability of education beyond the high tion or system, for example,involves school. consideration of student characteristics The Center is the only research and and goals as well as faculty, curriculum, development unitentirelyfocused on institutional goals and values, and plan- higher education. It must deal with the ning. sheer magnitude of the American higher To facilitate program development,the educational enterprise by designing re- Center has clustered its researchprobes search and development activities that around two major concerns of American span manyfeatures of the educational higher educationthe impact of college on process and take accountof the diversity student development, and organization of students and institutions that comprise and planning in higher education. In each the whole system of higher education. program, related projectsattack particular Thus, the Center faces tine challenge of facets of theseoverall concerns ina identifying achievable goals on the one systematic effort to developinformation hand and the danger of diffusion of which will broaden perspectives of practi- energies and resources on the other. (Ob- tioners and expand the range offruitful viously, no agency could research all the alternatives in practice. In the course of 129

research, staff members attempt to iden- reformed and new models established. tify additional problems and issues which may serve asspringboards for further The Means research. indeed, the rapidly changing ecologyof In research, Center staffmembers use American higher education has contin- the tools and techniques of thebehavioral uallyadded new dimensionstothe sciences to gain new informationabout Center's role and responsibilityand served the educational process. Through a pro- to shape and sharpenthe lines of inquiry gramof development, the Center relates already underway. Developments since these findings to present andfuture prob- 1965 have also underscoredthe urgency lems of higher education and, wherever of the need for research in highereduca- possible, devises theories and models to tion. Some of the developmentsbearing test the findings in aninstitutional setting. on theproblems and direction of higher TheCenter'sdisseminationprogram education are: increased societal concern makes available usable researchfindings. for post high school e ucation; impetus A program of training forfuture research- from many sources for the establishment ers and practitionersoffers the next gener- of universal education; the growing ination of scholars experience inconducting volvement of higher education in seeking research and educators a chance to enter solutionstosocialproblems; massive their professions informed by thelatest financial assistance to colleges and univer- research. sities from the f deral government;the growing desire among stuclents forpartici- pation in the educational process;and the Research Programs changing world of work. Also, as institutions and organizational The Center's aim to improvetheprac- patterns become morediverse and com- tice of higher education dictates aprob- plex,many questionsinvolving value lem-oriented research program. Research judgments are toeing raisedquestions con- staffmembersfromsociology,psy- cerning the appropriate natureof complex chology, education, anthropology, statis- universities, the relationshipbetween in- tics, economics, andpolitica science &s stitutional characteristics and quality ed- well as education bring to bear expertise ucation, the dominantvalues of college on the variousfacets of research on education, how best to accommodate education while focusing on theirrele- students of varying characteristicsinclud- vance toproblems in educational practice. ing those with differingcultural back- Thisinterdisciplinarystaff assays the grounds, and how to assign priorities in interaction among the threecrucial com- the overall economics of higher education. ponents ofhigher educationstudents, Educators, faculty, and students continue teachers, and administrationagainst a to ask whetheruniversities can grow background of diverse institutionalgoals indefinitelyinsize, whether they are and structures. A numberof these stuldies, organized inthe most effective way, largely longitudinal, are complementary. whether there should be greater participa- Using common assessmentinstruments, tion in decision making by all components related institutional settings,and shared of the academic community, and whether theoretical bases, the studies aredesigned curricula and teaching methods canbe to be mutuallyreinforcing. 130

Research ProgramI--S tudents and the impact on students and on the organiza- Impact of College tion of knowledge and methodology ol teaching are receiving scrutiny in another As a primary product of and raison major phase of Center research. d'etre for the American system of higher education, the student is a logical focus PrecollegeExperience.One large-scale for one of the Center's major research and project, based on a precollege sample, is a development programs. The significance six-year study of nearly 100,000 high ofstudent-relatedquestionshasbeen school students in four states to examine sharply accentuated in recent years with thedecision-makingprocessregarding the growth of student concerns about the post high school educationand careers, college experience. and to determine the relative influence of The major objectives of this program parents, schools, and peers onthose deci- are: first, todevelop an adequate body of sions. The initial phase of a related project knowledge about the psychological, intel- concerned the relationship between the lectual, and social changes that take place rate of college attendanceand the type of in college age youth; second, to determine higher education institution available in how salient elements of college environ- the community, and included a study of ments relate to different types of change the relationship between college atten- in different students; and third, to contri- dance and performance and a number of bute to the formulation of a theory or variables, such as ability, socioeconomic theories of postadolescent psychological background, high school achievement, vo- and educational development. cational interests, and personality charac- The complexity and diversity of the teristics. The second phase of the study American educational enterprise prescribe followed high school graduates for four a wide-ranging,coordinated examination years afterhigh school through patterns of thepsychological,intellectual, and of work, college, and marriage and fo- social development of youth from their cused on the impact of college versus precollege days to alumni status. We need employment on change of values and to know what happens tostudents as they attitudes. The third phase of the study, leave their home environments and enter based on the same sample, examines junior colleges, four-year colleges, univer- closely the factors associated with various sities,andgraduateandprofessional patterns of college attendance. schools. We need to know who goes to college, how and why students choose an Development during College Years. The institution, and how and why different interaction of various types of students institutions have different effects on dif- withon-campus andoff-campus sub- ferent students. Maintaining close com- cultures is the subject of a study based on munication with educators in the field, a the premise that peer groups, along with core of studies isdesigned to assess the individual psychological propensities, are impact of living arrangements, peer associ- major influences on student life and devel- ations and the dynamics of student sub- opment. A second studyof student devel- cultures, personality factors, family back- opment assesses the implicationsof the ground, and institutional goals on student differential education offered diverse stu- development over the college years. Char- dents in 10 colleges committed to ex- acteristics of faculty members and their perimental and innovative programs. The 131

possible influence of campus residence individuals? and associated peer groups on student Several studies, discussed as part of the change in measured personality charac- Center'sresearchonorganization and teristics is the focus of a student develop- planning,also will provide information ment study underway on one university relevant to the postgraduate years. For campus. The major variable,personality example, one three-phase study of gradu- change, will also be examined in relation ate education includes an assessment of tomembershipinspecial subcultures, student and faculty attitudes as differ- academic majors chosen, and student per- ential characteristics that contribute to ceptions of the campus. the character and quality of graduate The statement by one academic senate programs.Anotherproject,concerned that "the incentive to improve teaching with new directions in education among waits on recognition....Recognition waits professional schools, examines principles on acceptable methods of evaluation..." and practices of teaching and learning and was the impetus for a pilot project study- innovationsthatrelatetothem.In ing characteristics of faculty members and another project, professional education is their impact on students and the organiza- being studied to reveal the role of colleges tion of knowledge and teaching meth- anduniversities,including professional -ther series of studies will schools, in -dr:: preparation of leaders in make use of data and instruments de- government at local, state, and national veloped in the pilot proect to study the levels. characteristics, concern, life patterns, and sources of satisfaction of faculty in 20 Research Program IIViability of Institu- institutions being studied in three other tional Structures and Functions for the Center projects (student development, in- Future of Higher .Education teraction in student subcultures, and implications of differential education). This One of the most complex and urgent will make it possible to relate the longi- issuesinhighereducationtodayis tudinal changes in students to information whether existing institutional structures about faculty in the same institutions. and functions can meet future educational needs. The issue is complex because it has Postcollege Years. Although a great deal so many dimensions. Howdo we cope of research energy now is being focused with increasing numbers of students and on the development of basic knowledge assure that all have an equal opportunity about undergraduate education, littleis for education, and what is the significance known about the relationship of a college of numerical growth and program diversi- education (or type of college education) fication for the economics of higher ed- to students' personal and vocational de- ucation.? No less important are questions veloprnent after graduation. and problems dealing with the relation- One two-year study now underway is ship between the modern university and addressed to the question: Are our col- society,the authority structure of the leges confining themselves to the function institutionitself, and matters such as of producing scientists,teachers,tech- student participation in governance. nicians, and businessmen, or are they also The issueis urgent now because the fulfilling the objective of producing au- importance of educational institutions in tonomous, reflective, creative, and mature training the expert society and liberating 132

understood processesand that a major the intellect torespond to a worldculture and trend is the developmentof large, distinct, is matched bystudent disquietude of administrators. social malaise. Questions arebeing raised and important groups The study willfocus on thesocial charac- not onlyabout the efficiencyand flex- but teristics, distinctiveviewpoints, and organ- ibility of institutional arrangements role, of theseadministrative also about their veryrationale, authority, izational contribute to an institution of higher officers in an attempt to and necessity. The understanding ofmodern university gov- education,quainstitution, is required to of its organizationand ernance. show the viability The purposeof still anotherproject is planning for future needs. to studythe way inwhich differing The long-rangeobjectives of this rein two Western first, to determine the educational objectives search program are: technological societiestheUnited States external and internalfactors affecting translated into the struc- and func- and Swedenare presentinstitutional structures administration of highereduca- totestthesefindings turing and tions;second, tion. This comparativestudy of aims and from the programof research is against data and the dy, administrationinhigher education onstudent characteristics based on threehypotheses: thateduca- namics oflearning environments;and, between tech- results of theseanalyses tionalaims vary even third, to use the nologically advancedsocieties, thatthese of human andorganizational interaction in andimplemented by basis for buildingmodels of educa- aims are reflected as the the structuringand administrationof edu- tional structures andfunctions that can be and that the struc- developmental projects inthe cational institutions, utilized in turing, therefore,covaries with theeduca- field. tional goals. The questionsof who gov- Governance. Coordination.Coordination is atwentieth ernsinstitutions of highereducation, how, which is be- effect have beenraised by centuryorganizational form and with what coming widelyapplied to mechanismsfor campusconstituencies whichchallenge Formal coordinating of organization decisionmalcing. the established patterns agencies in state systemsof higher educa- and administration.How facultypartici- the exper- University of tion arerelatively new, and pate in governanceat the iences of one state areof interest to California is the subjectof a pilot study the organization others. focusing particularly on The less obviousand possibly unin- of the Berkeley Divisionof the Academic statewide planningand powerful committees tended effects of Senate and its most coordination in highereducation are the and characteristicsof committee mem- study. The project is directedtoward subject of a four-state bers. The investigation examines theeffects of statewideplanning developing a theoretical contextwithin kinds of decisions of faculty to seewhether shifts in which problems and processes local or institutiong!level be understood. made at the governance can result in qualitativechanges in thechar- A study ofadministrative orientations fiinctions of theinstitution and university approaches gov- acter and in the large to assesswhether statewideplanning and ernancefrom another avenue.The project orcon- that large coordinationfosterdiversity is based onthe assumption formity in education. universitiesaregovernedbylittle- 133

and TheCaliforniaandWisconsin immediate impact on the organization coordinating agencies for higher education emphases of graduate andprofessional have undergone changes in structureand education, whichisclosely geared to procedure in response to the environment society's demands forprofessional man- of conflict in which thesecoordinating power, than onundergraduate education. bodies must make their decisions. Case Thus, within the parametersof the dis- studies of California and Wisconsin exper- ciplines of graduate educationthere lies a in ienceshaveidentifiedthesechanges, fruitful area for study of innovation probed their causes, and assessedtheir organization and administration.The ini- effects on the coordinating process. tial phase of one Center projectidentified issues and problems ingraduate and pro- litera- Innovation.How-and to what extent it is fessional education, explored the possible--to rock the boat in educational ture, andproduced an annotatedbibliog- institutions and systems is thefocus of raphy. In the second phase,researchers inquiry for a cluster of projectsdealing will identify the ways inwhich outstand- with innovation in education.What makes ing graduate institutions areorganized and of their an innovationacceptable--congruence in administered for continual review administrative patterns, goals,personnel? doctoral programs. In thefinal phase, What makes it effective? Andwhat effect innovations in graduate educationwill be does the innovation have on theorganiza- reviewed in three institutionsthat have the tion, goals, and peopleof the system or introduced fundamental changes in education. campus towhich it is introduced? organizationofgraduate The focus of one project,curriculum Another study explores newdirections in building for undergraduate colleges, is on education among professionalschools and models of instructional programs.The has as an immediate goal thedevelopment study is concerned with the applicationof of a series of descriptive andanalytical the "system" approach to modelbuilding studies of innovations in organization, and the relationship betweeninnovation curriculum, and teaching inseveral profes- (a new model) and the currentstandard sions. These studies are toform the basis model, between the instructional program for a future research programinsix of a new college and the larger systemof professionalareas:law, medicine,en- which it is a part. A study ofinstitutional gineering, architecture,agriculture, and characteris exploring the assumptions, business administration. objectives, and values that underlieand give direction to institutionswhich have Development and Dittemination developed distinctivepatterns intheir educational processes. The researchers ex . The Center's developmentand dig, how institutional pur . gemination program is based onthe as, pea to determine be both poses arevariously expressed and modi. gumption that research must fled by the principals in thelearning interpreted and widelycommunicated if it relationship, the students, facuky, and is to have an itiipact onpractice. Oppor. meaningful to administrators. tunities for making findings educators ereintrinsic inthe Center's Graduate and Profenional Education,The problem:oriented approach to research. contemporary truism of rapidtechnolot Some developmental activities growdi. ical and social change probably has more rectly from individual researchprojects 134 and are carried out and administered as practitioners in education. This publica- part of the project. Project staff members tion synthesizes Center research, outlines often provide preliminary feedbackre- implications for practice, andannounces ports, or consult with and interpret find- other Center publications. This mass dis- ings to individual colleges to help institu- tribution helps generate new applications tions plan programs to implement findine of research findings and, through reader or continue self-study. Development staff response, new developmental activity by members advise and consult with project the Center. staff and are usually involved in preparing The Center reprint series makes avail- feedback reports. They also assume pri- able to a wider audience published articles mary responsibility for planning and di- by Center authors. In addition to ma- recting the activities conferences, work- terials published under Center auspices, shops) and publications designed to dis- scholarly and commercial presses and pro- seminate generalized findings from indivi- fessionaljournalspublishbooks and dual programs and projects to the higher articles based on Center research. As with education community. other research and development centers, Conferences sometimes take the form- all findings published by the Center are of workshops in which educators, under made accessible to the national education the guidance of Center research staff, community through reproduction and dis- work with data in an effort to understand semination from Educational Research their implications for practice and im- Information Clearinghouse (ERIC). provements. Some conferences focus on Built into the Center's researchon the keeping educators current on new knowl- 12 member colleges of the Union for edge and new practices in higher educa- Research and Experimentation in Higher tion or discussing the implications of data Education (UREHE) and the 16 institu- with the colleges participating in Center tions in the Institutional Character study research. For instance, the Center's jointly are extensive provisions for feedback of- sponsored conferences with the National the findings. Also, relationships have been Association of Student Personnel Admini- developed with these colleges in which strators and other professional associa- some may serve not only as sources of tionsbringhigh-levelpractitionersto- research information but also as demon- gether with researchfindings from an strationcentersfordevelopmental array of projects, offering a chance to models. share experiences with other practitioners and open a dialogue with researchers. Training for Research and Practice The results of research and subsequent developmental activities are made known As a major research and development to the broader educational community unit, the Center assumes the responsibility through interim reports, monographs, and for providing training in research methods reprints. The dissemination-development for the next generation of scholars and sectionpublishes research volumes of educators. As apprentices and research findings from major Center projects. assistants, many graduate students in the Timely feedbackon implications of social and behavioral sciences and future research is possible on long-range studies educators work on projects close to their through the Center's quarterly Research areas of inquiry, combining field practice, Reporter, distributed to more than 5,000 theory, and early review of findings from 135

projects. are in press. pertinent Center Two studiescompleted in 1966 were in the fallof 1966, the Centerbecame Latin Organizational Changesin Coordination, a aparticipatinginstitution in the California Coordinating Program w hich casestudy of the A mericanInternship Council for HigherEducation, and astudy universityadministrators bringsyoung of of StateLevel Governanceof Junior from public andprivate institutions proposed organization in Centraland Latin Colleges, related to higher education in California.The final reportof another America tothis countryfor advanced Accredita- The study, Problemsand Issues in study in the fieldof higher edu:ation. tion bySpecialized AgenciesinPost- programincludes study atthe Center and Curricula, internship in aCalifornia or out-of- secondaryVocational-Technical an is in press.Final reports havebeen pub- stateinstitution. phases of thethree-phase under FordFoundation lished for two Since 1961, Study of HighSchool Graduatesand the funding, the Centerhas provided training, in press.Final for report onthe final phase is supervisiors, andtechnical assistance for JuniorCollege of two-year uni- reportsalso are in press the developing system into Four-YearCollege: Rationaleand versity centersinthe proveniencesof Conflict and of Chile Result in TwoInstitutions, Chile,undertheUniversity Coordination inHigher Education(the Program. Theproject's ex- Regional College WisconsinCoordinatingCouncil aim is todecentralize, and thusdemoc- College Teach- in Chile.The perience),Innovations in ratize,higher education ing, Educationfor Professionalsin Public Center hasbeen instrumentalin the de- Accommodation regional university Service, andInstitutional velopment of these of StudentsTyped by Abilityand Intel- centers inChile. The projectincludes an Completed in 1968 for teachers inChile lectual Motivation. inservice program were:Pilot Studyof Faculty Activity and periodsof graduatestudy in this Relation to StudentValues teachers and ad- Patterns in of countryfor selected and Perceptions,Education of Men ministrators. Science (HarveyMudd College),Inventory of Current Research onHigher Education Accomplishments (cooperative projectwith the Carnegie of Higher conduct and pub- Commission onthe Future The Center's aimto Education), and astudy ofInstitutional lish research withrelevance to educational with Character. practicerequiresthat the audience These reports, aswell as preliminary the capacity toeffect change bereached. announced andsynthesized Center staffmembers work findings, are To this end, in the ResearchReporter. Thispublica- with decisionmakers in education to put with college and evolved tion is acontinuing link into practicalapplication theories presidents,administrators, and findings. university from Center research faculty members acrossthe country.The proved itself aneffective Educational Community Reporter has Reaching the for reachingthe educational com- agent from more munity,eliciting responses Many Centerstudies arelongitudinal January 1967. J than 2,100educators since and thus are stillunderway. Thefollowing from college completed, and Correspondence has come -13 projectshave been presidents, deans,professional organiza- reports onthem have beenpublished or 136

tions, foundations, and state and national educational practice. Several completed government agencies, covering 47 states projects have resulted in highly visible and14 foreigncountries.Editors of changesininstitutionsorsystems of severalprofessionaljournalshavere- institutions under study, and subjects of quested permission to reprint Reporter study in several other projects in final articles, thus broadening the dissemina- sueshaveshownreceptivenessto tion of Center research in scholarly and change. professional circles. An imaginative series of liberal arts Speeches constitutean important as- colloquia,an experimental program of pect of the dissemination and develop- educational retreats at Eastern Montana ment program, since topics are usually College,istheresult of a workshop assigned in terms ofan educational prob- consultation visit to the Center in winter lem to which the speaker brings all of his 1967. The college president and several research background. During thecurrent members of the faculty senatemet with year, the Center was represented at almost Center staff members to discussways to all of the major conventions concerned vitalize the liberal arts and sciencesat the with higher education. The Center also college. After the Center visit, Eastern uses conference workshops and consulting Montana secured a grant from the Dan- activities to bring educators face to face forth Foundationto fund the series of with research findings and researchers in biweekly,two-dayretreatsheldoff an attempt to develop implications and. campus. Each session (for which students stimulate concrete proposals for practice. receive one unit of credit) will focuson Related to implementation of research some basic and significant concept from findings, these conferences includedpar- the broad areas of humanities, social ticipation of Center staff with develop- sciences, or physical sciences. Thepurpose ment consultants, College Board regional is to improve teaching and integration in e xecutives,universitypresidentsand the liberal arts Ly involving students and faculty, administrators, deans, leaders in faculty ina dynamic and interactive ed- state and national councils, student per- ucational experience. Continuous evalua- sonneladministrators, and scholars in tion of the program will be carriedon fields of special interest. Conferences have through questionnaire and attitudetests

been cosponsored by the Center and the administered to the roarticipants. 4.% Union for Research and Experimentation Early Center findings made availableto in Higher Education comprised of 10 Harvey Mudd College administrators and experimental colleges in the East and faculty have ledto changed policies in Midwest, the National Association for grading and student evaluation. There . Student Personnel Administrators,West, search, begun as a four-year study in fall ern Interstate Commission on Higher Ed= of 1965, focuseson student development ucation,andUniversityof California over the college years, Continuing data Extension. feedback also provideda point of departure for a three.day conference or instittl= Evidence of Impact dotal" seltscrutiny to evaluate the goals, curriculum, and environment of the m1. To discern the impact of researchOh ence and engineering institution After its the educational community, the Center first 10 years of operation. staff looks for evidence of change in Randolph Macon Women's College has 137

accepted recommendations for change in Public higher education in the nation's the college's curricular requirements con- Capital is a reality since the signingof the tained in an evaluative report by Center District of Columbia PublicHigher Educa- researchers. The study team submitted a tion Act in 1966. T. R.McConnell of the 20-page report in March 1967,and, fol- Center was one ofeight members of a lowing a month of discussion, the prin- committeeappointedbyPresident cipal recommendations of the report were Kennedy to study higher education inthe adopted. They will go into effectfor the District and makerecommendations. The class entering in fall 1968 and will be committee's report notedthat "Washing- optionalfor the graduating classes of ton is without asingle publicly supported 1968, 1969, and 1970. Theadministra- institutionatanylevel beyond high tion and faculty agreed to revisethe school..." to help the one in everysix in academic requirements to be lessspecific this city who "live in povertyand who evils of and more flexible. Students willbe given a generally suffer the attendant stifling envi- broaderrangeof choicesinmeeting cultural deprivation and the graduation requirements inmathematics ronment of theslums...." and the naturalsciences, history and The committee recommendedthe im- social sciences, and philosophyand reli- mediate creation of a publiclysupported gion. The foreign languagerequirement community (or junior)college for voca- now canbe satisfied with either one tional, technical, and generaleducation; a language or two. Literature andfine arts college of liberal arts; a liberalscholarship been added to the require- program tohelp District students pursue courses have community ments. Thefaculty also approved recom- (after two years' work in the mendations for general curricularchanges college) special courses notoffered by the which would increase the opportunities proposed public college of liberal artsand for colloquium courses andindependent sciences; and a centerfor high level and study, visiting lecturers and artists,and postdoctoral studies. The results arelegis- exploration of possibilities forinterde- lation establishing Federal CityCollege, a partmental courses such as those now public liberal arts and sciencescollege being offered in Asian studies. with both two-year andfour-year pro- Recommendations calling for a separate grams, andthe Washington Technical In- state board for juniorcollege governance stitutewhichwilloffervocational- contained in a Center study havebeen technical education to "fit theindividual incorporated in a bill (S.B. 669) success- for recognized occupations" aswell as fully passed by both houses ofthe Cali- noncredit courses for upgradingtechnical forniaState Legislature in1967. The skills. study of thefeasibility of a separate In the Center'sdesign of research on junior college board wascommissioned by the 12 member collegesof the Union for Council for Research and" Experimentationin Higher the California Coordinating institu- Higher Education. Followingsubmission Education (UREHE) and the 16 tions in the InstitutionalCharacter study of the report,the study participants of worked with various state groups ininter- are extensiveprovisions for feedback preting the report. The questionof a theresults and future cooperationin separate board wasraised in earlier ses- implementing and field testing recom- but was not acted mendations. Members of theUREHE sions of the legislature, share and upon until 1967. Board scheduled a meeting to 138

evaluate findings on their schools and .the ers were sentquestionnaires on the re- Board stated that the preliminary reports search underway and the nature of the had generated considerable faculty discus- anticipated findings. Meanwh'.:,:, a classifi- sions ontheircampuses.Institutional cation system was developed to categorize Character study staff conducted consulta- thetypeof researchprojectsasthe tions with staffs of individualinstitutions information was received. To date, the following delivery of the reports. The project has accounted for some 700 cur- effectiveness of is based on these results rentorunpublished research projects. will be evaluated in a special study. Thisprojecthasdeveloped theonly known summary of currently ongoing Refinement and Utilization of Research research in higher education--researchthat Resources has as yet not been officially reported or published. Accumulated data from the Center's 12 years ofresearch activity(first as the The Future Center for the Study of HigherEducation and since 1965 as a national center) are A projection of the Center'sfuture being codified and stored in a Data Bank direction and success can be discussed on for use in secondary analyses and possible two general levels. Onthe first level are longitudinalfollowuponthe research those measurable, more or less quantifi- subjects. In this bank are socio-psycholog- able accomplishments that can be pre- ical and/or economic status data on more dicted on the basis of current plans and than 200,000 subjects.Several of the programs. Thefollowing outcomes are Center projects are now drawing onthe anticipated within the next six years as Data Bank. Program coordinators are cur- the result of Center activity: rently developing proposals for some pro- 1) The Center will haveaccumuiated, ject work based primarily onmaterial in synthesized, and disseminated widely a the Data Bank rather than on new survey- body of related knowledge abouthigher ing work. education covering the following areas: The Carnegie Commission on the Fu- the impact of college on studentdevelop- ture of HigherEducation, directed by ment; the functionand structure of higher Clark Kerr and Center researchers, felt the education; the economics of highereduca- need for information about research in tion; the analysis of different typesof progressinhigher education to avoid institutions (for example, the juniorcol- duplication of effort and establish a basis lege); and the accommodation of students for complementary or collaborative rein a "system of diversity." search. In the fall of 1967, under funding 2) A number of demonstration centers, from the Carnegie Commission, the Cen- models, and similar devices forillustrating ter undertook toinventory such research, innovations will be developed,tested, and primarily in the United States, but to made available or known to personnel in some extent inother countries. higher education. The projectindentifiedmore than 3) Research efforts willculminate in 1,600 individuals known to be or con- the formulation of or contribution to a sidered likely to be engaged in or knowl- body of theory related to various aspects edgeable about important studies in the of higher education, such as atheory of field of higher education. These research- student development. 139

4) Several hundreu colleges and high of institutional research. schools which have cooperated with the 9) Several hundred graduate students Center in its research will have received studying at Berkeley will have received feedback concerning various aspects oftraining in research through association their institutions, outlining implications with the Center. for change and innovation. 10) Because of its authority as the 5) Many hundreds of teachers,ad- pioneer research agency in higher educa- ministrators, and members of governing tion and its wide contact with decision boards will have participated in work- makersincollegesanduniversities shops, conferences, and seminars on how throughout the United States, the Center to improve the structure, programs, or will have generated a significant impetus process of highereducation. forim provi ngeducationalpractice 6) Countless individuals in higher ed- through research. ucation will have received information -On the second level, anticipated future co ncerningCenterresearchfindings Center contributions cannot be as clearly through: Center staff participation in pro- identified and can be stated only in grams ofprofessional associations at state, general terms. regional, and national levels; publications All indicators point to a steeply ac- of- Center staff in professional journals, celerating rate of change in American and publications of papers, monographs, society, and the consequences of this and books by scholarly and commercial phenomenonforeducationneedno publishers and by the Center; and wide elaborationhere.Project any current distribution of such general publications t re nd--b irthrate,cybernetics,student as the Center'sResearch Reporter. activisma short way into the future 7) A number of instruments to assess (1984?)3 and .the repercussions for educa- students and institutions, and thus to tion are clear and compelling. To maintain assist in the educational and evaluation relevance of the Center's research program process, will havebeen developed, stand- to the rapidlychanging challenges to ardized, and prepared for distribution and higher education, a study team of senior use. Examplesof instruments under devel- researchers in the Center will survey the opment, or currentlybeing standardized national field of higher education and and refined are: Omnibus Personality In- recommend the problem areas of greatest ventory (measuringpersonality orienta- import and need which should be the tions of collegestudents), Descriptive basis for organizing a new research and Assessment of Learning Environment (as- developmentprojectinthe following sessing environmental categories as seen year. by faculty, students, and administrators), One emerging problem area is thechal- Discussionaire (facilitating assessment of lenge to implement the concept of uni- the nature and quantity of student inter- versal higher education. How are students action outside the classroom), and the as individuals,particularly those of low Faculty Questionnaire (assessing several ability, low motivation, and of various relevant dimensions of performance of cultural backgrounds, to be accommo- faculty and of their work-related char- dated? We probably know a great deal ac teristics). about how "average" or highly selected 8) Many institutions will have been students learn and develop, but we must assisted in implementing useful programs learn more about the problems and poten- 140

those stu- tices and for continuousself-appraisal, tial of minority students and emerging dents who drop out of school. renewal, and innovation to meet Another question the Center mustad- needs. toward dressis:whatistheroleof higher The Center is well on its way education in the urban community?The production of asignificant body of trend toward urbanization generates at- knowledge about highereducation. The tendant problems which seem tobecome momentum of itsresearch program and the cumulative processwill generate the more seriouseach year. The university has information that can a reservoirof human talent committed to criticalmass of discipline provide a framework forunderstanding discovery of knowledge within a The of objectivity. American societyincreas- and improving the education process. ingly turns to the university foraid in Center's research interestsfocus on the developing viable options for acomplex dynamics as well as thesubstance of projects society. How should collegesand univer- innovation. Several new Center problems? Should will attempt to illustrate tothe higher sities assist in urban policies they serre primarily as research orservice education community how new should they and innovative practicesbased on research agencies on problems or project assumethe role of social engineersin findings can be effected. Another effecting change? Should theyeffect full will establish a workingrelationship with in the certain institutions ofhigher education so partnership with urban government actual field task of renewing social andcultural struc- that findings can be tested in specific developmental tures? situations through Still another question on thehorizon programs. Amodel for institutional plan- which might serve as is: what is the roleof higher education in ning will be designed continuing education? Isthere sufficient aguideline or pattern for theorganization interest on the part offaculty and ad- institutionalplanningprograms.Case substantiat pro- studies of organizationof institutional ministration to make any the model will gress inproviding continuing educational planning as they relate to forout-of-school youths be published. Aninformational training opportunities will be carried out for persons and adults? program To enable educators toadapt construc- responsible for institutional andstatewide tivelyto theradically altered societal highereducation planning. circumstances in which theywill have to The Center's data resources, itsresearch function in the future, at least twothings interests, and its wide contactsin the will be necessary: first, acoherent theo- educational community placethe. Center understanding in an effective' position tohelp those retical and factual base for deal the components, processes, structure,and responsible for higher education to education; successfully with the issues,demands, and ultimate purpose of higher education in the second, informed guidelinesand means changes facing higher for shedding outmoded educational prac- future. 141

BIBLIOGRAPHY

& Knoell, D. M.Training for educationalresearch. Buswell, G. T., Heiss, A.M., McConnell, T. R., Development in HigherEducation, Universityof Berkeley, California: Centerfor Research and California, 1966.

description. Princeton, NewJersey: Educational Cross, K. P.The junior collegestudent: A research Testing Service, 1968.

achievement in highereducation. Darley, J. G. Promiseand performance: Astudy of ability and Education, University ofCalifornia, 1962. Berkeley, California: Centerfor the Study of Higher result in two institutions.Berkeley, college into four-yearcollege: Rationale and Gott, R. Two-year University of California.(In California: Center forResearch and Developmentin Higher Education, press.) Berkeley, and professionaleducation: An annotatedbibliography. Heiss,A. M. Graduate University of California, California: Center forResearch and Developmentin Higher Education, 1967. Berkeley, California; Centerfor Heist, P. A. (Ed.)Education for creativity: Amodern myth? University of California,1967. Research and Developmentin Higher Education, San Francisco:Jossey.Bau, 1968, Heist, P, A. The creativecollege student! Anunmet challenge, four.year collages.Berkeley, L. L. Articulationbetweentwo-yearand Knoell, D. M.,& Medsker, California, 1964.(Available for Study of HigherEducation, University of California: Center for the 1315 Sixteenth Street,N.W., purchase through theAmerican Associationof Junior Colleges, Washington, D. C. 20036.) senior college: Anational study of thetransfer Knoell, D. M., &Medsker, L. L. From junior to American Council onEducation, 1785Massachusetts student. (Available forpurchase through the Avenue, N. W.,Washington, D. C. 20036.) world. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan, Henderson, A. D. (Ed.)Higher education in tomorrow's 1968. 142

Lunsford, T. A. The "free speech" crises at Berkeley,1964-1965: Some issues for social and legal research. Berkeley, California: Center for Researchand Development in Higher Education and Center for the Study of Law and Society, Universityof California, 1965.

Martin, W. B. Alternative to irrelevance: A strategyfor reform in higher education. Nashville: Abingdon Press, .1968.

McConnell, T. R. Research or development: Areconciliation. Phi Delta Kappa Monograph. Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa International, 1967.

Medsker, L. L., & Clark, G. W. State level governanceof California junior colleges. Berkeley, California: Center for Research and Development inHigher Education, University of California, 1966.

Medsker, L. L., & Trent, J. W. Theinfluence of different types of public higher institutions on college attendance from varying socioeconomicand ability levels. Berkeley, California: Centerfor the Study of Higher Education, Universityof California, 1965.

Paltridge, J. G. California's CoordinatingCouncil for Higher Education: A study oforganizational growth and change. Berkeley, California: Centerfor Research and Development in Higher Education, University of California, 1966.

Paltridfn, J. G. Conflict and coordination in highereducation: The Wisconsin experience. Berkeley, Calif Center for Research and Development inHigher Education, University of California, 1968.

Trent, J. W., & Medsker, L. L. Beyondhigh school. Berkeley, California: Center forResearch and Development in Higher Education, University ofCalifornia, 1967.

Trent, J. W., & Medsker, L. L. Beyond highschool. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968.

Trent, J. W. Catholics in college:Religious commitment and the intellectuallife. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967. CENTER FOR STUDY OF EVALUATION OFINSTRUCTION PROGRAMS

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Marvin C. Alkin, AssociateProfessor of Educational Administration Mary M. Bentzen, AssistantResearch Educationist Clarence Bradford, Acting AssistantProfessor of Educational Psychology Norma J. Feshbach, AssistantProfessor of Educational Psychology C. Wayne Gordon, Professorand Associate Dean of theGraduate School of Education Theodore R. Husek, AssociateProfessor of Educational Psychology Margaret H. Jones, ResearchPsychologist Stephen Klein, Associate ResearchEducationist Erick L. Lindman, Co-Directorof the Center and Professor ofEducational Administration William H. Lucio, Professor ofEducational Administration C. Robert Pace, Professorof Higher Education Audrey Schwartz, Assistant ResearchEducationist George B. Simon, ResearchEducationist Rodney W. Skager, AssistantProfessor of Educational Psychology A. Garth Sorenson,Professor of Educational Psychology Louise L. Tyler, AssociateProfessor of Education, Curriculumand Instruction James Trent, Assistant Professorof Higher Education Carl Weinberg, Associate Professorof Educational Sociology Merlin C. Wittrock, Co-Directorof the Center and Professorof Educational Psychology 144

CENTER FOR STUDY OFEVALUATION OF INSTRUCTION PROGRAMS

Erick L. Lindman University of California, LosAngeles

to themultiple consequences producedby Purpose the interaction of instructional programs The Center for the Studyof Evaluation with students in different contexts. broad and of Instructional Programsofficially began The field of evaluation is so in June, 1966 under USOEsponsorship. its uses are so varied that somedelimita- Its two years ofoperation have been tion of effort is necessary.Although there devoted to analysis of the Center'sthree are commonelements in all educational develop and field evaluation systems, there are alsodiffer- basic purposes: (a) to differences stem from the test systemsfor evaluating instructional ences. These programs;(b) to identify, measure, and uses to bemade of the evaluation report. study variables relevant to the, evaluation Evaluation of students foreducational- of appro- ;A instructionalprograms;ind (c)to guidance or for the selection clarify the process of evaluating instruc- priate educational treatmentsrequires for formulating appro- each child complete informationrelated tional programs by educational options. In priate theory. to the available this case, the available optionsdetermine Ration* the type of informationneeded. On the other hand the national assessment pro- In the foregoing statementthe term gram does notrequire complete informa- "instructional programs" includesclass- tion on each child. Itemsampling is pos- have social roomprocedures, programs and proce- sible, and test items must dures of individual schoolsand school validity. systeMs, as well asinstitutions of higher Evaluation techniques used forthe ac- learning. Special attention mustbe given creditation of schools and colleges quite -

145

properly stress available resources as well determine whether the teaching objectives as theaccomplishments of graduates. The desired by the teacher, the school admin- purpose of theevaluation is to predict the istrators, and the community are being effectiveness of the school program for a met (criterionvariables)? What kinds and five- or ten-year period and to suggest pro- sequencing of educational tredtment and gramchanges. curriculum materialsalso considering in- Evaluation of instructional equipment teraction of treatment and materials--best and materials is intended to aid schools in facilitate the student's ability to learn their selection. In this case, an effort (instructional variables)? Indeed, what is often is made to evaluate the materials involved in the student's learning pro- while holding the teacher variable con- cesses, such as memory storage,infor- stant. Conversely,evaluation of the effec- mation retrieval, cognitive strategies, and tiveness of individual teachers requires in- transfer of learning(instructional var- formation concerning the difficulty of the iables)? These are but a few questions that teaching assignment along with indicators the "users" need to have answered if they of the teacher's effectiveness. are to capablyevaluate their schools. The Center's research on common variables is Focus focused on furnishing data fundamental to developing theinformation systems for Thoughevaluationsfortheafore- these groups of users. mentioned purposes are important, they do not represent the central thrust of the Programs Center. Instead, the Center emphasizes the development of information systems Reflecting the emphasis of the Center is for the continuous evaluation of ongoing the division of work into eight programs: school programs. The impetus of basic research stems from the requirements of 1.Evaluation of Classroom Instruc- developing the systems. The goal is to de- tion sign different systems to inform (a)the classroom teacher, (b) the school prin- (Purpose: To develop and field test cipal, (c) the board of education, and (d) methods for evaluating the effec- planners of higher education programs. tiveness of specific classroom pro- Inherent in this emphasis is that al- cedures with different groups of though each user has some unique needs, students in different environments.) there are also many common elements. Therefore, a part of the work of the Cen- 2. Evaluation of ElementarySchools ter is organized aroundvariables common to all evaluation systems.These variables (Purpose: To develop and field test arecategorizedasinstructional,con- procedures for the continuous eval- textual, and criterion variables. uation of instructional programs in In their evaluation efforts, the four elementary schools.) "users" mentioned would want to know: What socioeconomic influences are oper- 3.Evaluation of 6' chool Systems ating in the community, the school, and the classroom (contextual variables)? How (Purpose: To develop and field test can we measurestudent performance to management information systems and program budgeting methods for next three programsseek to identify var- the evaluation of educational pro iables common to two or moreof the gramsmaintained by school sys- evaluation systems. In a sense, programs tems.) 5, 6, and 7 conduct basicresearch and identify components for the user-oriented 4.Evaluation of Higher Education evaluation system developed in programs 1, 2, 3, and 4. This relationship canbe (Purpose: To develop and field test shown by a matrix in which programs 1, instrumentsandproceduresfor 2, 3, and 4 are listed horizontallyand pro- evaluating the effectiveness of edu- grams 5, 6,and 7 are listed vertically. cational programs of institutions of higher learning.) The Criterion Problem

5.Study of instructional Variables One approach to evaluation of instructional programs declares that a precise (Purpose: To identify, measure and formulation of educational objectives in study significant varaibles present behavioral terms is an essential first step in instructional materials and pro- in the evaluation process. If this approach cedures.) wererigidly followed, the work of the Center could become hopelessly enmesh- 6.Study of Contextual Variables ed in in endless discussion on the question, "What knowledge is of the most (Purpose: To identify, measure and worth?" studysignificantcontextualvar- In America, control of public schools iables which affect the educational has been deliberately decentralized and process indifferent environments.) the power to prescribe educational goals also has been decentralized. Some of this

7. Study of Criterion Variables power isexercised by state legislatures, some byboards of education, some by in- (Purpose: To identify, measure and fluential scholars, some by parents, some studycriterionvariableswhich by publishers, and some by individual should be included in the assess- teachers. Under these conditions, it would ment of educational outcomes.) be presumptuous for any Center to attempt to determine thespecific goals of 8.Formulation of a Theory of Evalua- American education. tion The Center does not seek to prescribe a single criterion of effectiveness. Rather, (Purpose:To identify basic prin- the Center assumes that multiple criteria ciples and models related to the selected by appropriate agencies will be evaluationofeducationalpro- used. Thus, the aim of the evaluation programs.) cedures is to present relevant evidence to designated users for their decision-making The first four programs are designed to purposes. develop information systems containing a The criteria are basically of three types: variety of measures of the educational 1. Number of units produced, such as context and criteriaof effectiveness. The numberofstudentsgraduated, 1 47

number of bookscirculated, num- Angeles junior high schools. StUdents in mostly ber of counseling interviews, etc. the program are seventh graders, aaes 1 2 to 1 3. 2.Student achievementbased upon b test scores,student cornmunity ser- The specific objectives of LAMMP are vices, post graduate success, etc. a)toimprove mathematics skills and Evidence relating to thesocial value understanding of mathematical concepts; 3. c) to of, or individual satisfactionderived b) to improve the pupil's self-image; from, specific schoolexperiences. identifyspecificassets andlimitations 'The first of these criteria canbe quan- relating tothe learning process; d)to tified quite easily;the second can be develop and use special instructional ma- quantified to a lesser extent;and the third terials and programs, and to assesstheir probably will remain in thesubjective do- values; and e) to select and use appro- main. All, three typesof evidence must be priatecornmerciallydevelopedequip- presentedto,and considered by, each ment, instructionalmaterials, and pro- user. Itwould be most unfortunateif the arams and to assesstheir values. importance of evidence weredetermined Consideration of contextual variables is by its quantifiability. indispensable to the LAMMP evaluation. For some typesof educational pro- A sociological questionnairedeveloped at grams,specific behavioral objectives can the Center was used to gatherinformation be stated. A compensatoryinstructional on thebackgrounds of the students. Many program maybe intended to improvethe of the children come from familieswhere reading ability of disadvantagedchildren. English is not the primary language spo- Obviously, one of the criteriafor evalua- ken at home. Many have a culturalher- tion would be improvementsin reading itage thatis different in some respects testscores.Butthis alone would be from the norm toward which instructional insufficient since significant sideeffects material often is directed. As a result, a might occur. Moreover, theexpected in- study on language communication is part creasein the reading scorewould be of the LAMMP evaluation. related to many contextualfactors. Even An attitude-toward-schoolinstrument programs withspecific objectives, there- also was constructed at the Center to fore, need to be evaluated in abroader further examine contextual variables. It context. consists of a series of pendrawings, each The Center is now engaged ineval- depicting a scene from one of the content uating a compensatoryprogram--the Los areas:a)school content-general (class- AngelesModelMathematicsProgram r oom,playground,assembly, (LAMMP) for children ofnormal intelli- teacher-childinteractions);b)school gence butwho have tested one or more ac t ivities-specific(socialstudies);c) gradelevelsbehindinmathematics school activities-specific (math activities); achievement. California SenateBill 28, andd)intellectualactivities-general which authorizes LAMMP,stipulates that (science,library,museum,etc.).Like an outside agency mustevaluate the pro- most instrumentsfor the LAMMP evalua- gram.Accordingly,theLosAngeles tion,itis presently in the dataanalysis School District contracted withthe Cen- stage. . ter to do the LAMMPevaluation. LAMMP provided a field-testingsitua- LAMMP operates at three Demonstra- tion for criterion instrumentsdeveloped tion Math Centers located atthree Los at the Center.The new instruments were 148 given along with theIowa Achievement information systems. Test during pretesting(fall, 1967) and posttesting (spring, 1968).Classroom ob- Identifying Relevant Evidence in the interim. servations were conducted selecting, processing The LAMMP DiagnosticAchievement The procedures for change-sensitive instru- and presenting evidence areof fundamen- Test, designed as a the Center's primary ment, measuredabilities in mathematics tal importance, since on twodimensions, i.e., type ofmental concern iswith the selection and presenta- skill, and nature of content. tion of evidencerelevant to evaluation process or value judgments Each item can be classified onboth of rather than with making entire test can about instructional programs.Although these dimensions, and the the same for all be presented in a matrixcovering all items these procedures are not there are commonelements. on bothdimensions. programs, level of cognitive For example, underProgram 2, Evalua- Tests to determine Schools, an evaluation development also were given:individually tion of Elementary tasks, reportformat isin the early stagesof administered tests, based on Piaget's produce during the pretesting; and agroup-admin- development. The purpose is to during the post- aninstrument for preparationand presen- istered test, on grouping, tation of an annual reportto a school testing. and interpre- This brief discussionof LAMMP_ illus- principal and staff for review made earlier, that even tation in cooperationwith representatives trates the point office. programswith specific objectivesrequire from their superintendent's capable of Limited field testing ofthe elementary development of instruments made during producing informationfor comprehensive school evaluation system was evaluation. Education is acomplex mix- the spring, 1968 andthe data are being processed. Analysis ofthese data will ture of peopleand resources, which can- changes in the not beevaluated in isolation. With an provide the bases for innovational program like LAMMP,chil- system before moreextensive field trials dren are presented freshopportunities to areundertaken next year. become involved inlearningf departures from the pen-and-pencil routinesuch as Orientation three-dimensional bingo games forsolving staff are predom- arithmeticproblems. The Center, too, The CSEIP research participated in the innovation inorder to inantly UCLA faculty andgraduate stu- evaluate LAMMP's uniqueelements as dents. Two educationalresearchers are well as those common withother, more engaged fulltime in CSEIPresearch activ- standard approaches to mathinstruction. ities, which combined coverthe areas of The LAMMP evaluation isillustrative of measurementand evaluation, data pro- the continuity of researchand develop- cessing,test measurement,and experi- research assistants ment resultingfrom the Center's program mental design. The orientation, which will permitthe work representdiverse disciplines, amongthem on LAMMP tobe inCorporated into the educational psychology,educational soci- criterion and contextual var- ology,educational administration, eco- programs on training pro- iables. Thus, the LAMMPevaluation when nomics, and mathematics. A completed in December, 1968will con- gramforresearchassistants has been tribute to developing componentsof the established that includes seminars onbasic 149

research areas and special sessionsdevoted usefulfor planning the workof the to data processingand computer opera- Center. tions. The Center held the three-day invita- 1.Are the productsof the Center tional Symposium on Problems inthe (evaluation instruments and procedures)likelyto contribute to Evaluation of Instruction in December, col- 1967 on the UCLA campus. Theprincipal better practices in schools and speakers and discussants were Dr. Ben- leges? jamin Bloom, Universityof Chicago; Dr. Robert Glaser, University ofPittsburgh; 2.Are theoreticalformulations devel- of Cali- oped at the Centerlikely to con- Dr. Robert Gagne, University of fornia, Berkeley; Dr. Dan Lortie, Univer- tribute to a better understanding sityof Chicago; Dr. Samuel Messick, the evaluation process? Educational Testing Service at Princeton, of the New Jersey; Dr. MarvinAlkin, University 3.Are the faculty and resources of California,, Los Angeles; Dr.David UCLA Graduate Schoolof Educa- Wiley, University of Chicago;and Dr. tion contributingeffectively to the Martin Trow, Universityof California, work of the Center? Berkeley. During the summer of 1968, anational 4.Are the resourcesof the Center conference on program accounting was contributing effectively to the pro- sponsored by the UCLA Center.The duction of graduate studentsquali- conference analyzed variousapproaches fied to disseminate theproclucts the Cen- to programaccounting. Increasingly the and theories developed at wide interests of the staff,reflected in the ter? Center's publications, arebeing focussed upon a morelimited definition of evalua- 5.Are the costs of the Center reason- tion of instructional programs. able compared to the overall output of the Center? Evaluation of the Center's Program Answers to questions 1, 2,and 5 will Evaluation of the work of the UCLA require information concerningthe im- Center must be in termsof the specific pact ofthe output of the Center upon which it was established. American education,which cannot be purposes for Evaluation of the Any significant contribution toimprove- assessed immediately. ment inpublic school evaluation theory Center during itsinitial years, therefore, from research willrequire judgments concerningthe and practice must result and in this and development processeswhich nec- probable effects of its output, essarily require more time than thebrief respect there arehopeful expectations. lifespan of the UCLA Center. Questions 3 and 4 relate more to two year from However, identificationof five questions process andremain to be judged which must ultimately beanswered is operations of the Center. 150

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Working Papers

Alkin, Marvin C., Towards an Evaluation Model: A Systems Approach, August 1967. Lindman, Erick L., Net-Shift Analysis for Comparing Distributions of Test Scores, March 1968. Lindman, Erick L., A Three-Dimensional Program Account Classification System for Public Schools, June 1968.

Occasional Reports

Bormuth, John R., Cloze Readability Procedure, Feb. 1967. Husek, T. R. and Sirotnik, Ken, Item Sampling in Educational Research, Feb. 1967. Bormuth, John R., The Implications and Use of Cloze Procedure in the Evaluation of Instructional Programs, April 1967. Sorenson, Garth and Gross, Cecily F., Teacher Appraisal: A Matching Process, April 1967. Skager, R. W. and Broadbent, L.. A., Cognitive Structures and Educational Evaluation, April 1967. Sorenson, Garth, Toward an Instructional Model for Counseling, April 1967. Bloom, Benjamin S., Toward a Theory of Testing which Includes Measurement-Evaluation-Assessment, June 1968. Scriven, Michael, Evaluation as a Main Aim of Science: Comments on Professor Bloom's Paper, June 1968. Glass, Gene V., Comments on Professor Bloom's Paper, June 1968. Guilford, J. P., Comments on Professor Bloom's Paper, June 1968. Gagne, Robert M., Instructional Variables and Learning Outcomes, June 1968. Anderson, Richard C., Comments on Professor Gagne's Paper, June 1968. Postman, Leo, Comments on Professor Gagne's Paper, June 1968. Lortie, Dan C., The Cracked Cake of Educational Custom and Emerging Issues in Evaluation, June 1968. Gordon, C. Wayne, Comments on Professor Lortie's Paper, June 1968. Gage, N. L., Comments on Professor Lortie's Paper, June 1968.

Technical Reports

Alkin, Marvin C. and Hendrix, Vernon L., Input-Output Relationships in a Sample of California Public Junior Colleges, Feb. 1967. Feshbach, Norma D., Variations in Teachers' Reinforcement Style and Imitative Behavior of Children Differing in Personality Characteristics and Social Background, Feb. 1967. Lucio, William H., Wenger, Marion A. and Cullen, Thomas D., Psychophysiological Correlates of Female Teacher Behavior and Emotional Stability: A Seven-Year Longitudinal Investigation, Dec. 1967. Robinson, Lora and Seligman, Richard, The Measurement of Campus and Student Morale, April 1968. Alkin, Marvin C., Bentzen, Mary M., Grigsby III, J. Eugene, johnson, Stuart and Johnson, Rita, CSEIP Stimulated Evaluation Exercise; Materials Supplement June 1968. Alkin, Marvin C., Bentzen, Mary M., Grigsby III, J. Eugene, Johnson Stuart and Johnson, Rita, CSF-IP Simulated Evaluation Exercise: Instruction Guide, June 1968. 151

SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONOF SCHOOLS RESEARCH ANDDEVELOPMENT CENTER FOR

PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Edmund A. Anderson,Research Scientist of Social Relations Thelma L. Baldwin,Research Associate, Department of Social Relations Zahava D. Blum,Research Associate, Department of Social Relations Sarane S. Boocock,Research Associate, Department James S. Coleman,Professor of Social Relations Robert L. Crain, AssociateProfessor of Social Relations Doris R. Entwisle,Associate Professor ofSocial Relations Catherine J. Garvey, Lecturer,Department of SocialRelations of Social Relations Ellen Greenberger, ResearchAssociate, Department John T. Guthrie, AssistantProfessor of Education Tom R. Houston,Assistant Professor ofEducation Robert T. Hogan, AssistantProfessor of Psychology Michael Inbar, VisitingAssistant Professor ofSocial Relations Nancy Karweit,Research Scientist Colin Lacey, VisitingAssistant Professor ofSocial Relations John S. Mann, AssistantProfessor of Education Professor of Social Relations Edward L. McDill, Directorof the Center and Associate James M. McPartland,Assistant Professor ofSocial Relations John D. Owen, AssistantProfessor of Political Economy Martha 0. Roseman,Research Scientist Peter H. Rossi,Professor of SocialRelations Social Relations Erling 0. Schild, VisitingAssociate Professor of of Social Relations J. Timothy Sprehe,Research Associate, Department Julian C. Stanley,Professor of Educationand Psychology Social Relations Clarice Stoll, ResearchAssociate, Department of Murray A. Webster,Assistant Professor ofSocial Relations

.. 152

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER FOR SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS

Edward L. McDill, James McPartland, and J. Timothy Sprehe

Johns Hopkins University

The Johns Hopkins University Center tion including personnel policies, class- for the Study of Social Organization of r oomorganizationandscheduling, Schools and the Learning Process is the racial and socio-economic integration most recently established of the nine of schools, infbrmal social structures research and development centers funded among students andteachers, organiza- by USOEItbegan operation on tional patterns throughout the system, September 1, 1966. and the relations between levels of The principal objectives and focus of education. Other work of the Center the Hopkins Center may be summarized focuses onlinguisticand cognitive as follows: development itself, particularly those The Center is concerned with the aspects of the learning processwhich influence both of schools' social and are likely to be responsive todiffering administrative organization and of the educational and social contexts. Center community on the learning process of staff members are seeking to develop students from diverse social, economic, innovations in organization and curric- and racial backgrounds. The problem ulum and to disseminate their results area defined by the Center extends amongeducational institutions.Itis from education at the classroom level expected that most of the Center's to educationatthenational level. activities will result in explicit policy Research is being conducted to uncover recommendationsandpedagogical the pragmatic effects of schools' social innovations which will improve the organization on leaning, as well as the education of sociallydisadvantaged mechanisms through which these ef- children. fects take place. Studies are investi- At the request of USOE, the Center gatingvariousorganizationaland focused its attention and resources during administrative arrangements in educa- the first year of operation primarily on 153

basic researchinthe area of school and white students. The Center initiated desegregation and its effects on students research on the administrative problems of varying racial and ethnicbackgrounds. through a case study of the difficulties This problem involves one of thesix experienced in the achievement of school crucial areas listed by U S 0 E asbeing in desegregationinonecity,Baltimore, need of more intensive basicresearch. Maryland. The nature of segregation ef- Such a focus is consistent with theorig- fects was examined in a study of a large inal broad problem towards whichthe sample of metropolitan northeastern stu- Center is directing its resourcestherela- dents obtained from the Equality of tionship of the social organizationofEducational Opportunity survey (Cole- schools, both formal and informal, to the man, et al., 1966). learning process. The patterned relation- The study of school desegregation in ships among students and teachersof Baltimore(Walker,Stinchcombe, and different racial backgrounds areclearly McDill, 1967) had the twofold aim of onecrucial component of thesocial describing the history of racial composi- organization of schools. Ini,tssecond tion of that city's schoolsfor the eleven year, the Centerinaugurated four new years sincethe Supreme Court school programsof research and development, desegregation decision, and of searching each comprised of a number of projects. for causes of the failure to implement the One additional program hasbeen devel- desegregation decision, where failure was oped for initiation in September, 1968, encountered. Researchers made use of the start of the Center's third yearof information on the racial composition of operation. each school in the city, as well asschools The following sections of this paper in the surrounding countysuburbs for the will describe the original desegregation entire eleven-year period since 1954.Ad- research conducted by the Hopkins Cen- ditional data from the U.S. Census pro- ter and the fre programsof research and vided a picture of the racial character of, development by means of which the and the population migration patterns in Center hopes to progress towards accom- theneighborhoodssurroundingeach plishment of its goals and objectives. school. Several exploratory projects not vet or- The study had the immediate outcome ganized into a unifiefi programof activ- of providing a detailed statement of the ities are also outlined. These programand difficultiesfacedbytheBaltimore project descriptions serve as a measureofMetropolitan Area in making progress the Center's past success and as anindica- towards school desegregation. However, tion of the nature of its future activities. the research results were not limited to a picture of this particular city.The re- Research on School Desegregation searchersconfronted the problem of developing an index for the analysis of Two critical considerationsconcerning segregation that would reflect the migra- school desegregation are (a) the extent to tionpatterns anddemographicchar- which cities attempting to cope withthe acteristics of the population areasserved administration of racial integration are by the various schools. Existing segrega- confronted with hampering conditions, tion indices utilized in other studies were and (b) the identification of the natureof reviewed and found inadequate for the effects of school desegregation on Negro solution of this problem. Consequently, a 154 new measure,the "replacement index," little information had been availablefor wasdeveloped and its relation to other directly testing the effects on studentsof widely used indices was demonstrated. attendingsegregatedand desegregated This measure has been employedsub- schools. Although the original Officeof sequently by other researchers of segrega- Education report did not emphasizethe tion patterns (e.g., Farleyand Taeuber, effectsof desegregation,severalstaff 1968). A computer program and"analysis members of the Hopkins Center hadbeen package" were also preparedfor other involved with the survey prior to the school systems desiring to performanal- establishment of the Center. Thusthe yses for their systemssimilar to that for Center was well prepared to carry out Baltimore. further analyses of these data since some Inadditiontothemethodological of its personnel were already familiarwith by-products of the research, the substan- the character and design of that survey, tive findings for Baltimore werewidely and the data were available tothem. publicized in the area, and have beenused Under a contract with the U.S. Com- by some educators in developingfuture mission on Civil Rights, furtheranalyses school plans and policies. The Center of the survey data were performed by the report documented two reaeonswhy the Center staff and reported inthe Com- Baltimore Metropolitan Area has notbeen mission's study, Racial Isolation inthe able to make significant progress over,the Public Schools (1967). Other publications years inschool desegregation. The first on desegregationeffects originating from has been the importanceof existing the Equality of Educational Opportunity school boundaries between thecentral research have been prepared by Center city and surrounding suburbs.Racial mi- staff subsequently (McPartland, 1967and gration across these boundarieshas meant 1968). that the number of schools"desegrega- Many findings resulted from theseanal- ting" has been offset bythe number of yses concerniiigthe desegregation eff6cts schools "resegregating." Secondonly in ondifferent dimensions of student devel- importance to the suburbanboundaries is opment and theparticular aspects of private and parochialschool segregation desegregated schooling which appear tobe within the city. The vast majorityof influential.Generally,Negrostudents students in private schools are white. werepositively influenced by desegre- Consequently, efforts to decrease segrega- gated schooling in their levelof achieve- tion within the publicschool system of ment, sense of opportunity,and racial the city have been largely vitiated,for the attitudes.White students' achievement white students who might go toschool was notaffected in general but their racial with Negroes are largely in privateand attivides did appear to change toward parochial schools or in the suburbs. In more acceptanceof Negroes as a result of view of these findings, the Center report attendance at desegregated schools. How- offered policy recommendationsdirected ever, the importantdifferences between atreducingtheeffectsofpolitical segregated and desegegated Negro stu- boundaries and neighborhooddifferentia- dents were largely offiet if certaininternal tion. conditions existed within desegregated Until the completion in 1966of the schools.TheCenterinvestigations extensiveOffice of Education survey, indicated that most of the effectsof Equality of Educational Opportunity, desegregated schooling are eliminated for 155

those Negro students who are in segre- regard to desegregation. gated classes or who are socially segregated within desegregated schools. Current Research andDevelopment Four different situationalfactors were Programs identified as distinguishing the desegregated environment from the segregated In its current activities, theJohns Hop- one. These werethe social class "mix" of kins Center is organized aroundfive major the student body, the racial composition programs. Each programis composed of of the students,, the level of competition several research and/or development Imo- in the school, and the degreeof social jects. Four of the programshave been integration of students in theinformal underway since the start of the Center's affairs of the school. Social integration second year of operation in September, appeared to be the major factorwhich 1967. The other onewillbeginin explained the greater willingnessof de- September, 1968. These five programs are segregated Negro students to choose inter- asfollows: racialassociationinthefuture. The change in the level of competition ap- Simulation Games peared to explain the decrease inNegro students' academic self-confidencewhich Education and Social Change for the accompanied desegregation. Theincreased Negro American: TheDevelopment sense ofopportunity expressed byde- of a System of Social Accounts segregated Negro students seems tobe influenced by the racial mix per se,rather Socialization,SocialClass,and than any of the othersituational factors. Cognitive Skills Finally, the growth in Negrostudents' academic performance due todesegrega- Standard Language Acquisition in tion seems to derivefrom three factors: Educationally DisadvantagedChil- social class and racial mix as well associal dren integration. Although the Center has broadened its The Politics of Public Education: research focus since thefirstyear of Comparative Study of SchoolBoard operationtoincludetopics of more Operations general scope than desegregation,research on various aspectsof this topic has con- Simulation Games tinued, reflecting a sustained interestof staff members in this topic. Forexample, Vie basic premise of this program is a numberof Center reports on educa- that greater student motivationfor learn- tional policy and practice havebeen pub- ing, an increase of intrinsicinterest in lished, papers which have dealt withthe certain topics, and greateracquisition of brought consequencesand future implications ofinformation and ideas can be desegegation (Coleman 1967a,1967b, about by modifying the reward structure 1968). In addition, the Center program of the classroom. One devicefor altering beginning in September, 1968,will focus the allocation ofclassroom rewards is on theoperations of school boards; in thought to be academic games.Games particular, it will deal with theconditions function as a learning devicebecause they and affectingschool board decisions with areintrinsically attractive to students 156 encourage a newkind of cooperation plexity beyond the basic version described amongthem. Moreover, they shift em- here. Research indicates the large majority phasis in the teacher role awayfrom of student players perceive that success in maintaining control of theclassroom and the game isa functionof exchanging evaluatingindividualstudent perform- support or cooperatingwith other legis- ance, and movethe teacher's role in the lators. In other words, the fundamental direction of informal interaction,discus- principle behind the game's construction sion, and coaching. is effectively communicated inthe playing The games developed at theJohns of the game. Hopkins Center are a combination of the Since 1962, prior to theestablishment game-like techniques which havelong of the Center, faculty researchers atJohns been used by teachers to arousestudent Hopkins have been developing academic interest and the relativelynovel tech- games whichsimulate social situations and niques of simulation. That is,the games conductingresearchon the processes aredesigned to mirror some complex which make simulation games aneffective social process or aspect of social inter- learning device. Because of its early begin- action which the student isexpected to ning, this Center program hasmoved most appreciate in a more thorough wayafter fully into the development and dissemina- his experience in playing the games. Simu- tion phases. Twelve simulation gameshave lation games, then, are not merelydevices been developed, some with severalalter- for motivating students to studyfurther nateversions. Curriculumkitstoac- in the area after theplay is over, but company the games arebeing devised, players learn from their very participation teacher's manuals are being written,and in the game. Center staff have conducted alarge num- To take one example, in theLegislative ber of workshops and demonstration ses- (or Democracy) Game, six to tenstudent sions with teachers andadministrators in players are each designated aslegislators the process of disseminating theproducts and the game requires them to actcollec- of the program. tively as a legislative body. Eachstudent The establishment of the Hopkins Cen- receives a set of cards onwhich are ter resulted in theexpansion of all phases printed the attitudes of his constituency Of the program. The programhas de- regarding issuesfacing the legislature: veloped additional games for use inthe "Federal aid to education - 70 personshigh school socialstudiescurriculum. against, 30 persons for. Retainingmilitary Given the Center's concernwith the prob- base in your constituency - 250 persons lem of desegregation and its effects upon for, 50 persons against." Playing the game students of different racial and ethnic involves short speeches, informal bargain- backgrounds,projectshave also been ing with other legislators,and formal undertaken which compare theeffects of sessions of the legislatureunder parlia- games upondisadvantaged and advantaged mentary rule.Players succeed by getting students, both in the United Statesand themselves re-elected at theend of the other cultures. within the gamewhich, in turn, is dependent ontheir Games appear to "work" success atpassing or deteating issues social organization of the classroom in an according to the wishes of their constitu- effective manner. Yet, it is onlyrecently encies. The Legislative Gameinvolves that research has been conducted intothe sevenadditional levels of progressive com- question of why gameswork. To date, the 157

question remainsunanswered, but the Studies, Center games will be evaluated successof games for educating and stim- for their precise applicability to current ulating students has continued topuzzle curriculum needs in this area. investigators and is leadingfurther and further in the direction of a fOrmal theory Education and Social Change for Negro of autotelic behavior. The peculiarfasci- Americans: The Development of a System nation of games has beenincremented to of Social Accounts some extentby the growing realization that the construction andobserved dem- The need for a system of "social onstration of games in simulated environ- accounts" for American society has in- ments demandsof the researcher that he creasingly occupied the attention of social formulate theoretical concepts to explain scientists in recent years. According to the behavior to which he has given rise.In oneformulation, social accounts is a set this way, as one social scientist has put it, of balance sheets enablitig one to list over it has been found that "constructionoftime the assets and deficitsof major social simulation games constitutes a path subgroupswithintheAmerican toward formal theory that is analterna- population, together with a specification tive to the usual developmentof concepts of the conversion processes whereby def- and relations in verbally statedtheory." icits are converted into assets.Such a (Coleman, in Boocock and Schild, 1968, system of accounts,when developed, ad- p. 50.) equately tested, and maintained, holds the Whileresearchproceeds on several promise of at least three majorscientific fronts, the dissemination activitiesof the and policy advantages. First,social ac- Games Program havecorrespondingly in- counts promises tofurnish a more ade- creased. To date, more than 11,000 copies quate meansfor assessing the direction of the Program's twelve games havebeen and extent of social change for various distributed to schools, 4-H clubs,and subgroups within the United States on the other interested agencies. Duringthe past basis of regularly collected and analyzed year, Centerpersonnel conducted 114 data. Second, research in the social ac- workshops and conferences, anddistri- counts framework isintended to con- buted 3,000 information folders on the tribute to a continual refinement of the games. Afilm,a book, ninejournal basic theory of the processes of social articles,five major reports, and three change and social mobility. Third,the dissertations have resulted from the re- system ofsocial accounts and conversion search into games withsimulated ac- processescould serve as a guide to social tivities. The Program's activities havebeen policy by identifying the crucial areas widely publicized by means of two na- where policy manipulation mightbe ex- tion-wide television programs andfour pected to have the greatest impact. magazine articles in the popular press. Center personnel have chosen to inves- Future research on games withsimu- tigate the role and organizationof the lated environments will be directed to- institution of education in the contextof wards refining some of the development research on the development of a system implications of the program. For instance, of social accounts. Within this concentra- through the affiliation of programstaff tion, studies are being madeof the co- with the simulation and gamescommittee ordination of education with conditions of the National Council for theSocial and changes in other sectorsof American 158

processes on anationwide society, such asthe occupational system. cupational level. The simulation,using MonteCarlo Other investigations aredesigned to seek a of the ways in which techniques,operatesin the following better understanding records, representingchar- schools may function totransform very manner. Data particular groups at acteristicsof households,arepassed specific deficits of through a set of computersimulation different points in thelife cycle. Finally, time which impede the programs.Each pass represents a conditions in society period, such as amonth or year. The development of theeducational system or changed set of of schools as an outputfrom a pass is a facilitate the functioning data records, the computerprogramhav- effective conversioninstitution are inves- ingaltered the characteristicsof the tigated. In all of this, aspecial emphasis is mirror real world change as it affects Negro households in ways that given to social changes in households overthe time Americans. time period is asmall Secondary analysis ofdata from the period involved. The and the simulation isrepeated on the Equality of EducationalOpportunity sur- one, samepopulation again and again to repre- vey hastaken a new tack:Regression the conducted under a sent the passageof many years. At analyses have been simulated year, a censusof "hypothetical experiments." end of each strategy of the population istaken, time seriesand These exercisesaddress such a question as constructed, and inthis "What wouh.; be theverbal achievement trendlines fashion the social accountsof the popula- level of Southern NeFFostudents if they background, teacher, tion monitored. possessed the family willcause .births, school, and fellowstudent resourcesof The.simulation research has at- deaths, marriages,divorces, and regional Northern whites?" The mobility to occur inthe tempted to provide an answerto this type and residential substituting the resource household recordsof the population. of question by Other phases of thesimulation programs values of the latterstudents into the passes rela- determinehow an .individual regression equationspertaining to and how tionships for theformer students. Educa- through the educational system his educational assets aretranslated into a tional outcomes whichmight be expected constellations of givenlevel of occupationalprestige and to resultfrom other children's education is of students have how, in turn, his inputs for various groups affected by his ownaccomplishments. also been calculated.Taken together, begin to specify The simulationtechnique will be em- these separate exercises "hypotheti- exactly the particular components ployed for conducting more more cal experiments" upon apopulation. For of schools whichfacilitate the operation been shown that for converting existing example, it has recently of this institution education has somewhatdifferent results deficits into assets.Different educational and studies per- in occupationalprestige for white outcomesmeasured in these The higher a Negro's mit judgmentsabout how the outcomes Negro Americans. into adult educational attainment,the lower the of schooling relate to entrance educational assets into oc- positions in themilitary service and oc- conversion of cupational prestigerelative to conversion cupational structure. bywhitesofthesameeducation. From a differentperspective, the inves- the occupa- begun the designof a com- What would happen to tigators have distributionof Negro Ameri- putersimulation of educationaland oc- tional 159

of "conversion rate" residential changes,and the formation cans iftheir educational families and changein family structure. wereidentical to that ofwhites? In effect, occupational dis- This survey makes useof long "calendar what wouldhappen if the respondentchecks crimination wereeliminated? In asimula- sheets" whereby concerning estimates of thetime of certain events tion, thesekinds of questions knowledge of datesof other the impact ofeducation on thelife cycle against his occurrencesin his life.This survey pro- can beaddressed, byartificially changing information on thelapse of and examiningthe vides unique the conversion rates time betweendifferent kinds ofchanges, simulated outcomes. and the activity, effortshave the sequence ofdifferent events, As a third major relationship betweenearly states andlater been directedtoward identifyingthose deficits which are mostpoorly events inlife. assets and The third fieldstudy measuresvariables conceptualized and forwhich empirical be related tothe scarce.This has which are believed to data areparticularly likelihood thatcharacteri;tics of a com- resulted, first ofall, in some extensive resourcesof literature (Blum andRossi, munity will serve to augment reviews of the individuals within thelocality. Two such 1968). In addition,the programstaff have di- dimensions are the amountof cohesion in organized regularresearch meetings and the levelof "trust" rected at planningfor the collectionof the community, amongthe individualsin the neighbor- newdata. Three nationalinterview surveysof hood. adults are atdifferent Negro and white Socialization, SocialClass, and Cognitive stages inthe constructionof interview schedules, pilot testingof instruments, Skills and analysis of na- and administration The majorobjectives of the program tional studies. Thethree survey's are an of measuring intergenerational changes are (1) todevelop methods investigation of certain cognitiveskills and habitswhose for Negroes andwhites, a field surveyof of in the lifecycle role in the generallearning process the links between events children is poorlyunderstood; (2) Negroes andwhites, and a young of individual toidentify the imoortanceof these se- study of community resources. lected cognitivevariables for theclass- One studyfor which somedata have roomachievement which ismeasured by already beencollected seeks todetermine characteristics of the standardized tests;(3) to contribute the relationships among relationship between the respondent's par- toknowledge of the three generations: and developmentof these respondent himself,and the the appearance ents, the cognitive skillsand socializationpractices respondent's children.This study is in- (4) to knowledge of the ways within the familyand school; and tended to further modifications inclassroom or- in whicheducational gainsand other propose affect this transmittesi across genera- ganization andpractice which resources are cognitive development. tions. skills and habitswhich gathers information on The cognitive A second survey for concentratedstudy and time of occurrenceof have been selected the appearance are theneed to achieve(nAch), the need manykinds of events inthe life cycle of asin- include full time toknow (curiosity),attention individuals. These events fluenced by anindividual's timeand and part timeeducation, occupationaland 160 distance frames of reference, and syn- As knowledge is gained of the variation tagmatic and paradigmatic variations in in the selective cognitive and motivational verbal behavior. Much of the prior re- components, how these variationsrelate search on these variables has been con- to other aspectsof academic growth, and ducted with college-level subjects. There- the kinds of socialization processes which fore, a major portion of the early work of explain some of these differences, itis the program is concerned with devising expected that a new basis for designing and adapting measuring instruments for classroom environments will be provided. studying these factors in young children, Indeed, it is a premise of this program whereitis believed thatsocialization that the abilityto measure In young influences have already had strong effects children such cognitive skills and motiva- on the learning process. tional components as curiosity, attention, and the need to achieve must precede There are.atleast two reasons for identifying variations in these cognitive suggestions for modifications in classroom components inorder to increase this organization which can be shown to affect understanding of differences in classroom the learning process atthis age level. performance on standardiZed tests. First, Different classroom organizations will be it is important to identify the strengths as suggested and studied as other phases of well as the weakresses which children this program continue. from different social backgrounds bring The major steps of the program which with them to the classroom. Initial studies will be talcen to achieve these objectives in this program have indicated that in- are asfollows. First, the "natural varia- ner-city children may be more advanced tion" across subcultural groups will be in some aspects of language development measured in order to determine the distri- than children in the suburbs. The identifi- bution in types of skills Und habits which cation of previously unrecognized assets are exhibitedby certain groups and social of inner-city children can provide one categories. basis for practices which will encourage Secondly, the patterns of slevelopment their growth in other ways. Second, more of these cognitiveskills over a broad adequate explanations for differences in subcultural range will be documented, and studentperformanceonstandardized specific teacher-child and parent-child inachievement ts reciuire a more com- teractions will be studied that may shape plete theory of the learning process to these skills. These studies will help illu- which the proposed studies of the subtler minate questions on how socialization aspects of cognitivedevelopment will con- within the family and school are related. tribute. Are some skills which are present and Besides investigating variations across developed in the family either lost or contrasted cultural and regional groups, eroded as disadvantaged groups enter and the links between cognitive development continue in school? Or are school pro- and specific socialization processes which grams whichordinarily affect cognitive occur indifferent families and schools will development facilitated or imped,ed by be examined. These studies are intended socialization practices which distinguish both to contribute to a theory of the certain subcultural groups? learning process and to be the basis for Thirdly, investigations will determine suggestingmodificationsinclassroom whether these developmental phases are practies. amenable to manipulation so that certain 161

deficiencies can be overcome through middle-class children, and that Negrochil- different modes of classroom organiza- dren lag behind white children onthese tion. Studies will focus on what arethe measures.Thus itis expected that dif- specific ways in which classroom innova- ferences will be found in the pattern of tions or re-organizations canaid in the adjective usage by social class andethni- development of these skills. Thus, it is city. hoped that this program of researchwill A third project will studyfamily so- lead to definite policy recommendations cialization practices in an effort toexplain as to howselecteoi cognitive skills can be the well known relationship ofbirth order used or developed to enhance a student's of children and academic achievement. classroom learning. Parents of children at threegrade levels There are ten projects organized under (Grades 2, 5, and 9) will beinterviewed this program for meeting theseobjectives. and observed in an effort toidentify One of these projects,'Comparison be- specific socialization practicesemployed tween Rural andUrban Socialization Prac- with first-born, but not with othercnil- tices," is the research which stemsfrom dren. earlier work done in this area on rural-ur- A fourth project will attempt toisolate ban differences in sociolinguistics. Re- and describe pertinent variableswhich fined studies of word associationre- influence the nature of rewards for stu- sponses showstriking differences in the dentsin the elementary schoolsocial semantic systems of groupswithin the system. This studyof the socialization city (Negro and white inner-citychildren) process withinthe school will make use of and also differences between bothof a portionof the data collec for the these inner-city groups andsuburban chil- Equality of Educational Opportunity sur- dren (Entwisle and Greenberger, 1968). A vey. study of responses for rural groups is in The remainder of the projectsunder progress. Thiswill permit comparisons this program are directly concernedwith with the several typesof responses in two centralvariables in this program, the urban groups. Moreover, work in other need to achieve (nAch) and theneed to cognitive domains (perceptionof space know (curiosity). These projects are con- ancl time) with rural children andalso cerned with the development andvalida- specific rural family socialization practices tion of measuring instruments,using both are beingundertaken. projective and teacher-ratingtechniques. Another project, "Incidences of Adjec- Modified forms are being developedand tives," will begin in the summerof 1968 tested for use with ninthgraders and and will be carried out incollaboration tested for use with ninthgraders and with the program on standardlanguage students from five to seven yearsold. acquisition in educationallydisadvantaged Scoring procedures andadministration children. Written records from theSociali- manuals have been prepared. zation Program and spoken recordsfrom Information from field studies of these the Linguistics Program willbe surveyed instruments will be usedfor other pur- to determinethe frequency of adjective poses inaddition to that of testing of the usage withincertain groups. It is hypothe- instruments. Studies of thedistribution skills in sized,for example, that disadvantaged and variation of these cognitive children use less variety in adjectivesand certain groups differing in age, sex,and usethemlessfrequentlythando ethnicity have been completedand are 162

objective of the forthcominF in a Center report. student's peers. The program is toprovide the child withthe An additional projectinvoves an evalua- designed for ability to use standardEnglish and to tion of a training program discriminate among situationsin which its sixth gradedisadvantaged Negro young- needachievement use isappropriate. sterstoincrease Secondly, with regard tothe social (nAch). The instrumentsdeveloped in organization ofschools, the research on other projects willbe used for evaluation and the this work will serve as self-instructional programming of this training, and characteristicswillhaveim- apilot study forfurther developmentof learning portantimplications for theintroduction training procedures. of innovations intothe organizationof Acquisition in Educa- the classroom.Programmed self-instruc- Standard Language simulation games,alters the tionally DisadvantagedChildren tion, like traditionalteacher-student relationship. of the fourth Instead of the usualsituation in which The major objective information flows fromthe teacher with program is todevelop instructionaltech- for the purpose of student responsesproviding feedback to niques and approaches self-instruction provides an providing childrenwith a commandofthe teacher, English. The instruc- approach in which thestudent can initiate spoken standard and maintain theinformation flow with tional techniques tobe developed will in the student at an partbeofaprogrammed, feedback provided to large empirically derived,individually optimal self-instructional form. activities of this pro- rate. Evenin classes withreduced stu- The intent and dent-teacher ratios, theteaches is seldom gramof research anddevelopment further toward the goalsof the able to attend toindividual needs to the the progress required for trainingdisadvantaged Center in several ways.First, in termsof extent students in complex motor-conceptskffis the learning processof disadvantaged chil- first such as oral languageacquisition. In pro- dren, it is clear thatthe child whose involving the student in language is a dialectdifferent from the viding a means for more activeparticipation in thelearning standard Englishemployed as a medium approach is con- of instruction in theschools, is handi- situation, this program's sonant withthe Center focus onthe capped in his ability toprofit from verbal of the learning and written instruction.It is important to organizational properties who are situation. note thatthese are children of a linguist with administratively classed as"English-speak- Under the directkm which ipso facto extensive experiencein developing pro- ing," a categorization units for teach- obscures the extentand nature of the grammed self-instructional ing French, the programhas adopted a linguisticproblems involved.The ap- by diversified approach thatwill take into proach of the programis remedial only only the linguisticchar- the fact that it seeks to correctordevelop account not thas been only acteristics of thenative andstandard standard English that also the distinguishing partially and inadequatelylearned. It is languages,but approach is to socid and attitudinalfactors associated ,not remedialin that its English as a secondlan- with the functionsof each. Several co- teach standard and research activities guage, not as areplacement of the lan- ordinated projects have been de medwithin the last year in guageused either at home orwith the

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toward the princi- tion of test sentencesembodying different the process of working analyzed. Further research pal goal of the program.The initial group structures was of interest is fifth andsixth grade stu- in this project willinclude examination of activities for the samples of free responses inspeech and dents. The core program Variatons will be present andimmediate future are asfol- writing from dictation. described and linguisticand extra-lin- lows: the variation will be I.Linguistic research onthe speech of guistic conditions of (inner city identified. A follow-up of thepreliminary the subject population the relationship Negro and whitechilckek.,. study, which examines between reading achievement scoresand the subjects, is in 2.Modification of a simulation game repetition scores of role progress.This latter analysis willbe used for the purpose of investigating under perception andlanguage behavior. in developing diagnostic sequences the project concernedwith instructional and development of a materials. Diagnostic sequences are afirst 3.Design instructional pre-programfamiliarization se- step in thepreparation of diagnostic sequence and materials and are intended toidentify quence, placing a child at instructional units. specific needs to use in the appropriate point oractivity in the 4. Programmingresearch addressed to instructional program. compatability of A second projectisrelated to the questions of the devel- specific programmingtechniques to linguistic research activities. A game of the oped by the SimulationGames Program the learning characteristics for the purpose of student population. has been revised studying styles of speech asthese styles different role-playing be- 5. A sociolinguisticattitude survey, a interact with attitudes toward haviors. The recorded gamesessions from pilot study on the important corpus standard and non-standardspeech this project provide an population and of speech for analysis.The game itself is held by the student study of role percep- by adults who are infrequent con- also being used in a tact with thestudent population. tion of this studentpopulation. The third activity ofthe program is to and pre- The first projectabove has as the major carry outthe planning, writing, of the speech ofliminary evaluation ofthe instructional objectives a description only in its initial the student population.The study of materials. This project is intra-individual variation inthe produc- stage. Thefirst step in the project is a is being em- coordinated design of subject matter con- tion of speech patterns description of phasized. A preliminarystudy undertaken tent, linguistic content, a City public schools behaviors which comprise*the terminal in several Baltimore of instruction, (Garvey andMcFarlane, 1968) indicates objectives of the program city children and a descriptionof programming strate- that the speech of inner of techniques. The differs from standardEnglish and that the gies and presentation sys- next step isthe production of a pre-pro- differencesareto some extent familiarize the students tematically distributedby subgroups in gram sequence to In this studywith the format andprocedures to be the sampled population. diagnostic se- performance of students onechoic repeti- used in instruction. The 164 quences will attempt toidentify specific The Politics of Public Education: A Com- instructional emphasis and requirements parative Study of School BoardOpera- of each student.In subsequent steps tions instructional units will be developed and analyst of tested. Attention will be devoted to each From the viewpoint of an political decision-making processes, school of these activities in 1968 and 1969. integration is of interest because it is a Anothei project subsumed under this relatively new kind of issue. It is only program involves astudy of the influence since 1954 that school boardshave been of programmed instruction on the learn- faced with the public conflict that fre- ing characteristics ofeducationally dis- quently ensues when pressure is brought advantagedstudents.Treatingpro- upona .schoolsystemforracial grammed instruction as a modificationof integration. In consequence of this nov- tech- the social organization of theclassroom, elty,organizeddecision-making niques with which school boardsmight the research to be conducted underthis have and handle the question of desegregation project will compare the reactions not emerged, andfor any given city the learning processes of advantaged and dis- outcome of thedesegregation issue can advantaged childrenusingself-instruc- take any number of shapes. tional materials. These studies will be Extensive research in the area of school designed and executed in late 1968. boards faced with the desegregation issue The final project organized under this had already been conducted under co- program is asocio-linguistic attitude sur- directorship of faculty members of Johns vey. The intentionunderlying this piece Hopkins University and the Universityof of research is to examine the value judg- Illinois. In an earlier study (Crain, 1968), fifteen American cities were analyzed ments made bystudents as well as teach- with regard to the way in which their ers concerningindividuals who exhibit school boards, which are particular kinds and differentpatternsofstandard of small, formally organized groups, make non-standard speech. Results derived from decisions. How the campaign leaders for this research will be utilized in subsequent integration conducted themselves,what Design and Development activities. they seemed to want, what roles were Thus the overall organization of ac- played by the school superintendents, tivities under this program is toconduct how the voters behaved, and finally, what research on underlying theoretical issues the school board member himself thought and then design and develop innovations of the demands made on the board--all for classroom instruction. At the end ofthese varied facets and roles wereanal- the first three years of the program, ayzed over a broad range of regions and city types. of instruttional units for the The previous research demonstrated, sequencefifth and sixth grades, coordinated with amongother things, that efforts of the existing language arts curricula, is sched- civil rights movement were mostly sym- uled for completion. Once the success of bolic in orientation; that is, the civil rights these activities has been evaluated, re- leaders were more concerned aboutschool search and development activities willbe boards'public commitment toracial extended to other grade levels. equality than with the placing of the 165

will increase of Negro students in Secondly, the investigators maximum number study of addinganother integrated schools. Inthe North, out- the scope of the major issue, thefinancing of schools. comesof the desegregationissue were the the degree of in- They will addressquestions such as partly dependent on following: How importantispopular fluence exercisedby citizen elites; inthe for sharply political support ofthe school board South, where theissue is more level of schoolfinancing? delineated, a morecritical factor seemed raising the of the elite Which types ofschool boardspress to bethe ideological position for the adoptionof rather than their powerposition,. Com- hardest for financing, educational innovations,for the maxi- munities whosepopulation was ofrela- and for statustended mum amountof federal aid, tively high socio-economic desegregation and compensatoryeduca- to be more proneto controversy,to have and consequently tion for Negrostudents? weaker political parties, This program ofresearch further aims to havehigher degrees of citizenparticipa- make for tion in thepolitics of desegregation. to explorethe factors which play rather differences in schoolboard composition. Superintendents tended to boards are domi- minor roles withregard to the policyofIt appears that some desegregation; the nated by top communityelites while school systems on of local political, the tone adoptedby the others are made up school boards set neighborhood, or ethnicrepresentatives. systems. Structural differences inthe community The centralfinding in studies con- differences will be the politics ofschool which produce these ducted to date on examined with a viewtowards ascertain- desegregation seems tobe that the predis- work board members arethe ing which kindsof strategies would positions of school boards in differentkinds decisive element.Boards composedof best for school tended to inte- of cities. personswith liberal views the organizationand grate; conservativeboards did not. More- To investi,gate elected, de cision-makingprocessesof school over,where school boards were school in its setting as decisive liberal action was morelikely to boards is to see the appointed school board agovernmental agency.The ways in be forthcoming; which a school systemfunctions as a officials were moreconservative. These important area for somewhat striking when political entity is an findings are made research, for in some sensethe administra- it is realized thatthe liberal or conserva- tive policy-makingstyle of a system must tivepolitical tendenciesof the city's affect the education population had relativelylittle influence trickle down to particularchildreceives. on thedesegregation issue; theorganiza- whichany leanings of the board Political organizationof the system which tion and political the process oftrick- itself tended to bethe importantfactor. blocks or facilitates program, the studyofling down hasimportantramifications As a new Center within the school aswell as throughout the politics ofdesegregation will take two additional steps overthe previous re- the larger community. First, under a grantfrom the search. Independent Projects Carnegie Corporationof New York City, of its the program willbroaden the range the activities which are by extending thestudy In addition to research activities organized into thefive research andde- to the 93largest northernschool systems. 166

Hopkins student body at large. The activitiesunder velopment programs, the Jahns development of a Center also supportsindependent projects this project include the of research in its major problem area,with theoretical model which draws upon re- projects will searchfindingsforthepurposeof the intention that these link develop into future programs orfeed into identifying the mechanisms which existing programs. There aresix inde- together the principal variables.Also, pro- pendent projects which areeither cur- ject staff will undertakesecondary anal- rently underway or about tobe initiated. ysis of existing data andplan to mount One project, "ClassroomOrganization newfield investigations once thetheoreti- and Student Environment,"studies the cal framework has beenelaborated. As interplay among (1) theformal academic these activities progress, it isanticipated standards and classroom arrangementsin that detailed proposalswill be made for the informal student modifications in the formal organization theschool,(2) expected to norms andstudent environment, and (3) of schools which can be the rate of academicgrowth of individual effect changes in the studentclimate. students. In the studies undertakenin this Anotherindependentprojectalso project, the principalindependent var- focuses on the structural arrangementsin by schools for schools and educational systems.This iables are the methods used Or- grouping students inclassrooms (including project,"Comparative Educational students and their ganizations, Their Inputsand Outputs," the degree to which cross-national study of parents arepermitted to decide upon the consists of a classes and curriculum anindividual will educationalorganizations. The formal enter), and the mannerof formally evalua- structure of theeducational system in along several ting studentperformance, together with eighty nations is measured the consequences suchevaluations may dimensions. Differences in structure are to through school. be related to various kindsof outcomes have for student progress The data A major interveningvariable standing be- from the educational systenis. modifications in these formal forthis study are drawnfrom many tween the coded., arrangementsand individual student learn- sources andhave been collected, the character of the"student and organized for measurementof the ingis analysis. climate"or theinformal environment variables to be used in the established by the general studentbody. Results from this project areexpected to This project is aimed at discoveringthe contribute to the later developmentand Ceoter ways inwhich the informal student en- cross-cultural extension of other vironment inschools can be directed projects and programs. toward academic pursuits. There issub- A third independent projecthas as its stantial research evidence suggestingthat purpose thedetermination of how the the student climate of aschool has a educational resources ofparticular school strong effect onrhe learning of the systems areallocated among the indi- individuals in the school. Thegeneral vidual schools in the jurisdiction.Using hypothesis of this project is thatmodifica- data from the U.S. Census,the Equality and tions in the formal reward structureand of Educational Opportunity survey, in the amount of initiative astudent specially selected school districts,project exercises in organizing his ownformal staff have performed regressionanalyses programprovide avenues for intervening to determinethe relationships between in the informal normsadopted by the school resources and communitychar- 167

acteristics. Both the Social AccountsPro- separate studyunder this project will deal gram andthe desegregation researchofwith the different roleswhich teachers of the findings perform in their relationswith students. the Center will make use of "best from this project. Students' sociometric choices Various changes in thesocial organiza- liked teacher" and "bestteacher in differ- tion of the school areanticipated as a ent subjectmatters" will be used to result of introducing theelectronic com- measurethe effectiveness withwhich puter as aninstructional device in the teachersplay,respectively,socio- school. A Center project isdesigned to emotional and instrumentalroles in rela- study the use of the computer as atool tion to students. The investigationwill be for learning; how computers maybe concerned also with how particularteach- role employed as particularly flexiblemembers ers andstudents behave in different of the class of responsive environmentsis environments and the waysin which being investigated. One setof activities schoolclimatesaffectteacher-student under this project will bethe writing of relationships. These research activities are foundations programs inseveral different areas where intended to contribute to the function as a respon- for a theory of the social processes inthe the computer may "Classroom Ap- sive environment. school. A final project, The remaining independentprojects in plications of Research in Expectation the Center deal with variousdimensions Theory," focuses on theteacher-student of the teacher's role in the social processes interaction process. A seriesof laboratory of the school. A project isbeing con- experiments is beingconducted to study ducted involving studies of therelations propositionsconcerningevaluations; the teachers in the school aswell expectations, and status insmall groups. among contribute to an as aspectsof teacher-student interaction. These investigations will A study is underway todetermine what understanding of how teaChers' expecta- impact faculty peer group processeshave tionsinfluencestudentachievement on theclimate of the school and on through their effects on thestudent's own judgments and actions of individualteach- self-expectation and hisevaluation by study is designed to separately other students. As predictionsfrom these ers. The and refined, measurethe influence of thegeneral experiments are extended characteristics of the faculty, theback- Center staff will investigatethe ways in ground characteristics ofindividual teach- which conventionalclassroom techniques ers, theteacher's social position vis-a-vis can bemodified to enhance student de- other teachers in the school, andcondi- velopment. tions of the school programand opera- A set of programs andprojects as far tions. Although a good dealof research ranging and ambitious asthose described has been done on peer groups among in this paper does notarise out of an students in a school, such is notthe case organization4 vacuum, any morethan for school faculties. Drawingtheoretical does a school operate withoutessential propositions from the socialpsychology factors of social organization. Theinter- of informal work goups, projectdirectors play of minds andpersonalities which for this study will use data onteachers bring to bear the viewpointsof many fromtheEqualityof Educational disciplines and varied experience inCenter Opportunity survey andsupplement this seminars cannot becircumscribed within information with new surveydata. A the framework of ajournal article. One 168 contingentdeservesspecialmention tasks. The Center has used, not givenlip because of its pervasiveinfluence. The service to, themultidisciplinary approach, Center has established aspecial unit for has experienced the inevitabledifficulties support servicesin experimental design of this approach, and hasretained the and statistical analysis. Throughthis unit firm conviction that new advanceswill all Center program and projectstaff have come fromthis avenue of scholarship and has been to access tocontinuing and intensive consult- science. Its operating strategy ing services. The unitaids Center per- identify and pursue complexproblems sonnel in designing their studies(both requiring sustained effort by a teamof basic and evaluative),in incorporating persons,eschewing the kind a programs colleagues appropriatestatistical analyses, and in which an individual or a few training staff members andgraduate stu- might do as well with a one- or two-year development activities, the dents. grant. For its Center hp brought together, in oneplace, somepeople doing exploratory research, shoulders and Overview others looking over their picking up their findings for moreapplied The Johns Hopkins Centerhas at- research, and still othersdesigning and tempted in its programs and projects to developing usable packages tobe tested mobilize qualified members ofdisciplines and demonstrated as solutions topractical critical of problems who are committed to and audacious? It should education.It has endeavored tobring Does this sound behavioral not. It is thesubstance, if not the par- togethereducationists, "Criteria for scientists,subject-matterscholars, and aphrase, of Steele Gow's others who, by collaborating,could re- Appraising Educational Rand D Centers" Hopkins Cen- generateandreinvigorateeducational (1967) to which the Johns practice where it wasclearly failing in its ter subscribes.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Poor: A Biliographic Social Class Researchand Images of the Blum, Zahava D.,and Rossi, Peter H., Hopkins It and D CenterReport, 1968. Review, Johns in Learning,Beverly Hills, California: Boocock, Sarane S.,and Schild, E. 0.Eds., Simulation Games Sage Publications,Inc., 1968. Washington: U. S.Government Coleman, James S., etal., Equality ofEducational Opportunity, Printing Office, 1966. Reconsidered. JohnsonHopkins R and D Coleman, James S.,Equality of EducationalOpportunity, 1967a. Report, 1967b. Center Report, Change. Johns HopkinsIt and D Center Coleman, James S., RaceRelations and Social Opportunity. in the Provisionof Equal Educational Coleman, James S.,Responsibility of Schools 1968. Johns Hopkins ILand D Center Report, 1968. School Desegregation,Chicago; Aldine Press, Crain, Robert L.,The Politics of Language of Whiteand Negro Inner City Entwisle, Doris R.,and Greenberger,Ellen, Differences in Report, 1968. Children. Johns HopkinsR and D Center Since 1960," "Population Trends andResidential Segregation Farley, Reynolds, andTaeuber, Karl E., Science (March,1968), pp. 953-956. Speech Patterns inthe Paul T., A PreliminaryStudy of Standard Garvey, Catherine,and McFarlane, Schools. Johns Hopkinsft and D CenterReport, 1968. Baltimore City Public Paper presented atmeeting of American for Appraising Itand D Centers," Gow, Steele, "Criteria 15, 1967. Association of SchoolAdministrators, February Classroom Desegregation on Influence of SchoolDesegregation and McPartland, James,The Relative and D Center Report, Grade Negro Students.Johns Hopkins ft the AcademicAchievement of Ninth R and D Center 1967. Student in DesegregatedSchools. Johns Hopkins McPartland, James,The Segregated Washington, D. Report, 1968. Isolation in the PublicSchools, Vols. I and II, U. S. Commission onCivil Rights, Racial Printing Office, 1967. in Baltimore. C.: Government and McDill, Mary S.,School Desegregation Walker, Dollie R.,Stinchcombe, Arthur L., Johns Hogkins R.and D Center Report,1967. 170 190

PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATIONALR&D CENTERS

Norman J. Boyan and Ward S.Mason* U.S. Office of Education

Over a period of five fiscal years(1964 Center Program haveyielded more, less, through1968),the Federal government or aboutthe same research and devt.lop- has invested approximately$29million in ment dividends asinvestments in other establishing and supporting a set of uni- instrumentalities. Nor have the policy and versity-based research and development programpeople systematically collected centers in education.'An additional information to assess whether the Center million of fiscal1969funds will flow to Program is better suited to some aspects these institutions. The total expenditures of research and development thanothers. and appropriations of almost$40million Comparative investigationsaddressed to reflect the confidence of Federal program supplying answers to these questions are managers inthe continued progress of the currently under consideration. Forthe Research and Development CenterPro- present andimmediate future, assessment gram inachieving its objectives. What are of the Center Program must rest on these objectives and what is theevidence evidence of movement towardobjectives, of accomplishment? both original and current. The oldest centers are four yearsold. The youngest center is two yearsold. The Federal Interest in Educational a Policy malcers and program managershave R & D not yetcommissioned comparative studies to determinewhether investments in the The Federal interestin educational

and Dr. Mason is chief " Dr. Boyan is Associate Commissionerfor Research for the Office of Education of the Office's Research and DevelopmentCenters Branch. 'The set currently numbers nine, although the total at onetime reached as high as 11. One center chose to convert itself to a RegionalEducational Laboratory. Another agreed toshift the funding of its efforts from an institutional basis to anindividual project basis. 'u61v1,,6,

191

research and developmentassumed au- The Cooperative Research Program the mid- thentic form and substance in also included investments The Cooperative Research Act 1950's. Signal events appeared on the scene in the mid-1950's. by the National ScienceFoundation in impetus to and It provided an unprecendented curriculum building in mathematics researchineducation,especiallyin science and the passageof the National schools of education, primarilyby way of Defense Education Act to support pro- channeling funds to individuals, or to gram expansionin foreign languages and small teams of investigators, to carry on guidance. The lion's share ofFederal research projects of their ownchoosing. 6 expenditures in the 1950's went tothe After administering and observing "pro- support ofeducation as an instrument ject support" for several years,Federal national policy in internationalaffairs. policy makers and program managers ft ad- Executive, legislative, andpopular support together with their non-governmental for the new programs restedheavily on visers reached three conclusions. First, for they agreed that the CooperativeResearch belief in the importance of education qualitative im- enchancement of the Program had stimulated the maintenance and provement and quantitativeexpansion in Nation's posture vis a visother countries. educational research. Second, theynoted However, the soil wasturned and the that the results of the projects,and of seeds were sown for investing ineducation most othereducational research, did not as an instrumentof national policy to lead directly enough or quickly enough to pursue awide array of domestic goals. observable change and desired improve- The turn of climate thatproduced the ment ineducational practice. Third, they actual growth of expenditures camein the observed that the results ofsmall scale early 1960's. project research tended tobe fragmented, Heavy spending by privatefoundations non-cumulative, and inconclusive. conditionsin oneducation parelleled theenlargement Analysisofexisting of Federalsupport. Thefoundations education and reflection onresearch and tended to emphasizeeducational inven- developmentinagriculture,medicine, than sys- industry, and defense suggested athree- tiveness and innovation more of tematic research anddevelopment. Their pronged strategy to improve the impact support of innovativedepartures in educa- the Cooperative ResearchProgram on tional practice, coupled withthe stimula- educational practice. The first was toshift tion of programssponsored by the Na- the highest priority fromknowledge pro- tional Science Foundationand NDEA, duction alone to deliberate improvement contributed to acceptance of changeand of the relationship betweenthe produc- urge forreform in education. Thebelief tion and utilizationof knowledge. The that the Federal governmentshould step second was to put greater stress attracting up its investmentsin education in order to to educationalresearch and development achieve domestic goals and theconviction a rangeand diversity of multi-disciplinary that the Federal governmentshould en- talent that resided outside aswell as inside assemble courageneeded improvement in education schools of education, and to converged in designing and passingthe these diverse talents intopowerful critical Elementary and Secondary Education Act masses. Thethird was to create an instru- could be of 1965. mentality in which investments 192 made to achieve the desired shift and tions, and lectures, and the partic- stress, and which would also serve as a ipationinsymposia andcon- legitimate alternative to support of dis- ferences. connected projects. 4.Provide nationwide leadership in the chosen area."2 The Research and Development Center The guidelines explicitly describe antic- Proiram ipated scope, magnitude and time-frame for individual centers. The search for useful remedial action "The work to be done at a center will and creative alternatives led to the estab- be a major undertaking. It will require lishment of the Research and Develop- the services of a permanent core of ment Center Program in 1963. The guide- professionalstaff memberssupple- lines for the new program reveal the mix mented by the efforts of practicing of intentions, aspirations, convictions, and educators for at least several years. The expectations that accompanied its estab- length of time will depend on the lishment. magnitude and complexity of the prob- "Research and development centers are lem area to be dealt with and the scope designed to concentrate human and of the plaaned approach. In addition to financial resources on a particular prob- the financial contribution of the insti- lem area in education over an extended tution or agency, the Office of Educa- period of time in an attempt to make tion will probably provide $300,000 to significantcontributiontowardan $1,000,000annually.Althoughthe understanding of, and an improvement period of tinie for which support may of educational practice in, the problem be requestedwillnot be limited, area. Morespecifically, the personnel of typically a proposal should describe a centerwill: activities for a 5- to 10- year period."3 1.Conduct basic and applied research Establishment of the new program studies, both of the laboratory and signaled theintention of the Federal field type. government to supplement investments in 2. Conduct development activities de- "projectresearch"withsupportfor signed to translate systematically problem-oriented "programmatic," long- research fmdings into educational range research and developmentefforts materials or procedures, and field designed to find solutions to educational test the developed products. problems of national significance and to 3. Demonstrate and disseminate in- contribute to improvement in educational formation about the new programs practice. or procedureswhich emerge from Designation of the new institutions as the research and development ef- "Research and Development Centers" sig- forts. These P''-ivities may include nified that they were to be something demonstrationsin a natural,or morethandecentralizedsub-funding operational setting, the preparation agencies for supporting congeries of dis- of films, tapes, displays, publica- connected projects. The Office of Educa-

2 &3Cooperative Research Programs: Application Instruction for Research Contracts. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963, p. 27. 193

tion was already funding a wide varietyof pursuit of three related objectives:first, such projects directly from Washington. that individual projects and activities meet The cost of establishing and maintaining a the test of first-rate technical quality; center as an institution was seen,in large second, that the activities of the centers measure, as the price tobe paid for become genuinely programmatic; third, initiating and managing continuous and that most activities demonstrate authentic cumulativeprogrammaticefforts relevanceto problemsolution,either addressed to the solution of major prob- directly or through the development of lems. tested alternatives that represent improve- The guidelines, and related materials, ment over existing school practice. identify the following behaviors for which strong and sophisticated managementis a Technical Quality of Individual Activities necessary condition: 1. to c,,...ncentrate$300,000to There are over forty programs involving $1,000,000 of resources yearly on a several hundred specific projects or activ- significanteducationalproblem ities underway at the nine centers. These area over anextended period of programs varywidely in the types of time; professional expertise required, the num- 2.to allocate these resources to secure ber of investiptors and support personnel improvement in educational prac- associated with them, in their size, in their tice; design,. in their intended outcomes, and in 3.torecruitandemployinter- their costs. disciplinary professional staff, and The program management staff of OE necessary supportpersonnel; is neither large enough nor skilled enough 4.to design andimplement a coordi- in the many areas of work involved to nated and interrelated research and make wise judgments about the technical development program, or set of competence of the investigators orabout programs, to move in acumulative the technical excellence of their work. andprogressivemanner toward Assessment and evaluation on these di- problemsolution,includingthe mensions are really matters for qualified production of educational materials colleagues. Where OE staff members are or proceduresand the initial field appropriately qualified, they do partici- t estingofdevelopmentalpro- pate in assessment andevaluation. In totypes; recognition of limited breadth and depth 5.to disseminateinformation about of staff expertise, OE has turned from the all aspects of a center's program to ve7y start of the center program to spe- relevant audiences; ciailst consultants, field readers, andfield 6.to establish closeworking relation- visitors to assist in observing, reporting on ships with state departments of and assessing the technical competence of education, colleges and universities, center personnel and theirwork. local school systems, and other Since 1964, over 40 specialists drawn relevant educational agencies. from the ranks of distinguished educa- The press placed on centers by OE tionists, educational researchers, subject program managers,theiradvisers, and matterspecialists,and behavioralsci- non-government field visitorsfrom the entists have assisted OE as site visitors and start has addresseditself primarily to the as analystsof center documents, publica- 194 tions, and products. Theobservations, ternal review of separateresearch and reports, and assessmentssubmitted by site development projects funded by OE. visitors and field readers have been quite The major Ilifficulty to date incoming favorable in their treatment of the tech- to termswith realistic assessment oftech- nical competence of center personneland nical competence in the centersis that projects. The records show that OEstaff they have literally overwhelmedthe OE andtheirnon-governmentconsultants programstaff and its outside specialists agree thatthe centers have accumulated with reports, publications, andother pro- and assembled strong seniorstaff mem- ducts. Through mid-1968,almost 450 bers and have attracted expandingcadres publications and papers had appeared or of promising younger and less experienced were in press,above and beyond annual personnel. These same records also reveal and quarterly reports. instances where site visitors havenoted Up to this point OE reviewprocedures weak technical competence on the partof have been stronger in evaluatingproposed particular investigators or poor design and activities and work in processthan in workmanship on a specific project. Crit- judging final results. The staffhas been icisms of weaknesses andinadequacies on experimenting with new procedures,such these dimensions represent exceptions to as afield review held at the Wisconsin the general trend of reports.The general Center devoted entirely to assessingthe trend is commendatory andpraiseworthy. center's developmental products,and a Center directors generally havebeen quick conference on the evaluation of Individ- to spot anydeficiencies and take correc- uallyPrescribedInstruction(IPI)in- tive action. volving staff from the Pittsburgh Center, In relying on external reviewers,the OE Research for Better Schools, OE, and progamstaff remains concerned, how- several OE consultants. The staff isalso ever, withthe possibilities thateither developing a form with criteria for use in "senatorial courtesy" or undesirably nar- evaluating research reports. row perspectivemight creep into evalua- On the matter of theirability to as- tion process and procedures. Inorder to semble critical masses ofmultidisciplinary avoid these eventualities, the staff carries talent, centers have had little difficulty in on acareful process of selecting site bringing together the range oftalents visitors and field visitors andof orienting found in faculties of Education. Many them to the need for "hard-nosed"but faculty members in Education whohave balanced observations and assessments. joined the staffs of centers havehad The nature of the external review pro- regular appointments in other academic cess, and criteriaemployed, have provided departments. Success and interest in at- OE with increased assurancethat the tracting the attention andinvolvement of competence ofindividuals involved and of prestigious and highly competentfaculty work underway in the centers meetthe members who do not have appointments standards that apply for thefunding of in Education has variedconsiderably from individual investigators and workthrough centerto center. Some centershave "project support. " Indeed,the amount of demonstratednotablesuccessinas- systematic and continuouseffort applied sembling strong multidisciplinarycadres. to analysisof work at the centers easily In most of them, therehas occured a matches; and probably exceedsby a steady accumulation oftalent recruited noticeable margin, the internal and ex- from a wide array of fields andback- 195

gounds. However, several centersstill Neither OE northeseveralhost have not achieved significant representa- universities have found itas easy as tion on their staffs from academicdepart- anticipated to establish new institutions ments outside theSchool of Education. committed to programmatic andlinked research and development in education. ProgrammaticOrganizationof Center "Institution-building,in its literal sense, Activites has consumed much of the time, energy, and resources which both theFederal Technical competence and multidisci- government and theuniversities have plinary backgrounds of staff constitute contributed to the R & D Center Program. centralcriteriainassessing a center's The most dramatic example of the program. However,from the perspective difficulties involved in achieving a pro- of OE, it was never sufficient to assemble grammatic orientation of activities oc- a criticalmultidisciplinary mass of even curred in the spring of 1967 when OEand the most competent researchers towork a host universityagreed that the several ondisconnected projects of their own activities underway in the "center"did choosing and interest, without reference not constitute aprogrammatic set or sets to the fit of projectswith one another and and that the university really sawthe without reference to cumulativecontribu- "center" as a sort of holding companyfor tiontoproblemsolution.Although funding projects addressed in a general eminently necessary, undirected research way to the sameproblem area. As a result, excellence cannot by itself meet the inten- the funding of constituent projects was tions of the R & D Center Program.These changed to a direct "project support" intentions also require the management basis. ability and the organizational desire to The building of university-located cen- marshal extraordinary human andfinan- ters committed toprogrammatic and cial resources into well-designed setsof linked research and development ineduca- continuous and cumulative programmatic tion has constituted a majordevelopment activities. task in its own right. The collegial system Prior to 1964 the Office of Education of decision-making and the highvalue had invested little in genuinely program- placed on professorial 'autonomy in the matic research and devdopment ineduca- selection and conduct of research activ- tion. Establishment of the R & DCenter ities tends to conflict with theauthentic Program marked the setting andbuilding organization of interdisciplinary teams to of a new tradition which emphasized strive for the achievementof objectives institutional ability to select, initiate, and which are organizationally defined. In carry throughprogrammatic work authen- addition,thebasicuniversity reward tically directed to problem solution and system iscontrolled by the various ac- related educational development. Achieve- ademic departments, which placehigher ment of alegitimate programmatic orpn- value on conventionally definedresearch ization of activities has represented,from publication than on contributions to an the start, a desideratum derivedfrom the organizationally defined research and de- belief that careful planning of and delib- velopment activity. In some cases, a cen- erate connection amongactivities will ter has requiredfrom two to three years contribute to improved and more relevant to negotiatethrough the constraints of its research and development. setting in order to establishitself as a 196

oriented individual professors to proposeprojects well-managed, progammatically which are then judged as towhether they research and developmentunit. The con- of straints have on occasionresided in the "fit" some pre-established statement itself wher programobjectives. Conversely, with an centerdirectorate and staff directorate takes than in other places inthe university. In active stance the center the task of the initiative in bringingtogether a group these instancesespecially the problem achieving a programmaticorientation has whose talents are relevant to often required an extendeddialog with area andcharges them with the respon- .the other side of siblity for designing a systematicattack OE staff members. On started out the coin, the support given tothe nine on theproblem. Many centers is with a passive approach to programplan- centers bytheir parent universities of universities impresave particularlyinthe face of ning, and given the nature perhaps it is often necessary to gothrough pressures,constraints, and fmancialprob- administrators. this stage. However, it isdoubtful that lems which face university anything more than a"quasi program- University administratorshave made it this faculty members to matic'plan can be developed in possible for important and virtually all the centershave spend considerable portionsof their time manner, often have provided been moving toward a moreactive stance. in center activities, genuinely program- extensive space inuniversity buil When the array of matic activities carried onin the centers is and have madesubstantial financial su of activ- sidies to the centers inboth direct and compared with the entire array contributions have ities sponsored by centers,it is clear that indirect costs. These done to achieve a shown themselves ascritical in the process much remains to be especially when programmatic emphasisthroughout the of institution-building, and discon- they are contrastedwith the sources of ninesites. Many separate nected projects are stillvisible. Also many supportwhich have been available tothe the regional of the 'programs"themselves really con- founding and growth of of convenient groupings educational laboratories. stitute examples The location of the centersin the orclassifications of essentially separate projects rather than setsof activities universitystructuresfollows no single comprise units within a designed and initiated asintegrally related pattern. Some other and planned to run over a School of Education; some operatewithin to each long-term in a continuous andcumulative or report toother units of a university; solutions to signif- and several exist as separateinstitutes fashion in search of reporting directly to anofficial in the icant educationalproblems. specific location of In considering theemphasis on pro- president's office. The itis useful to centers inthe university structuredoes grammatic orientation, distinguish bewteen highpriority and ex- not seem,thus far, to be related to any effort. All centers judgmentsc oncerningprogrammatic clusive allocation of may beexpected, as a matter of course, to orientation or !generalperformance. proportion of separate In judging theprogrammatic status of support a certain distinction ancl discrete projects forsuch purposes as centeractivities,amajor and interest of should be made between anactive or a commanding the attention planning highly respected colleagueswhose contri- passive stance toward program institution are the part of the centerdirectorate. With butions to the center as an on invaluable, or securing scareand critical a passive stance,the initiative lies with 197

human resources to serve a wide variety of itors, OE staff members, andadvisory center activities(such as measurement or committees established by the centers statistical design assistance), or supporting themselves. The press for programmatic "high-risk" efforts whose potential contri- orientation and organization of activities butions do not neatly fit or mesh with has tended recently to shift from without overall programs plans. An important test to within, as the centershave fought of management skillis the ability to through their internal diplomatics and as devise a strategy for the allocation of they have seen for themselves the gain and resources whichprovides a defensible bal- powerthatderivesfromcarefully ance betweensuch needs and the major planned,cumulative,continuous, and programmatic efforts of the center. inter-related research and development The nine centers vary markedly in their work. own internalor:ganizational structures, in the efficiency of their operations, and in Authentic Relevance to Problem Solution theircapabilityand commitment to organizeacitivities on a programmatic As the first type of organization spon- basis. Although field visitors have, over sored by OE for "bri4ing the gap" time, noted continuous and gradual in- between research and practice, the centers crease in thecapabilities of center man- wereoriginally charged with responsibility agement,probably thesinglegreatest for the total innovative process, including weakness across alf nine centers resides in basic research, applied research, develop- the ability to plan and project Forogams ment, field testing,demonstration, and for more than one year into the future installation. OE's stress on the importance with any degree of specificity. Notable of development is based on the conviction exceptionsexist.Somecenters have that it constitutes the keystone in the set demonstrated high-level commitment to of activities that connect the production an abilityfor planning and generating and utilization of knowledge.4 research and research-related activities on Basic research, by which is meant re- a long-range,continuous, cumulative, and search undertaken with an objectiveof inter-related basis. Others have been slow building a body of general propositions of in exhibiting warm enthusiasm and great empirical reference, has always been and energy for organizingtheir activities on a continues to be an important part of each genuinelyprogrammaticbasisorfor center's mission. The source ofproblems actually moving in this direction. Even so, forbasicresearch may be either the analysis of annual reports and of other "internal" problems of theory building descriptive data about the centers reveals within a discipline, or the "external' that many of them have initiated several problems of the real world. From this rounds of efforts to reorganize themselves point of view, devekpment-oriented re- on anincreasingly programmatic basis. search is seen as a special category of basic These efforts represent more than reac- research, distinguishable from other cat- tions to orefforts to meet external egories by the source of problem genera- evaluation criteria applied by field vis- tion rather than by its quality, rigor, or

4 It also is possible, as Klausmeier suggests in his paper on the WisconsinCenter, that some special forms of new knowledge can move directly to influencechange and improvement in practice without passing thorough a development phase. 198 content. Both types of basic research are school systems. A great deal of further necessary parts of a center's program. development work will generally be re- Nevertheless, the need to organize center quired to put the working model in efforts systematically in relation to educa- condition for widespread diffusion. The tional problems dictates that some pri- center personnel may have tested the macy be given to development oriented prototype in one school in one type of research and thus thelinkagebetween community, but they do not yet know research and development. how it will work in other communities Entry onto the scene of several new with other types of populations. They types of institutions authorized by the cannot be sure of adaptation appropriate Elementary and Secondary Education Act to the needs of special sub-groups in the of 1965,particularly Regional Educa- population. Nor can the center staff be tionalLaboratories,TitleIIISupple- sure whether teachers will requirespecial mentaryCenters, and ERIC Clearing- training before they can use the new house,hasalteredtheexpectations product or process effectively. originally held for the centers with respect Whether or not centers use their own to the amount or proportion of effort resources to take development work beaddressed to development, demonstration, yond the prototypic stage is an individual and diffusion. In addition, both the cen- policy and management decision, related ters and OE have gained experience with to a center's own set of priorities. In the the realities of generating, developing, and typical case in -which they choose not to installing educational innovations. Center undertake such work directly, they are personnel, OE staff,and non-govern- held responsible for planning and imple- mental advisors have all come to recognize menting strategies for linking themselves that the mores of major universities often withothereducationalagenciesfor make itdifficult to carry development carrying their development work beyond beyond the prototype stage; that the costs the prototype stage and for assuming the of full-scale development, demonstration, difficult and costly effort of diffusing and diffusion are too heavy for centers to tested alternatives to ever-widening circles carry if they are to support productive of intended users. Prototypes gathering programmatic research; and that centers dust on shelves serve the improvement of" can and should link themselves to other educational practice no better than re- institutions-old and new-for supporting search reports gathering the same dust. the later stages of development work and Several papers in the present issue contain significantportionsof thecostsof descriptions of exemplary models of fruit- demonstrations and diffusion. ful relationships between centers and re- The notion of "prototype" has as- gional educational laboratories. sumed increased importance in the set of With respect to the criterion of stim- current expectations on the centers. When ulating research utilization, centers have a center has produced a working model of been charged with a responsibility for an innovation, which has been tested in at dissemination from the beginning of the least one "national" school setting, it has program. Experience and conceptualanal- brought a development to the prototype ysis strongly suggest the need for distin- stage. Typically, working models at this guishingbetweendisseminationand stage of development arenotready for diffusion. The former needs to be re- immediate adoption by large numbers of stricted to refer to distribution of in- 199

allocation of resources formation in variousforms and expanded centeristhe amongvarious functions. Itshould be to refer to anactivity that should occur formula for this of the innovative recognized that no rigid regularly at all stages established. The optimalbalance process. Onthis basis, researchand devel- can be amongdifferent types of activitywill opment centersshould be disseminating of the problem about all their activi- depend upon the nature salient information area, theadequacy of theknowledge base, ties, including theproblems they have be rationale for the the existence oftechnology that can chosen to attack and the borrowed from otherfields, and other choice, the programsthey have formulated as a consequence,and the progress factors. and results achieved ateach stage of their work. It appearspreferable to restrict Analysis of Center Program "diffusion" to itsanthropological refer- of an The programguidelinesinvited in- ent, namely,the spread or adoption submit, essentially, innovative practice oralternative among terested institutions to "unsolicited"proposals. Thisapproach potential users. As inthe case of pro- to de- full-scale development, it placed much initiative in respect totype vis a vis fining areas of workoutside the Office of appearssuitable to hold centers respon- the several and initiating Education. The researchers at sible for planning strategies institutions themselvesdefined an educa- efforts to link withother educational of problems, which the work of diffusing tional problem, or set agencies to carry on they felt to be ofnational significance to tested alternatives. of the proposing By and largethe centers haveestab- which the members grouphad demonstrated acommitment, lished good, ifconventional, dissemina- their five-year plan to especially with respect to and they outlined tion programs, attack the problem.5A panel ofdis- their research activities.New techniques tinguishedeliucational researchersand need to be and arebeing devised as assisted and advised of developmental pro- behavioral scientists increasing numbers OE in screeningproposals, in conducting ducts reach the prototype stage. and in recommendingthe The stress placed uponauthentic rele- on-site reviews, sub- establishment of specific centers. vance todevelopment has been the recognize the partic- dialog between OE It is important to ject of a continuing ular set of circumstanceswhich prevailed and the centers.Several of the centers not built during the establishmentof the center only have acceptedthe charge, they each existing style and program programand at the time it into their operating center cameinto existence. No master planning from the startof their existence. existed at the commitment to devel- plan of identified priorities 0 For others, a new Federal level to assist orguide program opment-oriented research aswell as devel- advisers, in the choice itself is reflected in recent pro- officers, and their opment of proposals. The programpeople and gramreformulations. advisory groups wereparticularly con- One of the key managementdecisions locating and supporting faced by each researchand development cerned about of conceptual, defined in many differentdimensions, e.g., in terms "Educational problems" were educational levels such ashigher education, disciplinary, or theoretical concernssuch as learning, professional fields such asteacher preparation, etc.

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capability to the present classificatoryscheme. known centers of human educational level, only address themselves in moresystematic and In terms of educational re- 15.7% of the funds aredevoted to pro- programmatic fashion to post-secondary search and development incrucial areas, gramsaimed exclusively at also seems education. It shouldbe noted, however, of which there were many. It the improvement of apropos to notethat neither the architects that programs for educational personnel areclassified by the of the program, noradvisers, nor program personnel will ulti- officersanticipatedthat the program level at which the whice it has mately work, and thus areshown mostly would stop at the level at education. AI- currently peaked. asrelevant to pre-college 201) in- though the dominantthrust of all higher The following table (page best classified as dicates how the centershave invested education programs is Federal funds for FY 68 intoactivities, related to four-yearcolleges and univer- used by sities, these programsdo contain some classified on two dimensions now totwo-yearpost- Bureau of Researchplanners: educational projectsrelated level and "input." In termsof input, secondary programs,graduate and profes- made their heaviest invest- sional education, andadult and continu- centers have The classification intosub- ment ininstructional systems (30.2%)and ing education. Two other categories ofpre-collegeeducationis educational personnel (23.1%). relate categories have substantialrepresentation: rough inasmuch as many programs namely, organization andadministration to morethan one level. concerned with the When the joint frequencies areobserved (16.5%) and programs cdls turn up with 10% totaleducationalinstitution(12.5%). in the table, three That no funds appear tobe invested in or moreof the funds: educational person- either facflities and equipment or resource nel at the secondarylevel (14.3%), instruc- of the clas- tional systems for themiddle school level building is partly an artifact and administra- sifying system. The rulethat a program (13.2%), and organization classified in one and only one tion for allelementary-secondary levels must be noteworthy category meansthat a program actually (10.1%). Perhaps the most related to more than one area mustbe thing in the table is that manyof the cells in the dominantfield.For are empty!Clearly the present center classified program is notbroad and comprehensive example,theLearning Research and aimed at Development Center at the Universityof enough to develop programs problem areas. Pittsburghisdeveloping new student many important interfacedevices, some controlledby computer, butthis is part of a larger Summary instructional program ondeveloping describe systems andtherefore is classified there. This paper has attempted to building, the the essential natureof the Research and With respect to resource indicating centers aredoing a very large - but quiet Development -Center Program, generation of how its objectives havebeen modified and -job of preparing the next conceptual anal- edUcational researchers. Hundredsof grad- refined by experience, research ysis, and theestablishment of-other new uate studentshave now obtained different aspects of training through participationin center agencies committed to the innovative process.Generally the Pro- programs. However,this contribution of record of the centers does not emergereadily from gram canpoint to a considerable IM1la1on0000;ftwati....awN.,...... 411- ...a t, loomet-44i-- '660#0.1.' '11.= MOOS 4.* wo; NI... ..14,01.110*''.1.111 C-111, Table 1. Programming of Federal Funds by (Percent;Research Base and= $8.699 Development million) Centers, by Input and Educational Level, FY 68 Input Total Child.Early Middle School Secon- Elem. dary AllSec. & Post-Sec.Two-Year CollegeFour-YearUniversity & &Grad. Prof. & Cont.Adult Other 2.1. HomeStudent & Capacities Community & Characteristics Total 100.0 9.14.4 10.5 2.1 - 13.2 - 20.9 33.6 - 9.1 -- 15.7 - - - 6.22.3 - 4.3.5. EducationalInstructional Organization Personnel Systems & Factors 30.223.116.5 8.4 - 13.2 -- 14.3 4.8- 10.1 7.3- -- -6.41.5 -- -- 3.8 - 6.7. Pupil8. Facilities Total Personnel Institution & Equipment AdministrationServices 12.5 4.1 -- - 1.8-- 7.1- -- 3.64.1- ---_ -- -- Note:9. Resource Detail Building does not necessarily add to -- -- total because of rounding. ------_- 0 202 accomplishment with respect to the tech- centersrevealsthat many significant nical quality of the worlc performedand educational problems are not nowbeing the organization of activities on a gen- attacked bythisinstrumentalityfor uinely programmatic basis withauthentic educational improvement. It is hopedthat relevance to development and thesolution comparatiire studies can beundertaken of this ofsignificanteducationalproblems. which will assess the productivitiy Where weaknesses exist, vir. rousefforts form of organization vis a vis othermodes development arebeing made to correct them.Analysis of organizing research and of programs now underway inthe nine effort.

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : IM0no-I4o The nine Research and DevelopmentGer ters havereceived support of approximately$28 million from the date of theirinception to June 30,1968. Tbe source of this fundingwas 82% Federal and 18(,',localor other than Federal. The magnitude of capital outlay from Federal, State and local sources for public educationper year is measured in the biilions.