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CARBON SKELETONS COVALENT BONDS HYDROCARBONS ALTERNATING DOUBLE BONDS 106 PANEL 2–1: Chemical Bonds and Groups Commonly Encoun

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CARBON SKELETONS COVALENT BONDS HYDROCARBONS ALTERNATING DOUBLE BONDS 106 PANEL 2–1: Chemical Bonds and Groups Commonly Encoun 106 PANEL 2–1: Chemical Bonds and Groups Commonly Encountered in Biological Molecules CARBON SKELETONS Carbon has a unique role in the cell because of its ability to form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. Thus carbon atoms can join to form or branched trees or rings chains. C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C also written as also written as also written as COVALENT BONDS HYDROCARBONS A covalent bond forms when two atoms come very close together and share one or more of their electrons. In a single Carbon and hydrogen combine bond one electron from each of the two atoms is shared; in together to make stable a double bond a total of four electrons are shared. compounds (or chemical groups) Each atom forms a fixed number of covalent bonds in a called hydrocarbons. These are defined spatial arrangement. For example, carbon forms four nonpolar, do not form single bonds arranged tetrahedrally, whereas nitrogen forms hydrogen bonds, and are three single bonds and oxygen forms two single bonds arranged generally insoluble in water. as shown below. Atoms joined by two or more covalent bonds CNOcannot rotate freely H H around the bond axis. This restriction is a HCCH H Double bonds exist and have a different spatial arrangement. major influence on the H H three-dimensional shape of many macromolecules. methane methyl group CNO H2C CH2 ALTERNATING DOUBLE BONDS H2C The carbon chain can include double Alternating double bonds in a ring CH2 bonds. If these are on alternate carbon can generate a very stable structure. atoms, the bonding electrons move H2C within the molecule, stabilizing the CH2 structure by a phenomenon called resonance. H H H2C CH2 H H H H C H C C C C C ´ 2 C C C C C CH2 H H H H H2C the truth is somewhere between CH these two structures H H 2 benzene H3C C CCCC often written as part of the hydrocarbon “tail” C C C C C of a fatty acid molecule CHAPTER 2 PANELS 107 C–O CHEMICAL GROUPS C–N CHEMICAL GROUPS Many biological compounds contain a carbon Amines and amides are two important examples of bonded to an oxygen. For example, compounds containing a carbon linked to a nitrogen. alcohol H Amines in water combine with an H+ ion to become The –OH is called a positively charged. C OH hydroxyl group. H H H C N H+ C N H+ aldehyde O H H C Amides are formed by combining an acid and an H The C—O— is called a amine. Unlike amines, amides are uncharged in water. ketone carbonyl group. C An example is the peptide bond that joins amino acids in a protein. C O O O C C H2N C C H2O carboxylic acid O OH N C The –COOH is called a acidamine amide C carboxyl group. In water H this loses an H+ ion to OH _ become –COO . Nitrogen also occurs in several ring compounds, including important constituents of nucleic acids: purines and pyrimidines. esters Esters are formed by a condensation reaction NH between acid and an alcohol. 2 O O H N C C C HO C C C H O cytosine (a pyrimidine) 2 CC OH O C O N H acid alcohol ester H SULFHYDRYL GROUP The C S H is called a sulfhydryl group. In the amino acid cysteine the sulfhydryl group may exist in the reduced form, C SH or more rarely in an oxidized, cross-bridging form, C S S C PHOSPHATES Inorganic phosphate is a stable ion formed from Phosphate esters can form between a phosphate and a free hydroxyl group. phosphoric acid, H3PO4. It is often written as Pi. Phosphate groups are often attached to proteins in this way. O O O also _ written as P P _ P _ HO O C OH HO O C O O H2O _ _ _ C O P O O O The combination of a phosphate and a carboxyl group, or two or more phosphate groups, gives an acid anhydride. H2O O O O _ also written as C HO P O C O high-energy acyl phosphate O _ _ bond (carboxylic–phosphoric OH O O P O acid anhydride) found in C H2O _ some metabolites O P O H2O O O O O phosphoanhydride—a high- _ _ also written as O P OH HO P O O P O P O energy bond found in O P P _ _ _ _ molecules such as ATP O O O O H2O.
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