Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013 (353–376) 353
Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India. XVIII. The Cauvery Region
Anurudh K Singh
H.No. 2924, Sector-23, Gurgaon 122017, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])
Abstract The region drained by the Cauvery (Kaveri) river, particularly the delta area, falling in the state of Tamil Nadu, is an agriculturally important region where agriculture has been practiced from ancient times involving the majority of the local tribes and communities. The delta area of the river has been described as one of the most fertile regions of the country, often referred as the ‘Garden of South India’. Similarly, the river Cauvery is called the ‘Ganges of the South’. The region is a unique example of the knowledge and skills practiced by the local communities in river and water management with the construction of a series of dams for fl ood control, and the establishment of a network of irrigation systems to facilitate round- the-year highly productive cultivation of rice and other crops. Also, the region has developed internationally recognized sustainable systems with a conservational approach towards livestock rearing in semi-arid areas and fi shing in the coastal areas of the region. In the process of these developments, the local tribes and communities have evolved and conserved a wide range of genetic diversity in drought-tolerant crops like minor millets and water-loving crops like rice that has been used internationally. In recognition of these contributions, the region is being proposed as another National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site based on indices used for the identifi cation of such sites. The present paper discusses a representative set of contributions from the region in various fi elds of agriculture.
The region around the Cauvery (Kaveri) distributaries before falling into the Bay of River (the Basin) is an agriculturally Bengal, south of Cuddalore, creating a wide important and unique region. Cauvery, delta called “the garden of southern India”. also spelled as Kaveri is the sacred river Devout Hindus called the Cauvery river of southern India. It rises on the Brahmagiri Dakshina Ganga (Ganges of the South). The Hill of the Western Ghats in southwestern region is unique because of the interaction of Karnataka state, fl ows in a southeasterly humans (communities) with the landscape direction for 765 km through Karnataka and of a river and its distributaries leading to Tamil Nadu, and descends into the Eastern the development of unique strategies for Ghats in the form of a series of great falls. river management, particularly of flood The river breaks into a large number of waters, and its exploitation in fi eld irrigation 354 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites by establishing a network of distribution Location and extent channels, a system that has become a Physically, the extent of the region is lifeline for the regional agriculture (food spread along and around the fl ow of the and nutritional security) and development. Cauvery River. It is bounded on the north The local communities and rulers of the by the high Kollimalai, Pachaimalai, region have displayed excellent engineering Shevaroy (Servaroyan), Kalrayan, Chitteri, skills in establishing an extensive network Palamalai and Mettur hills separating it of irrigation, particularly in the deltaic from the Krishna and Pennar basin, on the area. The fi rst dam, today called the Grand south and east by the low Sirumalai and Anicut, was built in the 2nd century CE at the point where the river divides. A second Karanthamalai hills of the Eastern Ghats dam (1836–38) was constructed across and Bay of Bengal respectively, and on the Kollidam (Coleroon) River. Cauvery’s the west by the Western Ghats. The river northern and larger channel saved the old basin is estimated to be spread over 81,155 2 system from silting and extended irrigation km with many tributaries, including the to agriculture. These developments made Shimsha, the Hemavati, the Arkavathy, settled agriculture the main occupation of the Honnuhole, the Lakshmana Tirtha, the more than 60 per cent of the population of Kabini, the Bhavani, the Lokapavani, the the region living in rural areas of the river Noyyal and the Amaravati rivers. About 2 basin. The river passes through diverse 44,000 km of the basin lies in Tamil topography, including arid to semi-arid Nadu, from 10.00°N to 11.30°N latitude tracts and ends in the coastal swamps. It and 78.15°E to 79.45°E longitude, and the has resulted in the evolution of diverse rest in Karnataka. The Cauvery River rises and unique practices for ecofriendly and from southwestern Karnataka and fl ows sustainable management of livestock on down into the Bay of Bengal. After it leaves the one hand, and conservational fi shing the Kodagu hills, it fl ows onto the Deccan techniques on the other, in addition to plateau and forms two islands, Srirangapatna conservation fi eld agriculture. In this process and Shivanasamudra. At Shivanasamudra it of agricultural development, the region has drops more than 100 m, forming a fall. It evolved and conserved genetic diversity enters Tamil Nadu through the Dharmapuri among minor millets in the dry areas, while district leading into the lower fl at plains. It in the case of rice both for rainfed and drops into the Hogenakkal Falls just before irrigated systems in deltaic areas, which it arrives in the town of Hogenakkal and then are supported by both good rainfall and a meanders through the districts of Erode, network of irrigation. For these contributions, Namakkal and Karur, where it is joined by the region deserves to be proposed as another other rivers, and reaches Tiruchirappalli. It National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage then branches off and again joins to form Site based on the indices described by Singh the Srirangam Island, which is a part of and Varaprasad (2008). The present article the city of Tiruchirappalli. The Cauvery discusses in brief some of the salient features divides into numerous branches and covers of the region in this regard. the whole of the delta with a vast network Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013 355 of irrigation channels in Nagapatnam and undulating area. In the northwest and south, Tiruvarur districts, and gets merged into there are a number of hill ranges which the wide expanse of paddy fields. The have steep slopes. More than 50 per cent of mighty Cauvery River here is reduced to the land area in the basin is arable, which an insignificant channel and enters the implies that it can be cultivated. About 22 Bay of Bengal at the historical place of per cent of the land is non-arable. The total Poompuhar (Puhar), about 13 km north of forest cover in the basin is nearly 20 per Tharangampadi (Fig. 1). Physically, 55 per cent and the rest of the area is inhabited. cent of the drainage area of the river falls Some parts of the upper catchment area in in state of Tamil Nadu, including the most the districts of Hassan and Coorg are at an fertile delta area, and 42 per cent in the elevation of 1,000 to 2,000 m above mean state of Karnataka. Administratively, the sea level (amsl), whereas going eastwards, areas drained by the river cover the districts the average elevation of the rest of the of Mandya, Mysore and Chamrajnagar of Mysore Plateau comes down to 600 m to Karnataka, and Dharmapuri, Erode, Salem, 1,200 m amsl. The delta regions in east Namakkal, Karur, Tiruchirappalli, Ariyalur, Tamil Nadu have an elevation of 300 to 600 Perambalur, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, m amsl. Further eastwards, the land slopes Pudukottai, Cuddalore and Dindigal of Tamil Nadu (Fig. 1). very gently into the sea with an average elevation <300 m amsl.
Landscape Agroclimate As the region is basically a river basin of a river coming from the hills and going The Cauvery region is a warm ecoregion. down into the sea, it can be divided into The climate is characterized by hot, dry three sections; the upper areas with steep summers from March to August, with slopes, the middle area, and the lower area intermittent rains from the southwest which is confi ned to the plains. Therefore, monsoon, and mild winters from September the landscape is full of hills, plateau, falls, to February, with good rainfall from plains and deltaic area. The regional slope the northeast monsoon from October to runs in the eastward direction. The upper reaches of the basin are covered with hill ranges of the Western Ghats, while the The local communities and rulers of sub-basin is broad, opening gently into an the region have displayed excellent engineering skills in establishing an extensive network of irrigation, The region around the Cauvery particularly in the deltaic area. The fi rst (Kaveri) River (the Basin) is an dam, today called the Grand Anicut, agriculturally important and unique was built in the 2nd century CE at the region. point where the river divides. 356 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Figure 1. Location and extent of the Cauvery region.
December. Precipitation varies considerably year in the western part of the basin, and across the basin. The western side of the 40 to 50 elsewhere in the region (
The principal soil types found in the basin In this process of agricultural are red soils, black soils, laterite soils, development, the region has evolved alluvial soils, forest soils and mixed soils. and conserved genetic diversity Soil types vary across the basin, but the red among minor millets in the dry soils are the predominant category followed areas, while in the case of rice both by black. The highland areas which fall for rainfed and irrigated systems in in Karnataka have lateritic soils, reddish deltaic areas, which are supported by brown in color. These soils are shallow, both good rainfall and a network of acidic to neutral and are fertile, good for irrigation. agricultural practices. The lowlands and plains of Karnataka have reddish brown soils, which are neutral to acidic in nature in the Kolli hills and the Pachamalai hill and are well drained. In some lowlands, the areas. The annual rains in these hills vary soils are neutral to weakly alkaline and have from 760 to 1,020 mm per annum. The rapid higher water-holding capacity. The soils in decrease in rainfall pattern from the coast Tamil Nadu on the other hand are deep with to the Tamil Nadu hills is noteworthy as the increasing depth towards the coast. These soils have high clay content, low draining coastal areas receive rains from cyclones. capacity, poor nitrate and phosphorus and The drainage network in lowlands of the high potassium and lime content. In the river is dense and the river forms a delta at southeastern corner of the basin, some areas Tiruchirappalli (Fig. 1). are swampy, which predominantly consist The annual temperature ranges from 25°C to of alluvial clay with poor drainage. 40°C, though there is a considerable variation The Cauvery delta and the riverine beds in the mean daily maximum and minimum in the plains have loamy river alluvial temperatures across the catchment area. The soil. The eastern deltaic area is the most mean daily maximum temperature ranges fertile area with the alluvial soil type. The from 19.5°C to 33.7°C, whereas the mean major portion of the interior has either daily minimum varies from 9.1°C to 25.2°C. ferruginous sandy soil or ferruginous loam. The maximum temperature in the western areas, having a high relief, such as Mercara, is in the month of March (28.5°C). Wind in Administratively, the areas drained the area is linked with the monsoons, and by the river cover the districts of mainly blows from the directions between Mandya, Mysore and Chamrajnagar the southwest and the northwest during of Karnataka, and Dharmapuri, the southwest monsoons. Clouds are also Erode, Salem, Namakkal, Karur, associated with the monsoon activity with Tiruchirappalli, Ariyalur, Perambalur, the skies being generally overcast during Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Pudukottai, the monsoons (
Black cotton soil, which has characteristic personatum (Hassk.) Chatt., Strychnos properties of shrinkage and cracking is seen nux-vomica L., Terminalia bellirica in parts of Tiruchirappalli and Dharmapuri (Gaertn.) Roxb., T. paniculata Roth, T. districts. Red sterile soil is seen in pockets tomentosa Wight & Arn., and Wrightia of Tiruchirappalli and Pudukkottai. tinctoria (Roxb) R.Br. Santalum album L. (sandalwood) was an important species of Floristic diversity these forests, now under threat. The basin is characterized by rich and The tropical thorn scrub forests are unique fl ora and fauna. The vegetation xeric scrubland. They consist of open, low comprises of tropical dry deciduous forests, vegetation that is characterized by thorny tropical thorn forests and mangroves. The trees with short trunks and low, branching tropical dry deciduous forests are dry open crowns. The trees attain maximum broadleaf forests of the Southern Deccan heights of 6–9 m. Typical grasses of Plateau. These have three stories, with an these forests include Chrysopogon fulvus upper canopy at 15–25 m, an understory (Spreng.) Chiov., Heteropogon contortus at 10–15 m, and undergrowth at 3–5 m. L., Eremopogon foveolatus (Delile) Stapf, The trees are draped in lianas in denser Aristida setacea Retz., and Dactyloctenium and mature forests. The major species L. species. are Acacia catechu Brandis, A. chundra Willd., A. leucophloea Willd., Albizia The second story of the thorn forests consists amara (Roxb.) Boivin, Anogeissus latifolia of spiny and xerophytic species, mostly (Roxb.) Bedd., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., shrubs, dominated by Acacia L. species, Boswellia serrata Roxb., Cassia fi stula L., Balanites roxburghii Planch, Cordia myxa Chloroxylon swietenia DC., Dalbergia Roxb., Capparis L. spp., Prosopis L. latifolia Roxb., Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) spp., Azadirachta indica, Cassia fi stula, Wight & Arn., Diospyros montana Roxb., Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb., Carissa Hardwickia binata Roxb., Plecospermum carandas Lour., and Phoenix sylvestris (L.) spinarum, Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Roxb. There are also several other habitat Shorea talura Roxb., Stereospermum types found in these forests.
The parts of Tamil Nadu area receiving less The Cauvery region is a warm rainfall have vegetation made up of thinly ecoregion. The climate is characterized spread thorny forests of Acacia planifrons by hot, dry summers from March to Wight & Arn., which is characterized by August, with intermittent rains from the umbrella-shaped crowns, hence called southwest monsoon, and mild winters ‘Carnatic umbrella thorn forest’ while the from September to February, with good driest, rockiest areas are dominated by rainfall from the northeast monsoon Euphorbia L. species, like E. antiquorum from October to December. L., E. tirucalli L., Capparis spinosa Linn., and Barleria spinosa Hook. ex Nees, and Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013 359 are called ‘Southern Euphorbia scrubs’. in the dry areas and hilly outcrops of the The soil in these areas is usually bare with Shevaroy, Kolli, and Pachamalai hills, and some grassy growth during monsoon. The irrigated farming along the hinterland of landscape is dotted with tall toddy palm or the Cauvery basin and delta. The important palmyra trees (Borassus fl abellifer L.). crops cultivated in the semi-dry hills are millets, pulses, and oilseeds in the kharif The tidal mangroves represented in (rainy) season, and sorghum and oilseeds Pichavaram include, Aegiceras corniculatum in the rabi (postrainy) season. Groundnut is (L.) Blanco., Avicennia marina (Forsk.) cultivated in northeastern Tamil Nadu both Vierh., A. offi cinalis L., Ceriops decandra under irrigated and non-irrigated conditions. (Griffi th) Ding Hou, Rhizophora apiculata The crops grown in the region vary from Blume, R. mucronata Lam. Wherever there area to area, however, the major crops are is an intrusion of the sea along the coast, paddy (grown on 77.8 per cent of the area) the following common salt-tolerant species followed by pulses occupying 9 per cent can be found: Apluda mutica Linn., Atriplex of the area (black gram, green gram, etc.). repens Roth., Eremopogon foveolatus (Del.) Other crops are ragi (fi nger millet), jowar Stapf, Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth, (sorghum), sesame (gingelly), sugarcane, and Suaeda Forsk. ex J.F. Gmel. spp. cotton, and horticultural crops like coffee, pepper, banana, betel vine, onion, etc. Agriculture and agrobiodiversity Because of the canal water supply, and More than 60 per cent of the total population with plentiful rainfall during the northeast in the river basin lives in the rural areas monsoon, there cannot be any other crop and their major occupation is agriculture. but rice from September to December. Forty-eight per cent of the lands are under The Cauvery basin is a granary of paddy, cultivation in the basin. Around 24 per particularly the area supported by the cent of the cultivable area has some or network of irrigation canals. The major other means of irrigation. The basin is paddy-producing areas are Mandya in shared by Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka, and the eastern coastal or deltaic The Cauvery delta region is known as the regions of Tamil Nadu, i.e., Thanjavur, ‘Rice Bowl of South India’ or the ‘food Nagapattinam, Cuddalore and Pudukottai basket of Tamil Nadu’, providing 40 per (Fig. 2). Rice is cultivated in the following cent of agricultural production of Tamil irrigated and rainfed conditions: (a) Nadu. The farmers follow rainfed farming Upland rice is bunded rainfed and semi- dry or maybe subsequently irrigated; (b) Rainfed rice is raised with direct seeding The principal soil types found in the either by broadcasting or sowing behind basin are red soils, black soils, laterite the country plow; (c) Semi-dry rice, where soils, alluvial soils, forest soils and the dry seeds are sown either pre- or post- mixed soils. monsoon, and the crop is irrigated later; and (d) Lowland rice, which is bunded and 360 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
in April. Sesame (gingelly) is also sown in April in fi elds prepared after the summer showers. In light clay loamy soils brought under garden land condition, crops like groundnut, maize, gingelly and irrigated pulses are rotated.
Among horticultural crops, vegetables like brinjal (eggplant), chili, and greens are grown during the summer months in Figure 2. Rice cultivation in the Cauvery Delta limited area, in the well-drained fertile lands area (Thanjavur). (Source: Wikipedia). depending upon the underground water source. Banana, sugarcane, and ornamentals irrigated, either by river water or tank water. like Jasminum L., rose, Chrysanthemum L., Transplanting is the common practice. Crossandra Salisb., and Nerium L. (arali) occupy the land for more than one year for The major ragi-growing region is the the successive returns. Coconut gardens, Mysore plateau with Chamarajanagar in bamboo and wood lots are scattered in Karnataka, and Dharmapuri, Salem, and the delta in different densities. Mango, Erode in Tamil Nadu. The major jowar- jackfruit, citrus of various kinds, guava, cultivating districts are Chamarajanagar and pomegranate, custard apple, etc., are among Mandya in Karnataka; Dharmapuri, Erode, the more prevalent fruit trees, in addition Namakkal, Coimbatore, and Dindigul to cashew in specific pockets. Tapioca in Tamil Nadu. Cuddalore is the major (cassava) is cultivated in Erode and Salem sugarcane-growing district in the entire for the fl ourishing starch industry. Plantain basin. In the black cotton soil belt, cotton and coconut are cultivated on a commercial and sunfl ower is cultivated on a large scale. scale wherever irrigation facilities are Under the traditional cropping system, available. cotton was raised in the rice fallows, by sowing cotton seed after piercing the moist Rice being the principal crop, most cropping soil with a sharp stick after placing the seed. systems are rice based. In the areas of To avoid encrustation, farmers fi ll the hole with sand and pot watered the holes. (
Figure 3. Korangadu, a traditional, Grain legumes and oilseeds. Black gram sustainable/conservation grazing grassland [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper], castor (Ricinus (Source:
L.), gingelly or sesame (Sesamum indicum), (Moringa oleifera Lam.), muskmelon (C. green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek], melo L.), okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), horse Moench], pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.), gram [Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lamk.) purple bean [Macroptilium atropurpureum Verdc], physic nut (Jatropha curcas L., (DC.) Urb.], ridge gourd [Luffa acutangula J. gossypifolia L., J. villosa Wt. var. (L.) Roxb.], snake gourd (Trichosanthes ramnadensis Raman), pongam oil tree anguina L.), sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica [Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre], sunfl ower Roxb.; syn. L. aegyptiaca Mill.), summer (Helianthus annuus), and tur or pigeonpea squash (Cucurbita pepo) and winter squash [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.]. (C. maxima Lam.).
Fodder and fi ber crops. Cenchrus ciliaris Leafy vegetables. Amaranthus (Amaranthus L. [syn. Pennisetum ciliare (L.) Link], spinosus L., A. tenuifolius Willd., A. viridis cholapul (Chrysopogon montanus Trin.), L., A. dubius Mart. ex Thell.). cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), dadara [Borreria hispida (Linn.) K. Schum.], Bulbs and tubers. Air potato (Dioscorea hariali (Cynodon dactylon Pers.), Indian bulbifera L; syn. D. sativa.), cassava bowstring hemp (Sansevieria roxburghiana or tapioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz), Schult. f.; syn. S. zeylanica Roxb.), kurutupul elephant-foot yam [Amorphophallus (Chloris barbata Sw.), ottanpul (Seltaria paeonifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson], Indian verniculata), roselle (Hibiscus subdariffa kudzu [Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) L.), sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) and DC], onion (Allium cepa L.), rasa valli vennampul [Trachys muricata (L.) Pers.]. kilangu (Dioscorea alata L.) and sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.]. Vegetables. Agasthi [Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.], bird pepper (Capsicum frutescens Fruits. Aonla (Emblica offi cinalis Gaertn.; L.), bitter gourd (Momordica charantia syn. Phyllanthus emblica), bael [Aegle L., M. balsamina L.), brinjal (Solanum marmelos (L.) Correa ex Roxb.], cashew melongena L.), canavalia [Canavalia (Anacardium occidentale L.), clove tree ensiformis (L.) DC.], chili (Capsicum [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. annuum L.), Coccinia indica L., cucumber Perry], custard apple (Annona squamosa (Cucumis sativus L.), C. melo var. agrestis L.), grape (Vitis vinifera L.), guava (Psidium Naud. (an edible weedy form), muringa
Coconut gardens, bamboo and wood Vegetables like brinjal (eggplant), lots are scattered in the delta in chili, and greens are grown during the different densities. Mango, jackfruit, summer months in limited area, in the citrus of various kinds, guava, well-drained fertile lands depending pomegranate, custard apple, etc., are upon the underground water source. among the more prevalent fruit trees. Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013 363 guajava L. Links), jackfruit (Artocarpus (Indigofera tinctoria L.) and sugarcane heterophyllus Lam.), jamun [Syzygium (Saccharum offi cinarum). cuminii (L.) Skeels], karonda (Carissa carandas Lour., C. inermis), lemon [Citrus Ornamentals. Arali (Nerium oleander L., limon (L.) Burm. f], lime [C. aurantifolia N. indicum Mill.), Bauhinia purpurea (Christm.) Sw.; syn. C. medica L.], mango L., bluebell barleria (Barleria cristata (Mangifera indica L.), mangostan (Garcinia L.), Chrysanthemum spp., Crossandra mangostana L.), plantain (Musa acuminata infundibuliformis (L.) Nees, Gomphrena L. Colla, M. sapientum L.), pomegranate globosa L., Jacaranda acutifolia Humb. & (Punica granatum L.), pomelo [Citrus Bonpl., Jasminum spp., Rosa L. spp., and maxima (Burm.) Merr. or C. grandis vedchi or scarlet ixora (Ixora coccinea L.). Osbeck), rose apple [Syzygium jambos Medicinal species. The local tribes/ (L.) Alston], tamarind (Tamarindus indica communities have signifi cant indigenous L.), toddy palm or palmyra (Borassus knowledge about the medicinal properties of fl abellifer), watermelon [Citrullus lanatus plants from the region, including mangroves (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai], wild date and halophytes found in the coastal areas palm (Phoenix pusilla Gaertn.), wood (Ravindran et al., 2005a). A survey in the apple (Limonia acidissima L.) and Ziziphus districts of Tamil Nadu recorded 114 species horrida Roth. distributed over 97 genera being used Species. Chili (Capsicum annuum), for toothache (29.82%), for toothbrushes coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), curry (25.43%), for mouth wash (16.66%), for leaf [Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.], dental diseases (14.03%), for stomach ulcers pepper [Piper nigrum L. (Lam. ex Link)] (12.28%), and for gum bleeding (10.53%) and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.; syn. C. (Ganesan, 2008). Another ethnobotanical domestica Valet.). survey in the Pachamalai hills identifi ed 84 different uses of 119 plant species, covering Others. Betel vine (Piper betle L.), not only disease and health management Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Swartz, C. in humans, but also in animals and plants sappan L., cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), (Geetha Rani, 2010). Rajendran and Manian coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), coffee (Coffea (2011) reported 16 species being used for arabica L.), henna (Lawsonia inermis the treatment of diabetes in the Kolli hills. L.), Hibiscus rosa-sinenesis L., indigo The commonly cultivated/used medicinal plants are varttilai kasturi (Abelmoschus
Additionally, the forests of Javadi and Dharmapuri are known for the Fishing is a common agricultural commercially important species of activity both under the river system and sandalwood (Santalum album), which marine system in the coastal region is cultivated for its commercial value. using traditional methods. 364 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites manihot (L.) Medik.), Acalypha indica Abelomoschus angulosus Mast, Cajanus Linn., Adhatoda vasica Nees, Alangium volubilis (Blanco) Blanco [syn. Atylosia salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin, avarai (Cassia volubilis (Blanco) Gamble], Chionache auriculata L.), bhringraj [Eclipta prostrate semiteres (Benth.) Henr., Luffa graveolens L.; syn. E. alba (L.) Hassk.], brahmi (Bacopa (Roxb.), L. umbellata M. (Klein) Roem monnieri L. Pennell), Centella asiatica (Coromandal area) from the region, and L., Gloriosa superba Linn., Hemidesmus Panicum psilopodium Trin. from the southern indicus L. R.Br., Hedyotis L. spp., keela Deccan peninsular region. In the recent past, nelli (Phyllanthus niruri L.), Piper longum many more wild relatives of crops have been L., Rauwolfia serpentina Benth, senna recorded from the region, like Abelmoschus (Senna alexandrina Mill.; syn. Cassia senna fi culneus (L.) Wight & Arn., Capparis spp., Linn.), Sida cordifolia L., Terminalia arjuna Crotalaria L. spp., Erianthus arundinaceus (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn., T. bellerica, (Retz.) Jesw., Indigofera caerulea Roxb. Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merrill., uttamani var. caerulea, Momordica tuberosa (Roxb.) or seendhal kodi [Pergularia daemia Forsk.] Cogn. (syn. M. cymbalaria Hook. Fenzl and vasambu (Acorus calamus L.). ex Naud.), Oryza meyeriana Baill. var. granulata, O. officianalis Wall ex Watt. Timber and wood. Albizia amara, Dalbergia ssp. malampuzhaensis (Krish) Tateoka, latifolia, bamboo [Bambusa arundinacea Panicum trypheron Schult., Phoenix pusilla, (Ritz.) Roxb.; Dendrocalamus strictus P. sylvestris, Saccharum spontaneum L. (Roxb.) Nees.], sandalwood (Santalum (signifi cant variability), Solanum nigrum album) and teak (Tectona grandis L.). L., S. surattense, Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers., S. stapfi i (Hook.f.) C.E.C. Fischer., Multipurpose species. Acacia nilotica (L.) Syzygium alternifolium (Wight) Walp, S. Delile, katha or areca nut (Areca catechu L.), zeylanicum L., Trichosanthes cucumeriana Morus alba L. (host for silkworm), Sesbania L., Vitis adnata (Roxb.) Wall. and V. pallida sesban, Terminalia bellerica, T. paniculata, Wight & Arn. T. tomentosa (wood/medicine) and toddy palm or palmyra palm (Borassus fl aberrifer) Endemic species. Nayar et al. (2009) listed landscaping and local beverage. Acrachne sundararajii Umamaheswari, Gum- and resin-yielding plants and forest Albizia lathamii Hole, Chloris bournei products. Forests of the region are known Rang. & Tadul., Crotalaria madurensis for timber wealth (sandalwood), bamboo R. Wight., Dalbergia coromandeliana and plants of food and medicinal value. The Prain, Dichrostachys santapaui Sebastine tribal populations collect food in the form of & Ramam., Eragrostis rottleri Stapf., minor fruits, tubers and greens, gum resin, Hildegardia populifolia (Roxb.) Schott. fi rewood, and bark and leaves for use in & Endl., Jatropha maheshwarii Subr. & local health system. Nayar, J. villosa var. ramadensis Raman, Sorghum stapfi i, and Vernonia shevaroyensis Wild relatives. Arora and Nayar (1984) Gamble as endemic to the region. Erythrina reported wild relatives of the crops such as variegata forma mysorensis (Gamble) Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013 365
Maheshwari has also been reported to be diffusa Wight & Arn., Rhynchosia velutina endemic to the region. A representative set Wight & Arn. (a perennial climbing or trailing of endemic species is presented in Table 1. herb), Vanda wightii Rchb.f., Hedyotis L. spp. Additionally, there are endemic mangrove (medicinal), and Wendlandia angustifolia species like Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Wight ex Hook.f., of agricultural signifi cance, and rare mangrove associate species like to be under threat. Several more species, Tamarix troupii Hole. As the river is very Acacia campbellii Arn., Albizia lathamii rich in fi sh biodiversity, there are number of fi sh species endemic to the river like Gamble, A. thompsonii Brandis, Asparagus Hypselobarbus dubius, but most are under rottleri Baker, Ceropegia odorata Nimmo threat (Balasundaram et al., 1999). ex Hook.f., Hildegardia populifolia (Roxb.) Schott. et Endl., Indigofera constricta (Thur.) Threatened species. The Red Data Book on Trimen and Oryza offi cinalis Wall. ex Watt Plants of India (Nayar and Sastry, 1987–88) subsp. malampuzhaensis (Krish) Tateoka, listed Capparis diversifolia Sessé & Moc, have also been reported to be under threat Ceropegia fi mbriifera Bedd., C. omissa H. Huber., C. spiralis L., Crotalaria digitata (Nayar et al., 2009). A set of species under Hook., C. globosa Wight & Arn., C. longipes, threat has been listed in Table 2. Some avian C. rigida B.Heyne, C. scabra Gamble, Hedyotis species of agricultural signifi cance under threat barberi (Gamble) A.N.Henry & Subr., are the red-headed vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) Indigofera barberi Gamble, Polycarpaea and the endemic Nilgiri wood-pigeon.
Table 1. Representative economically important plant species endemic to the Cauvery Region, India. Species Family Habit Distribution Use Acrachne sundararajii Poaceae Herb Tamil Nadu Forage grass Albizia lathamii Fabaceae Tree Karnataka, Madhya Wood, genetic Pradesh, Tamil Nadu resource Chloris bournei Poaceae Herb Leeward Deccan Forage grass Crotalaria madurensis Fabaceae Woody Srisailam, Southern Genetic resource herb Eastern Ghats Crotalaria paniculata var. Fabaceae Woody Southern Eastern Genetic resource nagerjunekondensis herb Ghats Dalbergia Fabaceae Tree Coromandel coast Wood, genetic coromandeliana resource Erythrina variegata forma Fabaceae Tree Karnataka region of Medicinal (bark/ mysorensis Cauvery leaves) Jatropha villosa var. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Carnatic coast Genetic resource, ramadensis biofuel 366 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Table 2. Representative economically important plant species under threat in the Cauvery region, India1. Species Family Habit Threat status2 Use Acacia campbellii3 Fabaceae Tree VU Wood Albizia thompsonii3 Fabaceae Tree R Genetic resources Asparagus rottleri3 Liliaceae Undershrub DD Medicinal Capparis diversifolia3 Capparaceae Small tree VU Genetic resource, fruit Ceropegia fi mbriifera3 Asclepiadaceae Twiner VU & R Leafy vegetable, medicinal (ceropegine) Crotalaria digitata3 Fabaceae Undershrub EN & R Genetic resource Crotalaria longipes Fabaceae Shrub EN Genetic resource Erythrina variegata Fabaceae Tree DD Medicinal (bark/leaves) forma mysorensis Hedyotis barberi3 Rubiaceae Annual herb VU & R Medicinal Indigofera barberi3 Fabaceae Undershrub R Medicinal Indigofera constricta3 Fabaceae Shrub R Medicinal Oryza offi cinalis subsp. Poaceae Tall herb DD Wild relative of rice malampuzhaensis Rhynchosia velutina3 Fabaceae Climbing herb VU Genetic resource, wild relative of pigeonpea Vanda wightii3 Orchidaceae Epiphyte EX Ornamental orchid 1. Source: Nayar and Sastry, 1987–88; Nayar et al., 2009. 2. EX = Possibly extinct; EN = Endangered; DD = Data defi cient; R = Rare; VU = Vulnerable. 3. Listed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.
Associated culture and tribes intensive agriculture, coexisted. During the early days, the power/survival struggle The anthologies of early Tamil poems was dominated by cattle-raids, war and collectively known as Sangam literature booty, but slowly people began to settle (c. 300 BCE to 300 CE) provide a vivid down as peasants, and gradually a stratifi ed account of the transition, from an earlier society emerged. The peasantry looking tribal-pastoral stage to a state society in the for protection and immunity from raids ancient Tamil country (Tamilakam), with and plunder tended to be absorbed into a agriculturally dominant era of the region. system in which a rudimentary statehood They indicate the simultaneous existence came into existence. In the fertile river of different ecological regions and suggest valleys (Marutam regions) of the Cauvery, how different but interrelated ways of life, Periyar and Yaigai, agriculture fl ourished ranging from food gathering, marginal and surpluses were produced particularly agriculture, fi shing, and cattle-tending to during the three ancient dynasties, the Chola Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013 367
(c. 900–1270 CE), the Chera (3rd century that evolved and the skills used by the BCE to 12th century CE), and the Pandya local people in river management and its (560–1550 CE). exploitation for irrigation of crops. From the early times, the local communities have The hilly areas of the Shevroy hills, evolved practices for effi cient control and Pachamalai hills, Kolli hills occurring in the management of river waters, and its effective districts of Dharmapuri, Salem, Cuddalore, use, facilitating water supply for drinking and Tiruchirappalli have the major tribal and irrigation purposes using appropriate communities called “malayali”. The tribal channels. In its course through Karnataka, men and women of the Pachamalai hills the Cauvery river is interrupted by twelve (Malayali tribes) are known to possess dams (‘anicuts’) and the water is diverted knowledge on various treatments using through artifi cial channels for the purpose of local plants for curing ailments in humans irrigation and for supply of drinking water as well as livestock (Geetha Rani, 2010). to the town of Mandya. Near Srirangapatna, The other major tribes of the region are there is an aqueduct (channel or pipe for Irular, Kadar, Kond Kapus, Konda Reddis, water transport), the ‘Bangara Doddi Nala’, Malai Padaram, etc. The cropping patterns which was constructed in the 17th century by followed by the tribals of this region ensured the then Maharaja of Mysore, Ranadheera the sustainability of the land through the Kanteerava Narasimharaja Wodeyar. It is adoption of a mixed cropping system. The said to be the only aqueduct where the water traditional methods of irrigation and storage from a river, dammed upstream, is carried of produce in traditional granaries were by the aqueduct over the very same river a social/village friendly practices/efforts, few miles downstream. ensuring the participation of all village communities and sharing of benefi ts. During the reign of Srimara Srivallabha (811–857 CE), a number of irrigation projects were undertaken, which included Technology and products renewing of existing tanks, canals and Being the basin of a great river, the region sluices, in which brick and granite blocks is known for the strategies and technologies were used as building materials. The same procedure continued in subsequent times, as in the stone embankment named Kallanai, The anthologies of early Tamil poems the Parakrama-Pandian Kallanai, the Vira collectively known as Sangam literature Pandyan-Kal channel, and water reservoirs (c. 300 BCE to 300 CE) provide a vivid like the Vallabha Pereri (big lake). There account of the transition, from an was regular provision for the upkeep of earlier tribal-pastoral stage to a state these irrigation facilities. Consequently society in the ancient Tamil country many such structures are in use even (Tamilakam), with agriculturally today. The Chola king Karikalan has been dominant era of the region. immortalized in the embankments of the Cauvery that he built all the way from Puhar 368 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
(Cauverypoompattinam) to Srirangam for irrigation to facilitate creation of more (island) around 1,600 years ago. On either consistent food production and wealth. The sides of the river, the walls are found Cholas controlled this system by granting spread across a distance of 330 meters. The water rights, just as they would grant land Kallanai dam built by the king on the border rights to kinsmen, military chiefs, royal between Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur is an retainers, village offi cers and especially excellent display of engineering skills. The religious institutions (Raman, 2008). The dam was constructed using earth and stone, Cholas defi ned the agrarian structure in this which bore the destructive force of nature area of the region called the ‘rice bowl of for centuries and protected the regional life Tamil Nadu’, and where the fan of water and livelihood (Raman, 2008). There was channels of the Cauvery Delta was used to tremendous agrarian expansion during the irrigate the fi elds, thereby providing almost rule of the Chola (c. 900–1270 CE) all over constant water supply to the lowlands. Tamil Nadu, but particularly in the Cauvery The drainage network of the river is dense Basin. Most of the distributing canals of and the river forms a delta at Trichinopoly the Cauvery River criss-crossed the deltaic (Tiruchirappalli, Karur, Ariyalur, and region. Many tanks came up during the Perambalur). More than 60,000 ha of the Chola period, e.g., Rajendra Chola I’s huge cultivable lands are irrigated by these tank, called Solagangam in Gangaikonda channels in each of Mandya, Mysore, and Solapuram. Thanjavur districts. Further, groundwater was extracted for irrigation through wells, Cauvery River fl ows from the northwest to borewells, canals, tanks, and lifts. the southeast, and drains vast areas of the southern Indian peninsula. It was dammed In most crops grown in the region, the in the 2nd century CE at the Grand Anicut, local tribes and communities have evolved which reflects the genius of the local significant genetic diversity suited to people and the interest, encouragement various ecologies and with desired traits and support from the rulers for effi cient of both agronomic and economic value. management and use of water resources Most indigenous landraces and farmers’ to support agriculture, ensuring food and varieties grown in the region are resistant nutritional security and prosperity to the to pests, less vulnerable to diseases, and region. It is one of the fi rst dams to be hardier. Rice, which is the main crop of constructed in the world. The Grand Anicut the region is traditionally grown under is believed to have been built in the mid both rainfed and irrigated agroecosystems, to late Chola times, and was later rebuilt and presents maximum genetic variability, by the British. It was a vast construction reflected by one estimate that between for its time, spanning more than 300 m 1921 and 2006, around 150 rice varieties across the Cauvery, with a width of more were bred from Tamil Nadu predominantly than 18 m. The Chola monarchs needed using only local germplasm (
Kattikar, Jeeranga samba, Tadu kkan, The tribal men and women of the Thillainayagam, Shen molagai, Erapalli Pachamalai hills (Malayali tribes) are samba, Godavari samba, Anaikomban, known to possess knowledge on various Poongar, Rasacadam, Kudavali (with treatments using local plants for curing better seed viability and germination ailments in humans as well as livestock. percentage), Kambachamba (with high tillering), and Khuruvai (early maturity). In a recent reassessment of the traditional upland variety Puzhuthi Kar Nel, the dryland varieties against changing climate in the rice is grown in the Western Ghats bounded Cauvery Basin, 72 genotypes, including Erode district under rainfed and garden these varieties, were screened against high land conditions through direct sowing. It is temperature and its effect on pollen fertility susceptible to lodging and has red and bold and spikelet sterility. These efforts resulted grains. On the other hand, the traditional in the identification of Vallai samba, lowland variety Kalurundai grown in Karthigai samba with higher tolerance Nagapattinam district is resistant to drought, to temperatures up to 43°C, suggesting pests, diseases, and salinity with bold yellow that these two landraces are a source of grains. In the state of Tamil Nadu, the most heat tolerance and could be used in future prized cultivar is the short-grained ponni breeding programs on heat tolerance, as variety (a released variety), which primarily a response to changing climate of global evolved and is grown in the delta regions warming. Further, Kudavali recorded higher of the Cauvery River. The Cauvery is also plant stand, and Kambachamba higher tiller referred to as Ponni in the South; therefore, and yield-related traits (Geethalakshmi et the name refl ects the geographic association al., 2011; Babu et al., 2012). In addition, of this variety with the Cauvery River. On every district of the region is known the basis of processing, there are two types of for traditional varieties, for example, ponni marketed and used: ponni boiled rice, Mandya for Mandya Vani, Mandya Vijaya, where the paddy is boiled before making Mangala, Madhu, Pushpa, Erode for rice, and ponni raw rice, where the paddy Puzhuthi Kar Nel, and Nagapattinam for is directly hulled into rice without boiling. Kichidi Samba, Via Kunda, Suran Kuruvai, Ponni raw rice has its own fragrance and Pichavari, Seeraga Samba, Vellai Kuruvi texture. Ponni raw rice is preferred by South Indians. Another variety grown in Tanjavur is called Thanjavur rice, again a short-grain During the reign of Srimara rice variety known for its good texture and Srivallabha (811–857 CE), a number long shelf life. In addition, there are a large of irrigation projects were undertaken, number of varieties/landraces known from which included renewing of existing the region, which offer variability for most tanks, canals and sluices, in which traits of rice of economic signifi cance. For brick and granite blocks were used as example, long-duration varieties like Vallai building materials. samba, Karthigai samba, Kallurandai kar, 370 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Kar, Val Sivappu, Kuzhi Vedichan, Chinna millets. In a recent study, 21 different Samba/Sada Samba, Kalurundai, etc. landraces from fi ve millet crop species were The traditional varieties Thungara and found in the Kolli hills. These included Pulithikar collected from the Kolli hills Sundangikelvaragu, Perungelvaragu, have tolerance to diseases, while Adimodan Karunguliyankelvaagu, Arisikelvaragu, from Coimbatore has resistance to diseases. Sattaikelvaragu, Karakelvaragu in fi nger During the tsunami of 2004 the landraces millet or kelvaragu; Vellaperumsamai, like Kunthali, Kallurundai, Vellakudavalai, Kattavettisamai, Karumsamai, Katchakombalai, Kuzhivedichan and Malliasamai, Thirigulasamai, Sadansamai Surakuruvai were found to withstand the in little millet or samai; Perunthinai, intruding sea water. They were collected Koranthinai, Senthinai, Mookanthinai, from Nagapattinam and have been found Palanthinai in Italian millet or thenai; to be tolerant to salt (MSSRF, 2004–05). Panivaragu in common millet or The MS Swaminathan Research Foundation panivaragu and Thirivaragu in kodo has identifi ed additional varieties like Arcot millet or varagu (Bioversity International, kitchilli, Bangalore kar, Kattu nellu, Kurvai 2011). Earlier selections by local people nellu, Kullan kar, Madumulungi, Paguna have generated variability for economic palai, Pulithikar, Samba mosanam, Samba characteristics. For example, in proso nellu, and Vella puzhithi resistant to pests millet, variety Co 3 was developed from and diseases; Karum puzhithi tolerant to Coimbatore local with tolerance to shoot fl ood, and Aadimodan, Kappakar, Karum fly and early maturity (Seetharama et puzhithi, Kotta nellu, and Thungara, tolerant al., 2006). In fi nger millet, the accession to drought (MSSRF, 2002–03; Nayar et al., GE476 has been identifi ed with large leaf 2009). Some of the scented varieties from area, high dry matter, and moderate to high the region are Aarcadu kitchedi samba, photosynthetic effi ciency. In pearl millet, Jeeranga samba. the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) In small millets, less variability is collected 46 accessions from the region. reported at national level. However, the The landraces are tall type with larger MS Swaminathan Research Foundation and broader leaves. These accessions has recognized the Kolli hills as an showed signifi cant variation with respect important center of genetic diversity for to photosensitivity (Rao et al., 1986). In sorghum, appreciable genetic variability was collected from the region and was used The Chola king Karikalan has been in early period for developing varieties immortalized in the embankments of cultivated under Co-series. the Cauvery that he built all the way from Puhar (Cauverypoompattinam) to Signifi cant genetic diversity has been recorded Srirangam (island) around 1,600 years in the case of sesame, and varieties have ago. been developed from local landraces through selection, such as TMV-5 from a landrace of Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013 371
Srivaikundam, and KRR1 and KRR2 from varieties like Co 1, Co 2, and Co 3 have been Karur local (Duhoon et al., 2004). selected from the local germplasm.
The region offers significant genetic The tropical fruits cultivated in the region diversity for several species of vegetables, offer significant genetic diversity. For particularly cucurbits, which has been used example, in mango, it is represented by in the development of a number of cultivars. traditional varieties like Banganpalli (large For example, in Lagenaria siceraria, Arka fruit), Bangalora, Neelum (dwarf, regular Bahar has been developed from Karnataka bearing), Rumani, Mulgoa, and in banana by local and Co 1 from Tamil Nadu local; in Pachable, Karpurvalli, Monthan, Morris, Luffa acutangula, Co 2 and Co 1 and in L. Mysore Poovan, Nendran, Pachanadan, cylindrica, Co 1, have been developed from Rasthali, Robusta, etc. In acid lime (Citrus Coimbatore type and local germplasm; in aurantifolia), PKM1 is a seedless line; Cucurbita moschata, Co 1 and Co 2 have in lemon (C. limon), Galgal and Euroka been developed through selection from local are traditional cultivars; in pomegranate germplasm; in Momordica charantia, Co 1; (Punica granatum), the variety Ganesh in Trichosanthes anguina Co 1 and Co 2; has been derived from local Alandi, and and in Benincasa hispida, Co 1 and Co 2 G173 from Ganesh (Karihaloo et al., 2005). through selection from the local germplasm Additionally, the region offers rich genetic (Sirohi et al., 2005). In onion, Co 2, Co diversity in Tamarindus indica. 3, and Co 4 have been developed through mass selection in Tamil Nadu local, while The region also offers genetic variability in MDU1 was developed by mass selection common tuber crops of the family Araceae, in Somlathi local (Pandey et al., 2005). In like taro (Colocasia esculenta), elephant- okra, the region offers genetic resource in foot yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius), the form of wild relatives, Abelmoschus tennia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), and angulosus and A. fi culneus, conserved by giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza). The local communities for centuries. national collections of elephant-foot yam include two distinct types, namely ‘Karuna’ Among seed spices, in coriander, several from Tamil Nadu with a small discoid products have been developed using local/ mother rhizome bearing oblong tuberous adapted germplasm: Co 1 is a selection cormels, and ‘Chena’ from Kerala with very from Koilpatti local, Co 2 is a reselection large discoid rhizomes. Karuna kizhangu from collection P2 from Gujarat, CS287 is found in Tamil Nadu also produces corms another reselection from Guntur collection, (Edison et al., 2005). and Co 3, a reselection from Acc 695 of Indian Agricultural Research Institute The region has large tracts of arid and (IARI), in turmeric, Co 1, BSR1, and BSR2 semi-arid lands, where pastoral agriculture are clonal selections from induced mutants is the main activity among resource-poor of Erode local (Ravindran et al., 2005b). farmers. They have developed some unique Also, in case of chilis used as spices, the practices to support survival and keeping 372 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites of livestock, conserving natural resources. or Umbalachery), Jallikattu (Pulikulam or For example, Korangadu is a traditional Jellicut), Tondainadu (Tiruvannamalai), grazing land in the semi-arid tracts in the Tirunelveli – a hill breed, Thambiran madu districts of Erode, Karur, and Dindigul (bred by Kannadas), Irucchali (nearly (Fig. 3). It consists of paddocks (small extinct, from Shivaganga district), Konadan enclosed fields) having a typical (Manapparai), Perambalur mottai cattle combination of grasses, legumes, and (Mottai madu), Semmarai (Malayan or trees, fenced with live thorny shrubs of Bargur; bred by the Lingayats) are bred mullukiluvai [Commiphora berryi (Arn.) and conserved by different communities Engl.], a thorny drought-resistant shrub. (
In the coastal areas of the region, fi shing Future perspective is a major agricultural activity. The coastal The biodiversity of the region is being fi shing communities in Sirkali Taluk have threatened by a number of factors, including used the Catamaran for the last 2000 years. expanding agriculture, and needs attention It is a sustainable ecofriendly traditional with suitable strategies for protection and fishing system crucial for preserving conservation. Though the Cauvery river and promoting sustainable fishing in basin, with its network of canals and coastal areas. The Catamaran is a type of aqueducts, is the granary of Tamil Nadu, it multihulled boat or ship consisting of two has seen decreasing rainfall in the last few hulls or vakas, joined by some structure, decades. Appropriate rain harvesting and the most basic being a frame, formed of augmentation of irrigation facilities can akas. It has evolved into a light watercraft help overcome the shortage of water and called Kattumaram in the Tamil language. bring more marginal lands under intense The word kattu means ‘tie’, and maram cultivation. High-value, quality vegetable, is the ‘wood tree’, thus, Kattumaram fl ower and fruit production under normal simply means ‘tying two trees together’ and technologically managed greenhouse (Fig. 4). It was invented by the Paravas, conditions can provide value additions an aristocratic fishing community of to the products and greater income to the southern Tamil Nadu. Recently, this farmers. system has also been considered by the Korangadu pasture land needs to be protected FAO as one of the Globally Important and promoted, as it can provide fi nancial Agriculture Heritage Systems under other security to resource-poor farmers and help potential systems and sites (FAO, 2008a, conservation of local livestock breeds and 2008b) needing protection, promotion and plant diversity of forage value. Awareness use in other parts of the world with similar needs to be generated at the local, regional, conditions for sustainable/conservation national and international levels for possible fi shing. initiation or replication of such systems. But before that, the traditional knowledge of grassland management practices, livestock management and ethno-veterinary practices needs to be experimentally analyzed to justify the gains, for preservation,
The recent study regarding the local communities in the different areas of the region has discovered the evolution Figure 4. A traditional Kattumaram boat for and conservation of several breeds. fi shing. (Source: Wikipedia) 374 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites
Cauvery (Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu). Zoos’ Print In the coastal areas of the region, 14(8):87–88. fi shing is a major agricultural activity. The coastal fi shing communities in Bhatia S and Arora R. 2005. Biodiversity and Conservation of Indian Sheep Genetic Sirkali Taluk have used the Catamaran Resources – An Overview. Asian-Australian for the last 2000 years. Journal of Animal Science 18(10):1387–1402.
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