When Chinese Cuisine Meets Western Wine 9 Q1 Shu-Tai Wang 11 Department of Hospitality Management, Tunghai University, P.O

Home , Canadian Chinese cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Roast goose, Shandong cuisine, Stinky tofu

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7 When Chinese cuisine meets western wine 9 Q1 Shu-Tai Wang 11 Department of Hospitality Management, Tunghai University, P.O. Box 891, Taichung 407, Taiwan

13 Received 7 March 2016; accepted 16 November 2016

17 Abstract

19 This study explores the guiding principle for pairing common western table wines such as Chardonnay, Riesling, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon with authentic Chinese cuisines. Sensory evaluation was carried out to measure the affective level on the pairing of food and wine. A fi 21 ve by eight (4 different wines and no wine pairing with 8 different cuisines) factorial experiment design was carried out to attain the sensory affection from the taste panel. Hedonic rating was adopted to assess the affective response of the cuisine and wine pairings. The results of affective test indicated that Riesling was the preferred wine to pair with most of the Chinese cuisines in question. The interaction was significant 23 between different cuisines and wines (p¼0.000), indicating that the hedonic sensory pattern of the cuisine can be influenced by the type of wine paired. In addition, Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) graph was proven to be an effective tool for visualizing the guiding principle of food and 25 wine pairing. & 2016 AZTI-Tecnalia. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license 27 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

29 Keywords: Sensory evaluation; Chinese cuisine; Wine pairing map; MDS graph

31 59 Introduction knowledge for the sommelier. Exploration on sensory percep- 33 tion on the pairing between Chinese cuisines and western 61 According to the statistics of per capita wine consumption, wines will provide a whole new dining experience and 35 French people consumed 43 liters of wine per capita; each business opportunities. Dodd (1996) found that placing wine 63 American drank 11 liters of wine; whereas the Chinese only on the food menu will have a significant impact on the sales of 37 consumed 1.3 liters per capita in 2013 (Wine Institute, 2015). wine, which greatly facilitated the revenue of a restaurant. The 65 Camillo (2012) stated that although the demand of wine sales of wine in a modern Chinese restaurant could easily 39 decreased in Europe, the demand continued to grow in Asia. account for 30–40% of the revenue. It becomes increasingly 67 China, in particular, had the sales growth of wine for more important for the practitioners in the hospitality industry to 41 than 30% within the 10 years period since 2001. Due to this have the knowledge in order to lead their customers for 69 high demand, the number of wine importers soared 73% in different dining pleasure. In order to extend the fun of mix 43 2012 (Mercer, 2012). In addition, wine pairing with meal and match in dining, the art of pairing western wine with food 71 became trendy in China and the major revenue was contributed will have to be extended from the western cuisines to different 45 from Chinese young customers. types of Chinese cuisines. 73 An experienced sommelier can easily recommend a good Wine was found to be strongly associated with food in three 47 pairing wine to western cuisine. However, there seems to be no dimensions: complementary, social meanings, and lubrication 75 certain guidelines for pairing wines with Chinese cuisines. The effect (Pittigrew and Charters, 2006). Lubrication effect refers 49 connection between the diverse flavors of Chinese cuisines and to the social interaction enhancement in a gathering influenced 77 western wines is a missing piece in the puzzle of the by the relaxation from the alcohol and the pleasant taste of 51 wine. A good pairing is based on the complementary role of 79 wine on the three important factors of food: components, 53 E-mail address: [email protected] Peer review under responsibility of AZTI-Tecnalia. texture, and flavors. The operational definition for the role of 81

55 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2016.11.003 83 1878-450X/& 2016 AZTI-Tecnalia. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license 57 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Wang, S.-T., When Chinese cuisine meets western wine. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2016.11.003 IJGFS : 52

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1 wine was the complementary effect on the flavor of a cuisine (Eastern) style “West Lake Fish in Vinegar Gravy”. If this fish 59 in this study. Though there were a few articles attempted to was deep fried, then sautéed with vinegar, rock sugar and soy 3 discuss the concept of pairing some Chinese foods with wines, sauce, it became the Cantonese style “Sweet and Sour Fish”. 61 qualitative and empirical studies are still in need to establish There are eight popular categories of cuisines corresponding 5 the appropriate matching between western wine and regional to different regions in China; these eight regions from the west 63 Chinese cuisines. In order to introduce Chinese cuisines inland to the northern region are: 1. Szechuan, 2. Hunan, 3. 7 pairing with wine in a more systematic manner, a model Fujian, 4. Cantonese, 5. Zhejiang, 6. Jiangsu, 7. Anhui, and 8. 65 integrated categorization, consumer affective test, and sum- Shandong (Anderson, 1988; Newman, 2004)asshowninFig. 1. 9 marized by the visual mapping was established to explore the In general, despite the central region, Chinese regional 67 pairing rules in this study. cuisines traditionally belong to four destinations. Inevitably, 11 The objectives of this study were to: the characteristics of the typical dishes of each region in Table 69 1 were distinctly different due to the geological barrier. With 13 1. Identify the best pairing between four popular wines with the improvement of transportation, the eight categories of 71 selected authentic Chinese cuisines cuisine merged into four general regions. The northern region 15 2. Establish a graphical method to elucidate the relationship such as Beijing was known for the dishes made by braising, 73 between cuisine and wine baking, and stewing (Newman, 2004). People from the north 17 3. Explore the potential of pairing wine with Chinese cuisine often have strong preference of pairing grain-made distilled 75 for younger diners liquor with their food. The cuisines from the other three 19 regions in Table 1 all have potential to be paired with wine 77 Chinese cuisine since the trend has been observed in various restaurants. For 21 instance, roast goose and salted goose wing are the popular 79 With the growing popularity and consumption of Chinese dishes in southern China. The marinated sauce for the goose 23 cuisines, various cuisines have been introduced to consumers contains light-color soy sauce and rock sugar that can 81 across the world both in casual fast food restaurants as well as eliminate the game odor and consequently promote the savory 25 in fine dining restaurants. Regardless of the level of service, taste of the goose. 83 the regional cuisines can be defined by their cooking styles, Eastern Chinese cuisines are often cooked with brown rock 27 ingredients, and tastes (Newman, 2004). Rozin (1982) cate- sugar and a special black vinegar to form a sweet, decent sour 85 gorized the authentic regional cuisines based on their primary and savory taste (Newman, 2004; Kittler and Sucher, 2008). 29 ingredients, cooking techniques, and unique flavoring princi- Chefs from Jiangsu or Zhejiang use freshwater fishes or 87 ples. It is generally recognized that Chinese cuisine is a shrimps with light seasoning, or seasoning with locally grown 31 combination of soy sauce, salt, sugar, chili sauce, garlic, green tea. It is characteristic to eastern cuisines that the fresh and 89 onion, and rice wine. However, with the addition of local original taste of the food is highlighted rather than being 33 produce, the combination of different ingredients and the overwhelmed by strong flavorings. 91 cooking skills gave the regional cuisine its unique taste. For Contrarily, a lot of spices were often applied in western 35 example, if a fish steamed with ginger, green onion, salt, rice cuisine to add the strong flavor in their food and also to get rid 93 wine and with local vinegar sauce, it will be a Zhejiang of the so-called “humidity” in their body. Cooking with red hot 37 95 8) Shandong cuisine: 39 Seafood with rich, umami flavor 97 Ex. Stewed dishes 41 99

43 101 1). Szechuan cuisine: spicy, numbing hot China 45 sensation 103 5). Zhejiang cuisine: Ex. Kongpao chicken 47 fresh water fish/shrimp 105 with light seasoning Ex. Sweet &sour fish 49 107

2) Hunan cuisine: 51 oily,piquant and intense 109 4) Cantonese cuisine: flavor savory, sweet and intense Ex. Smoked fish/ham 3)Fujian cuisine: flavor 53 fresh ingredients with original 111 Ex. Roast goose, Salted goose taste, seasoned with rock sugar wing 55 Ex. Emulsion fish ball 113

Fig. 1. Origins and the characteristics of the regional cuisines. 57 115

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1 Table 1 59 Typical regional food and the characteristics. 3 61 Food region Typical Cuisine Flavor Characteristics

5 Kongpao chicken Flavor: 63 Poached ﬁsh with chili sauce – Pungent 7 Hot and spicy pot – Spiciness 65 Western Cuisine Ex. Kongpao Chicken Hot and spicy tofu – Numbing hot sensation 9 – Intense 67

11 69 Roast suckling pig Flavor: Steamed crab – Sweet 13 71 Sticky rice wrapped in lotus leaves – Fresh savory flavor Southern Cuisine Ex. Dim Sum Barbeque baby pork – Savory 15 73 Dim sum 17 75 Brine cooked goose Flavor: Steamed fish – Light flavor 19 77 West Lake vinegary fish – Fresh and original taste Chicken with shredded green onion – Seafood 21 Eastern Cuisine Ex. Shrimp with Longjing Tea 79 Thousand-year-old egg – Umami Stinky tofu 23 81 25 Peking roast duck Flavor: 83 Sautéed clams – Rich body flavor Orange beef – Salty 27 Northern Cuisine Ex. Peking roast duck 85 Stewed oxtail – Less greasy – Delicate snack 29 Shredded pig ears 87 Mu shu pork 31 89

33 peppers or Szechuan peppers is a popular way to season a wide Sherry character, and length of aftertaste. Riesling is extremely 91 spectrum of dishes. The well-known dish in almost every versatile, making wines that range from crisp and dry, to very 35 Chinese restaurant, Kongpao chicken, is from this region. sweet dessert wines. In order to be distinguished with 93 Chardonnay, the Riesling selected for this study has good 37 Western table wines length of aftertaste with semi-sweetness. Based on their 95 sensory characteristics, Riesling was more distinct for its fl 39 The U.S. has been the largest wine-consuming nation in the acetic, caramelized, overall fruitiness, pineapple/tropical avor 97 world since 2010. California wine sales to both domestic and and stronger body compare to Chardonnay; Chardonnay was fl 41 international markets totaled 276 million cases in 2015. It characterized for the astringent/phenolic, oral, vegetative, 99 fl fl reached a record high, up 2% since 2014, with an estimated pear avor. The avor of Chardonnay was described with fl 43 retail value of $55.8 billion (Wine Institute, 2016). According the attributes of citrus, buttery, toasted avor, sourness, and 101 to the statistics of Wine Institute (2016), the most popular table bitterness by Cliff and Dever (1996). 45 wines are in these eight categories: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon are generally known for 103 fl Syrah, Zinfandel, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, their avor of berry, plum and tannin. Gürbüz et al. (2006) 47 Pinot Gris, and Riesling. compared Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon from California and 105 Although the traits of wine might be slightly influenced by Australia with the analytical instrument GC-MS. Both wines 49 the growing environment, Egli et al. (1998) indicated that the were characterized by high fruity, caramel, green, and earthy 107 – attributes of wine were mainly determined by the grape aroma, yet there were 4 5 times of ethyl octanoate in Merlot 51 variety, whereas the fermentation method or inoculation starter than Cabernet Sauvignon, which are accounted for the 109 fl culture would alter the flavor yet not as much. German law smoother avor in Merlot. 53 requires that all Spätlese Riesling wines to have a minimum 111 Brix level of 20. Riesling keeps its acidity, even when it’svery Food and wine pairing 55 ripe and sugary. This makes Riesling not taste overly cloying 113 because it is balanced with a nice freshness. Clary et al. (2006) Food and wine present a great combination at the dining 57 indicated that Riesling processed intense attributes of citrus, table throughout human history; people enjoyed food and wine 115

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1 together, since wine can raise people’s spirits and assist in the components within a food or wine were inherently complex 59 digestion of food (May and Sharpe, 1997). Beverages are often (Bastian et al., 2010). For example, the reaction between the 3 associated with different types of meals in various situations, acids and tannins in wine and food protein will reduce the 61 such as the common notion that Sushi and Sake go well perception of the alcohol, thus creating a smoothness mouth 5 together, and the great complementary pair for the Oyster and feel for the food (Jackson, 2009). The acidity of white wine 63 the Chablis. The decisions for wine selection can also be tends to refresh the mouth and reduce the perception of oiliness 7 influenced by consumption habits (Jaeger et al., 2010). Asian from food, whereas the bitterness and astringency in red wine 65 consumers tend to like the wine with sweeter taste that can enhance the flavor of most red meat (Jackson, 2002). 9 contradicts with the concept of western wine pairing. Wester- If food and wine pairing is looked into from a more 67 ners usually drink drier wine to complement their food for not scientific way, wine can cleanse the palate or enhance saliva 11 disturbing the salty taste of the cuisine. Saura et al. (2008) production by its phenols and ethanol contents (Jackson, 69 stated that the menu and wine list were equally important for 2002). It was reported that alcoholic beverage taken 30 min 13 revenue contribution and reputation establishment of a restau- before a meal may have the stimulating effect on food intake 71 rant. Manske and Cordua (2005) found that the role of the since the ad libitum intake was significantly higher than others 15 sommelier has its strategic importance, as it may lead to an (Hetherington et al., 2001), implicating that alcohol may 73 increase of wine sales of 10–15% to 25%. Traditionally, foods increase subjective feelings of hunger (Caton et al., 2004). 17 were served with local wines because of familiarity and the Other research stated that the stimulation from alcohol on food 75 cost; however, with the trend of globalization, there was a intake was short and alcohol consumption had no effect on 19 growing interest for pairing food with a greater variety of appetite ratings; however, it can affect the appetite system by 77 wines (Wesson, 2007). Wine is commonly served in the modulating the orosensory reward from food (Caton, Marks 21 designated wine glasses accompanying the meal in Chinese and Hetherington, 2005). Table wines are usually served as the 79 restaurants. Though diners use chopsticks for their food, there complementary role to the food. Wine is appreciated as an 23 are no conflicts with the serving pattern between food and alternative flavor component of a meal. In addition, the social 81 wine. In the household, wine-drinking accompanying the food enhancement associated with alcohol consumption makes wine 25 becomes more casual, similar to American household habits a good complement for dining either with friends, families or 83 but, not as elaborate as the fine dining settings. Such a serving after work (Jackson, 2002; Bastian et al., 2010). 27 pattern seems to be in a good harmony across east and west. Since food and wine pairing becomes an apparently crucial 85 According to Jackson (2002), the main reason of drinking component of a meal, chefs, sommeliers, and restaurant 29 wine with meals was due to the enjoyment created from its practitioners all want to have better comprehensions in order 87 combination. Different flavors in food may suppress or to understand and meet the real needs of their clients (Jackson, 31 enhance certain attributes in wine, which in turn will alter 2009). Wansink et al. (2006) found that food and wine pairing 89 the perception of that wine, and vice versa. Tasting food and recommendation could increase the sales of wine by 7.6 per- 33 wine together reveals an integrated perception of flavor by the cents. Harrington (2005) used a hierarchical approach to study 91 palate (Wesson, 2007). If the wine and food components and the pairing between food and wine based on the 3 key 35 texture elements have been properly matched, a potentially parameters: components, texture, and flavors and discovered 93 enjoyable and synergistic pleasant sensation will be achieved that flavor is usually the most important factor among 37 (Harrington, 2007). Harrington et al. (2010) highlighted the these three. 95 value of wine layering flavors, adding contrasts, and to 39 improve the taste of food by the interaction of food and wine. Materials and methods 97 Therefore, wine could be more than just a drink in terms of 41 altering the taste of the food. Samples 99 Central to most concepts of food and wine pairing is the 43 harmonial balance among different flavor intensities, besides Two red wines, Cabernet Sauvignon (Canyon Road, 2008-California) and 101 habits and cultural reflection (Jackson, 2009). The association Merlot (Gallo Family Vineyard, 2008 - California), and two white wines, Chardonnay (Palmira, 2007- Chile) and Riesling (Schmitt Söhne, 2007 Mosel- 45 between wine and food was well established in ancient Greek Germany) were used in the Affective test for food and wine pairing. The 103 and Roman time (Jackson, 2009). The wine culture has long characteristics and flavor profile of these four wines are shown in Table 2. 47 been cultivated in China as well. Chinese started to drink wine The wines with single grape cultivar were selected for the research to avoid 105 made from grape since East Han Dynasty (25–220 A.D.). the introduction of mixed characteristics from different grapes. The producer of 49 Subsequently, the habit of drinking wine along with food the wines was not designated to be the same for the pairing since this approach 107 could explore guiding principles applicable for wines from different origins. spread from the royal family to the local society in Tang The selected Riesling (residual sugar 66 g/L) was sweeter than the rest of the 51 Dynasty (618–907 A.D.). General recommendations such as wines. Red wines were served between 14 and 18 ℃, while the white wines 109 food and wine flavors combine well when they were either were served between 7 and 12 ℃. The 20 cl ISO wine tasting glass was used to 53 complement or contrast to each other (Harrington, 2007) could avoid any bias caused by the shape of the wine glasses. Fifty milliliters of each 111 be linked with the theory that food and wine pairing may relate wine were served with 50 gm food sample in a small, white plate to the panelists. 55 to how wine can enhance a sense of elegance to dining, even Eight different cuisines with distinct flavor characteristics were selected to 113 just a simple meal (Jackson, 2009). It has been reported that represent the regional food from China. Roast Goose and Salted Goose Wing 57 the interactions between the intricate sensory and chemical represent the Cantonese cuisine. Salty and Peppery Fried Chicken is a popular 115

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1 Table 2 59 Part 1 Descriptive analysis Characteristics of the wines for pairing with the cuisines.

3 Wine Riesling Chardonnay Merlot (M) Cabernet 61 Sauvignon (CS) 5 Selection of 12 panelists 63 Maker Schmitt Palmira Gallo Family Canyon Road, 7 YearSöhne, 2007 2007 2008 2008 65 OriginMosel- Chile California California Threshold and focus group training Germany 9 Flavor Fresh apples, Lemon, buttery, Blackberry; Black currant, 67 proﬁle peach, pear grapefruit raspberry; olive black cherry, 11 blackberry, Rate the intensity of the attributes of the eight cuisines 69

13 71 delicacy in Taiwan and southern China. Sweet and Sour Fish and Poached Shrimp are popular Zhejiang dishes. Hot and Spicy Tofu and Kongpao Group the cuisines by cluster analysis 15 Chicken are typical Szechuan dishes. Pork Fried Rice is a typical staple food 73 not belonging to any region, and was selected as one of the food sample to test 17 the reliability of the cluster analysis. All the food samples were prepared by a 75 local restaurant specialized in various regional cuisines, and were cooked and Part 2 Consumer affective test 19 delivered in a styrofoam container 30 min before the test to keep the 77 temperature of the samples above 40 ℃.

21 Invitation for consumer test 79 Experimental design 23 81 Factorial treatment design was adopted in order to explore the effect of the two main factors, namely wine and food, on the consumers’ affection on the Affective test: 10 pairs of foods and wines *5 weeks 25 pairing (Meilgaard et al., 2007). A matrix of the first factor (4 different wines 83 plus without wine) interacting with the second factor (8 different cuisines) 27 resulted in 40 distinct treatment combinations that forms a single replication of 85 a5 8 factorial design in the consumer affective test. Due to the physiological ANOVA to explore the suitable wine pairing limitation of the tasting number for flavor perception, the panel evaluated 29 2 cuisines pairing with a series of wines in each session: 1. no wine; 2. 87 Chardonnay (C); 3. Riesling (R); 4. Merlot(M); and 5. Cabernet Sauvignon 31 (CS). Therefore, the complete study consisted of 5 sessions of sensory tests 89 held on Friday for 5 consecutive weeks; each and every one of the 30 panelists MDS graph for the suitable wine for each cluster of cuisines 33 tasted 10 pairs of food and wine within a test. All 30 panelists tasted and 91 evaluated a total of 40 different combinations for the full factorial design and another 10 replicates to examine the consistency of the panelists throughout the Fig. 2. The procedure of the sensory evaluation. 35 testing period (five weeks). The procedure of the sensory evaluation tests in 93 this study is shown in Fig. 2. Different concentrations from the threshold to higher concentration of salt 37 (0.08%, 0.16%, 0.24%, and 0.32%), sugar (0.32%, 0.64%, 0.96%, and 1.28%), 95 Sensory evaluation and vinegar (0.005%, 0.01%, 0.015%, 0.02%) solutions were provided for the fi 39 rst two trainings on the basic taste. The panelists had to answer the correct 97 intensity of the taste on the 7-point Likert scale. The panel passed the Sensory evaluation is a technique using human subjects as the measuring performance evaluation with correction rate more than 90%. These 12 panelists instruments to gauge attribute intensity (Meilgaard et al., 2007). Sidel and 41 were further trained in a third session in a round table setting with a selection 99 Stone (1979) and Moskowitz (1983) provided some guidelines for in-house of reference food samples representing certain taste attributes. The discussion consumer test that executes the test on the site of sensory test provider, ex. in a was led by a moderator, and the samples were evaluated one at a time, to 43 test lab. The advantage of an in-house test is the preparation and presentation 101 develop the descriptors that can precisely describe the flavor attributes with of the product can be fully controlled. There are two parts of a sensory consensus. These agreed descriptors were used to develop a questionnaire that evaluation; descriptive analysis as the qualitative analysis was applied first to 45 was later applied for rating the intensity of each dish. With the followed up 103 categorize the cuisines, followed by the consumer affective test to quantita- cluster analysis, the results of descriptive analysis categorized the cuisines into tively elucidate the acceptance level for each food and wine pairing (Fig. 1). 47 different groups based on the intensity of the attributes. 105 More than 50% of the young panelists were recruited for these two stages because young people are more sensitive than their counterparts due to the 49 greater number of taste buds (Mojet et al., 2001; Nordin et al., 2007). 107 Consumer affective test The Consumer Affective Test is employed to access the personal response 51 Descriptive analysis (preference or acceptance) of current or potential customers to a product, a 109 Twelve panelists were selected from a pool of candidates, the 120 students product idea or specific product characteristics (Meilgaard et al., 2007). In 53 who took the sensory evaluation class, according to their ability to another word, the affective test was to measure the level of “liking” from the 111 discriminate the intensity of basic taste in a low threshold for saltiness, consumers that reflected the immediate experience or anticipation of pleasure sourness, sweetness. This group of 12 trained panelists was applied in from the orosensory stimulation of eating a food often expressed by the 55 descriptive analysis to explore the attributes while identifying the correspond- hedonic value or palatability (Mela, 2006). 113 ing intensity of the attributes for each food sample. Before the descriptive A group of thirty consumers aged between 20 and 60 who had drunk wine 57 analysis test, three training sessions were held for these selected panelists. in the past month and were willing to try the pairing of western wine and 115

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1 Chinese cuisine were invited from the campus and nearby neighborhood. The The results from descriptive analysis and cluster analysis confirmed the 59 residents from the nearby neighborhood consist of engineers from a high tech generally agreed categorization of the cuisine. Therefore, this approach is an science park, employees of a national hospital, and members from the effective way to facilitate positioning a new dish to a certain category for 3 university, representing the diversity of potential customers. The panelists further wine matching. The only odd one was the Pork Fired Rice that was 61 were not remunerated for their time but were given a bottle of wine at the end shown in a solo manner. Rice is the staple food in Chinese cuisine that 5 of the 5 sessions. They were invited to the sensory lab in the Department of functions like a supporting actor in a play. The Pork Fried Rice used in this 63 Hospitality Management at Tunghai University rather than the central location. study was seasoned with salt, black and white pepper, and garnished with fi 7 de Graaf et al., (2005) suggested that the eld condition would be more chopped green onion. The mellow taste of rice stir-fried with shredded pork 65 suitable for the consumer test of a meal. Therefore, the sensory lab was and scrambled egg made it a popular dish in any Chinese restaurant. Similar to decorated as the dining environment of the restaurant with tablecloth, silver pasta with red sauce in Italy, it is served as a part of the cuisine to fulfill the 9 utensil, and uniformed waitresses. All the tests were held at 3 pm when the integrated sensation of a meal. 67 panelists were not too hungry or too full to influence the sensory outcomes. 11 The temperature of the lab was controlled at 24–26 ℃, without odor, and 69 brightly lighted. Upon arrival, an oral explanation was carried out alongside a Consumer demographic profile brief instruction sheet to the panelists prior to the sensory test. Thirty panelists 13 71 were asked to finish the test without discussion and/or showing their facial The demographic profile of the consumer sensory panel is shown in Table 4. expression. After the brief introduction, each panelist was presented a set of The age distribution of the participants for the consumer test appeared young due 15 sensory samples including two dishes, a wine sheet with the three-digit coded to sampling from the neighborhood near Tunghai University. Such an age 73 glass placement for the 4 glasses of different wines to avoid any bias. In order distribution corresponded well to the purpose of this study as we intended to 17 to ensure the consistent perception of the combination of cuisine and wine, the explore the acceptability of pairing Chinese cuisine and western wine within 75 participants (panelists) were asked to take a sip of the wine (5 s), taste the food young potential drinkers. In addition, the younger panelists have sharper senses (10 s), then take another sip of the wine (5 s). Drinking water and having a for discrimination. Sixty nine percent of the panelists drink wine once per month. 19 small piece of toast in between samples was recommended to cleanse the Most of them (73%) did not have a habit of having wine with their meal, which 77 palate. The panelists were asked to rate each cuisine alone as well as the could be attributed to never having the chance for the first trial. This argument is 21 cuisine and wine pairs based on the hedonic level of the Likert scale from 1 to 79 ¼“ ” ¼“ ” ¼“ ” ¼“ ” 7, 1 Dislike extremely ,2 Dislike ,3 Somewhat dislike ,4 Neutral , Table 3 ¼“ ” ¼“ ” ¼“ ” 5 Somewhat like ,6 Like , and 7 Like extremely . The test measured Cluster analysis on the results from descriptive analysis on the attributes. 23 the hedonic rating without any complicated evaluation terms that might 81 “ ” introduce the Halo effect of any bias (Meilgaard et al., 2007). Cuisine Cluster Distance 25 83 Statistic analysis Roast Goose 1 2.201 27 Sweet & Sour Fish 2 2.422 85 Poached Shrimp 2 2.422 Cluster Analysis was well recognized as a systematic tool that could Salted Goose Wing 1 2.147 categorize foods based on their characteristics (Godwin et al., 1978; Jacobsen 29 Pork Fried Rice 4 0.000 87 and Gunderson, 1986). The first part of sensory evaluation, namely the results Salty and Peppery Fried Chicken 1 2.993 of the descriptive analysis for each cuisine, was grouped by cluster analysis. Hot and Spicy Tofu 3 1.663 31 The results from consumer affective test were analyzed by one-way ANOVA 89 Kongpao Chicken 3 1.663 to compare the hedonic level of each pairing. The interaction between the 33 foods and the wines was further analyzed by two-way ANOVA analysis. 91 Lastly, consumer sensory data was also converted to multidimensional scaling fi 35 with a con guration of points in a space where each point represents either the Table 4 93 cuisine or the wine. The distance between each two points indicated the Demographic profile and wine drinking habit of consumer panelists. appropriateness of the match; the shorter the distance the better the pairing. The 37 graphical relationship between cuisine and wine was well explained by the Demographic Information Frequency (%) 95 perceptual map based on the ratings of the dishes and the “liking” level of 39 each pairs. Gender 97 Male 12(40%) Female 18(60%) 41 Results 99 Age Cuisine categorization from descriptive analysis 20–30 17(56.7%) 43 31–40 2(6.7%) 101 41–50 5(16.7%) The dishes investigated were grouped by the trained sensory panel based on 51–60 5(16.7%) 45 their respective intensity score of the attributes, including: saltiness, sweetness, 103 61–70 1(3.3%) sourness, spiciness, savory taste, umami taste (one of the basic taste, which 47 usually refers to the delicious flavor of meat or seafood), and soy sauce taste. Frequency of drinking wine 105 Though the sensory panel was trained with the standard solutions of known About once per month 20(69%) 49 saltiness, sweetness and acidity, the perceived tastes were usually the About once every two weeks 3(10.3%) 107 consequence of the comprehensive flavor interaction, which is why there is About once per week 4 (13.8%) no instrumental measurement that can completely replace human sensory taste. About twice per week 2 (6.9%) 51 The results from descriptive analysis were applied for K-Mean cluster analysis, 109 as shown in Table 3. “Roast goose”, “Salted goose wing” and “Salty and Habit of having wine with meal (now) 53 peppery fried chicken” were grouped together in group 1, which reconfirmed Yes 8(26.7%) 111 the categorization as the Cantonese style cuisine. “Sweet and sour fish” and No 22(73.3%) “ ” Poached shrimp in group 2 were cuisines from Jiangsu and Zhejiang region Will try to pair wine with meal (future) 55 “ ” “ 113 with light or sweet and sour seasoning. Hot and spicy tofu and Kongpao Yes 24(80%) ” chicken were clustered in group 3, which represent Sichuan style cuisine with No 6 (20%) 57 hot and piquant taste. 115

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1 in line with the findings that 80% of the participants were willing to pair wine Kong Pao Chicken pairing with Riesling received higher hedonic ratings than 59 with their meal after this series of sensory tests. those paired with the rest of the wines. It suggested that if one were to choose a wine to pair with the aforementioned dishes, Riesling was the most preferred, 3 followed by Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. There appeared to 61 Consumer affective test be an obvious and significant trend of white wines being the preferred match 5 than red wines when pairing with these Chinese cuisines. 63 One-way ANOVA analysis was conducted to verify the preference for each According to Table 5, the acceptance level of each cuisine pairing different fi o 7 cuisine when pairing with different wines (Table 5). Except for Roast Goose, wines were signi cantly different (p 0.001), indicating that wine pairing 65 dishes including Sweet and Sour Fish, Salty and Peppery Fried Chicken, and changed the “liking” level of the cuisine. In each row, cuisines pairing with Riesling received the higher acceptance levels indicated by superscript “a”. 9 Both red wines showed low ratings on pairing with fried rice. One might 67 Table 5 suspect that the tendency of affection to either food or wine would influence The influence of pairing wine on the affective level of different cuisines. 11 the preference level of the pairing. Blake (2004) suggested the role of 69 Food Food with wine pairing habituation in directing food preferences. The acceptance of food and wine is a complicated issue and the preference of the pairing might not follow the 13 71 Cluster No wine R C M CS F value hedonic trend of either the cuisine or the wine. A two way ANOVA analysis was therefore conducted to further explore the possible interaction between 15 1 Roast Goose 6.25a 5.50ab 4.7b 4.7b 5.10ab 5.27*** western wine and Chinese food on consumer hedonic rating. There were 73 1 Salted Goose 5.00a 5.39ab 4.12b 3.97b 4.16b 7.09*** significant interactions between wine and cuisine, suggesting that the pre- 17 Wing ference of food could be altered by the wine paired. Therefore, a proper 75 1 Salty and 5.77a 5.65a 4.51b 3.94b 3.97b 13.37*** matching of wine will benefit the enjoyment of the cuisine. Peppery Fried 19 Chicken 77 2 Sweet & Sour 5.54a 5.47a 4.60ab 4.00b 3.83b 8.84*** 21 Fish 79 2 Poached 5.56a 6a 5.21a 3.97b 3.97b 17.09*** The inter-relationship between cuisines and Riesling Shrimp 23 3 Hot and Spicy 4.94a 5.24a 4.27ab 3.41b 3.62b 10.80*** Since Riesling was rated as the favorite match with most of the food 81 Tofu studied, its role of interacting with the cuisine was further explored by visual 25 3 Kongpao 4.91a 4.78a 3.62b 3.57b 3.59b 7.30*** mapping. The inter-relationships between cuisines and Riesling were plotted 83 Chicken by Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) in Fig. 3. The distance between the a a a b b *** 27 4 Pork Fried 5.35 5.35 4.71 3.61 3.58 16.76 cuisine and Riesling represents their respective hedonic rating. The closer 85 Rice distance indicates the better the match. The best match with Riesling was Poached Shrimp and Sweet and Sour Fish, both belonged to group 2 (eastern 29 Note: region). 87 1. Symbols of food paring with wine (R: Riesling; C: Chardonnay; M:Merlot; The results attained in the present study suggest that dishes from the same 31 CS: Cabernet Sauvignon) geographical region are well categorized in the same group from cluster 89 2. within the same row, mean values with the same superscript alphabetic letter analysis based on the sensory characteristics. Such a finding is reconfirmed in indicate no significant difference from Scheffe post hoc comparison at the level the MDS graph as the dishes from the same region showed up within the same 33 of Alpha¼0.05 circle. Plotting MDS graph is a convenient way to identify dishes with the 91 *po0.05 suitable pairing wine for customers. For instance, the dishes with intense 35 **po0.01 saltiness such as “Salted Goose Wing” and “Salty and Peppery Fried Chicken” 93 ***po0.001 paired with Riesling gained pronounced preference. 37 95

39 97

41 99

43 101

45 103

47 105

49 107

51 109

53 111

55 113

Fig. 3. Multidimensional scaling graph of relationship of affection on pairing cuisines and Riesling wine. 57 115

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1 Discussion from our sensory tests indicated that Riesling was the most 59 suitable wine out of the 2 reds and 2 whites for Chinese 3 After participating in this study as their initial experience of cuisines in this study. Nevertheless, the popular red wine 61 pairing Chinese cuisine with western wine, eighty percent of the Cabernet Sauvignon showed the potential of matching the 5 panelists indicated that they would try to pair wine that category of cuisine with fatty and smoke flavored food such as 63 complements their food in the future. In another word, their Roast Goose. 7 experience from the sensory evaluation, though unintended The limited number of items in the study restricted the 65 initially, served as an experiential marketing similar to promot- generation of findings to the broader category of all Chinese 9 ing the sales of wine with the meal in a restaurant. Restaurant cuisine. We did not consider the option of increasing the 67 practitioners can definitely use the knowledge gained from this number of items for testing, because gustatory fatigue usually 11 study to employ table-side tasting to promote the enjoyment and appears after tasting more than 6–8 samples. Therefore, the 69 subsequently generating new revenues from wine ordering. tests were designed, so that the panelists evaluated only a 13 It is noteworthy that consumers showed similar preference maximum of 10 sets of paired samples at any one setting. 71 on wine pairing pattern among the dishes from the same 15 cluster. For example, “Roast Goose”, “Salted Goose Wing” and Conclusion 73 “Salty and Peppery Fried Chicken” all belonged to cluster 1 17 (representing Cantonese and southern cuisine) matched better The descriptive analysis from the trained panel led to the 75 with Riesling, followed by Cabernet Sauvignon. Roast Goose success of clustering the cuisine into the distinct categories. 19 is a typical Cantonese cuisine with distinct savory flavor and Additionally, the preference pattern among the different 77 fatty crisp layer of skin. From two replicates, not only the regional cuisine was distinguishable among each other. The 21 panelists’ consistency on evaluation was confirmed, Riesling sensory affective test in combination with the Multidimen- 79 and Cabernet Sauvignon were preferred over the other two sional Scaling was proven as an effective tool to explore 23 wines for pairing with “Roast Goose”. Cabernet Sauvignon was consumer preferences for pairing Chinese cuisine with western 81 the second choice for better pairing with Roast Goose, the wines. The outcomes of this study can be applied to Chinese 25 good body of the wine structure with tannin can complement restaurant practitioners to enhance the dining experience of 83 “Roast Goose” and achieve a good harmony. While the tannin their guests by complementing their food with wine. Riesling 27 and acidity of the wine might suppress the perception of fat, is the most preferred wine, since it paired well with most of the 85 the layer of fat from the roasted goose skin would lessen the Chinese cuisine employed in this study. The significant 29 perception of astringent sensation from tannin. The high interaction between cuisine and wine suggests that consump- 87 protein content in Roast Goose is another important factor. tion of wine will influence the food preference. 31 Proteins in food have already been mentioned as minimizing Most importantly, the results of continuous sensory test 89 the sensory impact of tannins and acids, making the wine taste suggest that experience is a crucial factor for accepting wine. A 33 smoother, less sour, and more balanced (Jackson, 2002). The changing attitude on food and wine pairing among the pane- 91 sweet note from the roasting sauce was a hint for welcoming lists toward the end of the tests is noteworthy. After the young 35 the sweeter wine, in agreement with Jackson’s (2009) sugges- drinkers explored the beauty of food and wine pairing, they 93 tion that the use of sweet sauce and some characteristics of had further temptation of trying similar pairings in the future. 37 Chinese cuisines may herald a renewed appreciation of semi- This result suggests that use of small portions of wine for 95 sweet wine with food. consumer tasting at the table might be a useful strategy for 39 The distance between Szechuan style (hot and spicy) food wine promotion in a restaurant. Providing free wine tasting is 97 and Riesling wine was farther than other dishes (Fig. 2). This also a good way of utilizing the wine from an opened bottle. 41 observation contradicted with the common knowledge that Further exploration on the pairing of wine with Chinese 99 sugar added in the spicy dishes tends to reduce the pungent cuisine may involve a comparison of the responses among 43 mouth feel by increasing the threshold of capsaicin (Sizer and panelists from different countries. 101 Harris, 1985), since the Hedonic rating of Riesling pairing with 45 spicy food did not support the common idea. Rather, our 103 Uncited references finding is more in agreement with the conclusion from Koone 47 et al., (2014) that the best match of Cabernet Sauvignon is the 105 Balestrini and Gamble (2006), Casini et al. (2009), Deliza spicy Italian salami. It is intriguing that both findings are and MacFie (1996), Gawel et al. (2000), McGovern et al. 49 breaking the common perception of matching sweeter wine 107 (2003), Nygren et al. (2001), Parker and Parker (2008), Simon with spicy food. (1996) and Wansink et al. (2007). 51 Great matching between wine and food could only be 109 reached based on either emphasizing the similarities or the 53 complementary in the sensory perceptions for both the wine References 111 and food (Wesson, 2007). Only with systematic knowledge on Anderson, E.N., 1988. The Food of China. Yale University Press, New Haven, 55 the sensory traits one can better pair wine and food so that they London. 113 make each other tastier (May and Sharpe, 1997). While most Balestrini, P., Gamble, P., 2006. Country-of-origin effects on Chinese wine 57 Chinese prefer red wine based on its healthy image, the results consumers. Br. Food J. 108 (5), 396–412. 115

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Please cite this article as: Wang, S.-T., When Chinese cuisine meets western wine. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2016.11.003