Ecofeminism in India: from the Chipko Movement to the Case of Narmada Valley Development Project

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Ecofeminism in India: from the Chipko Movement to the Case of Narmada Valley Development Project Master’s Degree Programme Second Cycle (D.M. 270/2004) in International Relations Final Thesis Ecofeminism in India: From the Chipko Movement to the Case of Narmada Valley Development Project Supervisor Ch. Prof. Bruna Bianchi Assistant supervisor Ch. Prof. Geraldine Ludbrook Graduand Eleonora Passantino 836571 Academic Year 2015/ 2016 Contents List of Abbreviations…………..…………………………………………………………..5 Abstract.......................................................................................................................7 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...……15 I. Ecofeminism in India 1. Introduction: Environment versus Development………………………………...19 1.1. Environmental Movements in India……………………………………….21 1.2. Development Narrative…………………………………………………….22 2. Ecofeminism and Feminist Environmentalism…………………………………..26 2.1. Indian Ecofeminist Theories……………………………………………….28 2.2. The Feminine Principle…………………………………………………….36 2.3. Feminist Political Ecology………………………………………………….39 2.4. Grassroots Responses…………………………………………………….45 II. The Chipko Movement 1. Women and the Forests……………………………………………………………47 2. The Chipko Movement……………………………………………………………..52 2.1. Heritage of Forest Satyagraha in Garhwal Himalaya…………………..54 2.2. Chipko Movement Action…………………………………………………..64 III. The Narmada Valley Development Project 1. The Narmada River………………………………………………………………...73 2. The Narmada Valley Development Project: Environmental and Social Damage……………………………………………………………………………...77 2.1. The Sardar Sarovar Project: Resettlement and Rehabilitation Issue from a Gender Perspective………………………………………………..87 3. Protagonists of the Dam Opposition: Medha Patkar’s Activism and the Narmada Bachao Andolan………………………………………………………...94 Bibliography and Web References…………………………………………………...117 3 4 Abbreviations ARCH Action Research in Community Health DGSM Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal FPC Forest Protection Committee GDP Gross Domestic Product ILO International Labour Organization IMF International Monetary Fund JFM Joint Forest Management MAF Million Acre Feet MP Madhya Pradesh MW Megawatt NAPM National Alliance of People’s Movements NBA Narmada Bachao Andolan NCW National Commission for Women NPRR National Policy on Resettlement and Rehabilitation NVDP Narmada Valley Development Project PAPs Project Affected People R&R Resettlement and Rehabilitation SSP Sardar Sarovar Project VCs Village Commons VPs Van Panchayats WB World Bank WCD World Commission on Dams 5 6 ABSTRACT Dopo aver ottenuto l’indipendenza nel 1947, l’India ha intrapreso un processo di sviluppo economico sostenuto dal Governo Centrale. Tale processo ha portato con sé progetti su grande scala e ad alta intensità di capitale, costruzione di infrastrutture, e così via, incoraggiato dalle istituzioni finanziare internazionali. Sviluppo diventava così sinonimo di crescita economica e industrializzazione; tuttavia, se da una parte ha beneficiato una ristretta élite, dall’altra si è accompagnato al degrado ambientale e all’impoverimento di gruppi sociali già svantaggiati, il cui 90% dipende da un’economia della terra. La gestione dell’ambiente e delle risorse naturali nel periodo precedente e successivo all’indipendenza indiana ha registrato una certa continuità, in quanto le pratiche di sfruttamento e subordinazione coloniali sono passate sotto il nome di politiche di sviluppo, questa volta formulate dal Governo Centrale e i diversi stati Indiani. I diritti di proprietà sui beni comuni e sulle risorse naturali sono stati trasferiti progressivamente dalle comunità rurali, al controllo dello Stato e di privati. Per questo motivo, i progetti di sviluppo e di modernizzazione territoriale, che hanno comportato la costruzione di grandi dighe o la deforestazione di intere aree abitate da comunità contadine, hanno avuto gravi conseguenze su tali comunità date le loro relazioni di interdipendenza con l’ecosistema naturale per soddisfare i bisogni primari. L’opposizione a tale modello di sviluppo si è automaticamente trasformata in una critica al fenomeno della globalizzazione economica e del degrado ambientale, alle istituzioni finanziarie internazionali e alle grandi multinazionali che hanno contribuito a una ulteriore polarizzazione tra Sud e Nord del mondo. Le risposte sono arrivate dalle vittime di tali politiche, quali contadini, indigeni, donne, e i poveri in generale, che si sono opposti attraverso azioni spontanee e forme organizzate di protesta, il cui obiettivo principale è stato il decentramento del potere e la riappropriazione dei diritti di proprietà sui mezzi di sussistenza. Un’analisi di genere del fenomeno rivela la stretta connessione tra le donne e l’ambiente naturale, che si rifà non solo alle peculiarità biologiche femminili, ma al loro legame materiale con la terra come fonte di sopravvivenza. Il sistema patriarcale che si nasconde dietro la conoscenza scientifica sviluppatasi tra il XV e il XVII secolo, e cha ha legittimato una cultura riduzionista e meccanicistica, è stato denunciato e decostruito da esponenti di tali categorie svantaggiate e da esperti che ne hanno riconosciuto l’ingiustizia sociale e la parzialità nella distribuzione dei suoi “benefici”. Le donne che hanno partecipato a tale critica 7 possono essere ricollegate al movimento ecofemminista, il quale ha individuato una stretta relazione tra femminismo ed etica ambientale, e che ricerca le radici (e le soluzioni) ad una oppressione sessista che diventa violenza nei confronti della natura e viceversa. Oltre al quadro teorico e interpretativo del fenomeno, sono state fondamentali le risposte di protesta provenienti dal basso, direttamente da coloro che hanno subito gli abusi di tali politiche che hanno annientato le basi materiali per la sopravvivenza, quali terre, acqua, foreste, etc. I movimenti di base locali in India, che hanno registrato una presenza massiccia di donne, si sono opposti attraverso l’azione diretta nonviolenta ai trasferimenti forzati dovuti alla costruzione delle grandi dighe, si sonno opposti all’abbattimento degli alberi delle foreste da cui traggono sostentamento, hanno dimostrato di essere pronti a sacrificare la propria vita, in attesa che l’acqua di bacini artificiali arrivasse a sommergere le loro case. Il loro impegno per la protezione dell’ambiente e allo stesso tempo per i loro diritti, ha trasformato le loro battaglie in lotte per la giustizia ecologica e sociale. Le donne rurali nei paesi in via di sviluppo, possiedono una conoscenza e un’esperienza capaci di rovesciare questo approccio violento alla natura e alla vita stessa, attraverso il soddisfacimento dei bisogni primari e la sostenibilità ecologica. Il primo capitolo di questa tesi comincia con una panoramica sulle teorie ecofemministe che spiegano i ruoli di genere e le strutture patriarcali che configurano le relazioni socio-economiche di una comunità. Partendo da un punto di vista universalizzante, i ruoli di genere sono stati giustificati dal determinismo biologico e posti nella sfera ideologica. Tuttavia il contesto sociale, storico ed economico di aree geografiche circoscritte, ha rivelato la necessità di approcci diversi per trattare l’argomento. Tra questi approcci, è possibile trovare l’ecofemminismo di Vandana Shiva, attivista indiana laureata in fisica nucleare che ha vissuto personalmente le prime agitazioni di donne nella regione del Garhwal Himalayano. La Shiva ha spiegato lo stretto legame tra donna e natura nelle comunità rurali indiane, non solo sulla base di antiche tradizioni e rievocazioni della cosmologia indiana, secondo la quale Prakriti, simboleggiante la natura è un’espressione del principio femminile Shakti, da cui scaturisce ogni forma di vita e per questo va preservato. Lei individua anche le radici storiche che hanno portato alla crisi ecologica e alla ulteriore marginalizzazione delle comunità rurali e della loro economia di sussistenza, fortemente legata all’ambiente circostante. Tali radici sono quelle del retaggio coloniale e la “distruttività” dei correnti sistemi di produzione capitalistici. Il concetto di sviluppo che si è andato affermando, 8 ovvero quello di crescita economica, presuppone che tutti i Paesi del mondo debbano percorrere un cammino che li condurrà alla ricchezza e al benessere in cui si trovano già i Paesi del Nord del mondo. Affinché questo cammino possa essere reso possibile, è necessaria una modernizzazione territoriale che passa attraverso quella che Walt Whitman Rostow ha definito teoria degli stadi. Tale teoria sviluppata nel corso degli anni ’60, prevede cinque fasi di sviluppo in cui partendo da una condizione di totale assenza delle conoscenze scientifiche e tecnologiche (la società tradizionale) si arriva all’età del consumismo e della produzione di massa. Un modello di sviluppo tale ha presentato dei limiti nella sua formulazione, innanzitutto creando una dicotomia tra un noi ricco e sviluppato, e l’altro, povero e arretrato. Questa costruzione del concetto di sviluppo è servita poi per giustificare il paternalismo occidentale e le sue interferenze nei paesi del Terzo Mondo, soprattutto attraverso istituzioni economiche internazionali. Quello che viene criticato maggiormente dalla Shiva, è la convinzione di poter applicare questo paradigma di sviluppo a qualsiasi contesto sociale, economico, politico, culturale, nonostante l’impatto sui contesti sociali e ambientali in paesi come l’India sia stato negativo. Il risultato infatti è quello di una ulteriore polarizzazione e marginalizzazione dei gruppi più svantaggiati e uno sfruttamento non sostenibile delle risorse naturali.
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