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Nobel Prize for Physics 1970 Nobel Prize for Physics 1970 The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has awarded the 1970 Nobel Prize jointly to two European physicists: to H. Alfvén for his establishment of the fundamental principles of magnetohydrodynamics which decisively influenced the development of plasma physics, and to L. Néel for his research and funda­ mental discoveries regarding antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism, which have important applications in the physics of solids. An assessment of these men and their work is given below. the predicted magnetic decomposition that there could exist, below the Curie of the solid into two sublattices. point, a compensation temperature at In 1936 Néel also showed theore­ which the magnetizations on the two tically that antiferromagnetism must sublattices are equal in magnitude be characterized by the existence of but opposite in sign, so that the net a critical external magnetic field. macroscopic moment becomes zero. Passing through this critical value the The moment of such a permanent magnetic susceptibility exhibits a magnet would change its sign at that discontinuity. Sixteen years later this temperature. A few years later, E.W. curious phenomenon was detected Gorter in Eindhoven found that a experimentally by C.J. Gorter and N.J. mixed ferrite of lithium and chromium Poulis in CUCI2.2 H2O. has this property. In 1948, Néel succeeded in inter­ The theory of ferrimagnetism en­ preting for the first time the magnetic abled Néel and Bertaut to elucidate properties of spinel structures of the the properties of pyrrhotine, Fe7S8, a Louis Néel ferrites, which had remained a mys­ mysterious substance on which Weiss Louis Néel received the award in tery to physicists for fifty years. He had already written important papers recognition of over forty years’ scien­ published his theory of ferrimagnetism, early this century. Here we encounter tific work in the domain of collective based essentially on the hypothesis of ferrimagnetic behaviour in which the order in magnetic solids. two magnetically unequal sublattices necessary inequality between the two A list of the novel and important of spins. On each sublattice the spins sublattices is caused by an inequality ideas introduced by him in the various are parallel. Spins on the two sub­ in vacancy distribution (1 atom of iron domains of magnetism would be very lattices are oriented in opposite out of 8 is missing). Above a certain long. Perhaps it matters more to note directions and differ in magnitude, temperature the inequality disappears that, on antiferromagnetism and ferri- so that a net moment results. Again, and the vacancies are distributed magnetism, his ideas have proved to this hypothesis was later confirmed equally between the sublattices ; con­ be of greatest originality and have by neutron diffraction experiments. sequently, pyrrhotine then becomes become classic since their formu­ The theory of ferrimagnetism at once antiferromagnetic. lation. Already in 1932, Néel showed explained many known experimental In 1956, the theory of ferrimagnetism that the concept of the Weiss molecu­ facts: the saturation value of the led to the discovery, by Bertaut and lar field had to be extended by magnetic moment, the variation with Pauthenet in Grenoble, of a new introducing local molecular fields, temperature of the spontaneous category of ferrimagnetic oxides, each affecting one sublattice in a magnetization below the Curie point, namely ferrites of the rare earths with magnetic solid. From this he deduced the hyperbolic temperature variation garnet structure. Their general formula that attractive interactions should of the susceptibility above the Curie is Fe5M3O12, where M is a rare-earth lead to temperature-independent point, the variation with concentration element. These substances immedi­ paramagnetism. In 1936 he con­ of the magnetic moment of mixed ately attracted great interest because cluded that solids exist in which ferrites, the variation with thermal of their remarkable properties at very the magnetic atoms differ in their spin treatment of the magnetic moment at high frequencies and the relative orientation: below a certain transition saturation of zinc- and magnesium- ease with which large crystals can be temperature Tc they are divided into ferrites by transfer of magnetic ions obtained; in general, they also possess two sublattices spontaneously spin- from one sublattice to the other, and a sharp compensation temperature. oriented in opposite directions with other phenomena. In the same funda­ Here we have three-sublattice ferri­ respect to each other. The net spin mental paper, Néel was the first to magnetism : two with iron and one is then zero; below Tc, the magnetic show that the predominant inter­ with the rare-earth element. Multiple susceptibility is independent of tempe­ actions in oxides and ferrites are not substitutions are possible and thus rature. At temperatures above Tc the direct exchange interactions, but that garnets are a choice material for solid obeys a Curie-Weiss law. At the the magnetic cations interact via studying magnetic interactions. time such solids were unknown; they the diamagnetic anions (indirect- More recently (1960-1961) an appli­ were discovered in 1938 by Bizette exchange, or ‘superexchange’ inter­ cation of the same ideas led Néel to and Tsai and called antiferromagnets actions). predict the existence of a superpara­ by Bitter in 1939. The transition tempe­ On the basis of the theory of ferri­ magnetism in antiferromagnetic crys­ rature Tc is now called the Néel magnetism many novel facts could be tals of 20 to 400 Å diameter. In such temperature Tn. About 1950 neutron predicted. In a study on the possible small crystals the magnetic moments diffraction experiments on MnO carried forms of thermal variation of spon­ on the two sublattices are no longer out by Shull and co-workers showed taneous magnetization, Néel showed completely compensated. 2 In closing, we note the contribution Alfvén’s Research Work of Louis Néel to international co­ The universal importance of plasma operation in physics, notably his physics was realized by Alfvén who activity in the International Union of had already treated the interaction Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) of between electromagnetic and me­ which he was President from 1963 to chanical phenomena in his earliest 1966. Néel also played a decisive role papers. This interaction leads to phe­ in the creation of the Ampère Group. nomena which cannot be predicted As President of the Electronics by applying previously known laws of Section of the CNRS he was res­ electricity and mechanics separately. ponsible for the 1st Ampère Collo­ Initially Alfvén’s interests concen­ quium in Paris (1952) and scientific trated on the electrical discharge phe­ director of the 2nd Ampère Collo­ nomena in the Northern Lights quium, held in Grenoble in 1953. (aurorae) and their interaction with G.J. Béné the earth’s magnetic field. In con­ nection with a theory on the aurora on solar phenomena. Alfvén pointed established in 1939, he developed a out that the motion of an electrically Hannes Alfvén perturbation method to deduce the conducting fluid situated in a mag­ netic field induces electric currents Hannes Alfvén’s pioneering work orbits of electrically charged particles has initiated and strongly influenced in inhomogeneous magnetic and elec­ which in their turn produce forces the development of plasma physics tric fields. Alfvén showed that the real reacting back on the fluid motion. This and its applications all over the world. particle orbit can very accurately be may be considered the result of two represented by a circular ‘gyro’ motion simultaneous interaction processes. The Plasma State directed perpendicularly to the mag­ The first is connected with the con­ The various states of matter are the netic field lines, with a superimposed cept of the magnetic field lines ‘frozen’ result of a balance between the bind­ drift of the centre of gyration. The in the fluid and ‘dragged’ along by its ing forces and the thermal motion of magnetic flux enclosed by the circular motion. The second is due to the its constituents. Transformation into motion is conserved and corresponds induced electric currents which another state usually occurs with to an adiabatic invariant, the ‘equi­ produce a restoring force on the mag­ increasing temperature, i.e. from a valent magnetic moment’. The pertur­ netic field lines, thus acting like solid body to a liquid and further to bation method greatly simplifies the elastic strings immersed in the fluid. a gas which, at sufficiently high study of the complicated individual These magnetohydrodynamic forces temperatures, is converted to the particle motion in inhomogeneous play an essential role in a wide range plasma state and disintegrates into its fields and has formed the basis of of plasma physical applications. They electrical constituents. These four innumerable investigations in plasma are also directly related to the funda­ states correspond to the ancient physics and its applications. Examples mental discovery by Alfvén of the Greek concept of the four elements: of this are a heating mechanism magnetohydrodynamic waves propa­ earth, water, air, and fire. Plasma proposed by Alfvén for the acceler­ gated along the magnetic field lines physics describes the fourth state of ation of charged particles in cosmic like waves along an elastic string. matter, covering the entire field of radiation, studies of the dynamics of Limited amounts and different forms classical and much of modern physics. ionized matter near the sun and in of energy are oscillating back and It is thus characterized by a multi­ interplanetary space, as well as inves­ forth in a wave motion. Under certain plicity of combinations and inter­ tigations of the confinement and conditions, however, a disturbance in actions between different physical stability of a plasma in magnetic a plasma may be able to extract an processes. The plasma state extends bottles for attempting to realize con­ increasing amount of energy from a over a temperature range from about trolled thermonuclear fusion.
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