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Home , Mara (demon), Samadhiraja Sutra

CHAPTER FIVE THE METHOD TO GET ENLIGHTENMENT IN THE A^TASAHASRIKA- -

Contrast to enlightenment path of an ar/?a/^ which is depicted in Pah Hterature, the methods to get to enUghtenment in Buddhist Hterature generally and in Astsahasrika Prajnaparamita particularly is enlightenment path of a . A bodhi'sattva must practise the six or ten para/Ti/Va (perfections). This important word paramita has also been translated as " transcendental virtue" , "perfect virtue", "highest perfection", "complete attainment" etc. In , the forms paramf and paramita occur in the Sutta-nipata, the Jataka, the Nettipakarana and other treatises; and T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede translate it as "completeness, perfection, and highest state" .'^"^ Paramita is really derived from parama as the Bodhisattva- bliumi clearly explains that the paramita are so called, because they are acquired during a long period of time (paramena kalena samudagatah), and are supremely pure in their nature (paramaya svabhava-vicuddhya visuddliya). They also transcend the virtues or qualities of the scravakasand the pratyeka- buddlias, and lead to the highest result (paramam ca pliaiam anuprayacclianti)f^^ It is not necessary to accept all the details that are given

408 y^ jy^yg Davids and W. Stede, Pali- English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2007) '"" Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2004), 166

197 in the Bodhisattva-bhumi. But the derivation of the term from parama is, thus, placed beyond the possibiUty of doubt. It simply means, "highest condition, highest point, best state, perfection". F. W. Thomas, T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede explain it as substantively derived f^. parama. A more creative yet widely reported etymology divides paramita into para and mita, with para meaning "beyond", "the further bank, shore or boundary," and mita, meaning "that which has arrived," or ita meaning "that which goes." Paramita, then means "that which has gone beyond," "that which goes beyond," or "transcendent.""*^" The Tibetan equivalent is pha-rol-tu-phyin-pa meaning "to get to the other side";"*" in , it means crossing to the other side of this life, i.e. to /7irKa/7a; absolute transcendental virtue. The earlier and alternative form paramT diho points to the derivation ^om. parama. The suffix "-^a"was probably added to it on the analogy of the abstract substantives ending in ''-ta". It has been suggested that a compound like dana-paramita may be explained as "the quality or condition of a person, who is a dana-paramf, i.e. who possesses the paramf or highest point of dana or charity. In this case, the suffix ''ta" would be added to a baliu-vrlhi compound. But the two words in such a compound as dana-paramita SQQm to stand in direct apposition, and it is better to construe thus: danam eva paramita dana-paramita. The virtue of charity is itself the perfection. The six paramita are really the chief factors in a bodhisattva's discipline, and the four additional paramita are merely supplementary in character. The six paramita are mentioned and discussed in many passages of Buddhist Sanskrit literature, while the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth paramita 2X0, mentioned only in a few passages and are not explained at great length. Thus, the Bodliisattva-biiiimi c\2iSs\i\QS each of the six chiQf paramita

"'" Kiwipedia Electronic Dictionary;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81 "" S. C. Das, A Tibetian- English Dictionary {C&XcuXd: 1902), 817b

198 under nine separate headings, but it dismisses the other four paramita in a few sentences in another chapter. The six chief paramita arc given as follows: 1. Dana Paimnita {giving, generosity, liberality perfection). 2. SfJa Paramita (virtuous conduct, morality, righteousness perfection). 3. KsantIParamita (forhQarancG, patience perfection). 4. Vnya Paramita {energy perfection). 5. Dhyana Paramita {rapt musing perfection). 6. Paramita {vfisdom perfection). The four supplementary paramitas are the following: 7. or Upaya-lcausalya Paramita (skilfulness in the choice or adaptation of means for conversion or succour perfection). 8. Pranidana Paramita {aspiration or resolution perfection). 9. Baia Paramita {stren^h, power perfection). 10. /iiana Paramita {knowledge perfection). The origin of the sixfold formula of the paramitas must be sought in the early Buddhist triad, sTia (virtuous conduct), samadiii (concentration) and prajna (wisdom), which are known as the three siaandhas ^^^ (groups constituting the factors of spiritual progress). It is probable that prajna was added to the original group of two, viz. slla and samadiii, which are mentioned together in several passages of Buddhist discourses. Sila is often said to lead to samadiii, and prajMis not spoken of in that context. In this connection, it may be pointed out that the division of the paramitas into two sections (with virya as the common or neutral middle term) is based on the doctrine of the twofold equipment (sambiiara) of a bodhisattva, which has already been referred to above. Sambiiara means

'"^ The Mahavyutpatti, The Great Volume of Precise Understanding or Essential Etymology, was compiled in Tibet during the late eighth to early ninth centuries CE, providing a dictionary composed of thousands of Sanskrit and Tibetan terms designed as means to provide standardized in Tibetan, and is included as part of the Tibetan . It is the earliest substantial bilingual dictionary known.

199 "what is carried together", hence "materials and requisite ingredients", "necessary conditions", "equipment". It consists of punya ( acquired by good deeds in social life) and prajna (knowledge acquired by concentration and wisdom). ^^^ Merit leads to happiness, sense pleasure, and welfare on earth and in the and knowledge confers final liberation. The accumulation of merit is, therefore, the aim of the layman, while the acquisition of knowledge is the goal of the monk. According to , the first two paramita {dana and sFla) lead to merit, the last paramita (prajna) constitutes knowledge, while the other three partake of the characteristics of both kinds of sambhara. Thus, one may even speak of three divisions of sambhara. But the application of the results of all the paramitas for the attainment of enlightenment really abolishes the distinction between mundane merit and supra-mundane knowledge, and all the paramitas may be regarded as conducive to the equipment of knowledge. In this way, Vasubandhu attempts to unify and sublimate social action and ascetic in the single ideal of the quest for bodhi. The six paramitas are, thus, related to several basic concepts of . The Buddhist Sanskrit writers attach the greatest importance to the paramitas, which distinguish the bodiiisattvas fi-om the inferior ariiats and pratyelca-buddhas. These latter are regarded as representatives of merely negative ethical ideals, while the paramitas are put forward as a scheme of positive moral development. It is not easy to understand the claims advanced by the Mahayanists in this respect. There is nothing new in the formula of the six paramitas: all the items are found in the old Buddhist scriptures. But the Mahayanists really contrast their paramitas with the thirty-seven bodlii- palcsya-diiarmas, which are supposed to constitute the highest ideal of the so

"" Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library), I OOb.2; 15Ib.5

200 called HTnayana. It is certainly surprising that the terms dana, sila and ksanti are absent from that curious and comprehensive catalogue of a monk's duties, which does not seem to include social sympathy and altruistic service. The early Mahayanists were perhaps proud of having combined the social virtues of a righteous layman- with the ascetic ideals of a meditative monk in this formula of the paramitas. They, thus, bridged the gap that yawned between popular and monastic Buddhism. They taught that a bodhisattva should not cease to practise charity and forbearance in social life, when he ascended to the higher stages of concentration and wisdom. The six paramitas were not new, but the new method of juxtaposition was devised by the Mahayanists. They preferred their new formula to the thirty-seven bodhi- paksya-, which were regarded as too monastic and anti-social in their scope and tendency. Charity and moral conduct, which could lead a Buddhist only to the gates of a of temporary pleasure in the old dispensation, were now considered to be as important as concentration and the higher wisdom. All are classed together as indispensable factors in the attainment of enlightenment. The paramitas are extolled to the skies in many passages of Buddhist literature. They are "the great oceans of all the bright virtues and auspicious principles", and confer prosperity and happiness on all creatures. They are a bodhisattva's best friends. They are "the teacher, the way and the light". They are "the refiige and the shelter, the support and the sanctuary". They are indeed "father and mother to alP'.'^^'^They are sublime, disinterested, important and imperishable.^^They lead to welfare, happy rebirths, serenity, unremitting spiritual cultivation, successfiil concentration and the highest knowledge. They are free from contamination by sensual pleasure,

^'' LankaraSutra.,\66.\S

201 partiality, love of reward and culpable self-complacency/'^ They are placed in this order, as they imply another and form a progressive scheme of action. The practice of each paramita is impossible without the cultivation of the preceding one. Each Perfection as three degrees: it may be ordinary, extraordinary, or superlatively extraordinary (i.e. good, better, and the best). It is ordinary, when it is practised by ordinary worldly persons for the sake of happiness in this life or the next; it is extraordinary, when it is cultivated by the HTnayanists for the sake of personal :, but it is of the highest degree, when it is acquired by the Mahayanist for the welfare and liberation of all beings. All the perfections can be cultivated only by means of attentive thought, resolute purpose, self-mastery, and wisdom in the choice of means.'*'^ But foolish and boastful persons may abuse all the paramitas to their own destruction, as they may be puffed up with pride and arrogance on account of their moral superiority. In that case, the perfections really become obstacles and hindrances. Such disastrous consequences may be avoided by applying and devoting them only to the attainment of enlightenment.

V.l. The first Five Perfections or Paramitas

V, 1.1. Dana Paramita or Giving Perfection

Dana or Giving is essential to Buddhism. Giving includes charity, or giving material help to people in want. It also includes giving spiritual guidance to those who seek it and loving kindness to all who need it. However, one's motivation for giving to others is, at least, as important as what is given.The word dana literally means 'giving', and this seems to be the best rendering in this context. The other equivalents, 'generosity', 'charity', 'munificence', do

^'*Ibid., 107.18 ^"ibid., 102.3

202 not suggest the vast variety of the things that a bodhisattva gives away, when he practises the perfection of giving. The practice of tyaga (renunciation)"*'^ is almost synonymous with dana, though the former term is not employed in the formula of the paramitas. The Mahayanists attach great importance to this perfection, and dana or tyaga is included in several numerical lists. It figures among the six or ten anusmrtis (subjects of recollection), the seven dhanas (treasures), the four sampads (blessings, accomplishments), and the three, four or five items of meritorious action (punya-kriydavastuni), the four means of conversion or sympathy (sangrahavastuni) and the four resolutions (adhisthanani). Such frequency of occurrence in these different formulae indicates its crucial importance for a bodhisattva's discipline. The Mahayanists speak much and speak often of what they love. The motives, methods and merits of giving are also discussed in detail in several striking passages of the Pali canon and then it becomes a main topic in . The Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajna Paramita Sutra givQS the definition of perfection of giving following: Sariputra: What is the worldly, and what is the supra-mundane perfection of giving? Subhuti: The worldly perfection of giving consists in this: The Bodhisattva gives liberally to all those who ask, all the while thinking in terms of real things. It occurs to him: "I give, that one receives, this is the gift. I renounce all my possessions without stint. I act as one who knows the Buddha. I practise the perfection of giving. I, having made this gift into the common property of all beings, dedicate it to supreme enlightenment and that without apprehending anything. By means of this gift, and its fixiit may all beings in this very life be at their ease, and may they one day enter Nirvanal" Tied by three ties he gives a gift.

'"* The word is tyaga in Sanskrit. It means to let go, to give up, to renounce, to detach, to set (yourself) free from the attachment to the object. The practice of tyaga is a powerftil one and the effect is profound. This practice is capable of igniting a radical transformation in you. And, it is with this practice that you can sustain and retain your state of bliss.

203 Which three? A perception of self, a perception of others, a perception of the gift. The supramundane perfection of giving, on the other hand, consists in the threefold purity. What is the threefold piu-ity? Here a Bodhisattva gives a gift, and he does not apprehend a self, nor a recipient, nor a gift; also no reward of his giving. He surrenders that gift to all beings, but he apprehends neither beings nor self. He dedicates that gift to supreme enlightenment, but he does not apprehend any enlightenment. This is called the supramundane perfection of giving.'*'^ Dana or giving is the first of six paramitas (perfections). It confers upon the giver, the double blessing of inhibiting immoral thoughts of selfishness, while developing pure thoughts of selflessness. A bodhisattva is not concerned as to whether the recipient is truly in need or not, for his one object in practicing giving, as he does, is to eliminate craving that lies dormant within himself The joy of service, its attendant happiness, and the alleviation of suffering are other blessings of generosity, In extending his love with supernormal generosity, he makes no distinction between one being and another, but he uses judicious discrimination in this generosity. If, for instance, a drunkard were to seek his help, and, if he were convinced that the drunkard would misuse his gift, the bodhisattva without hesitation would refuse it, for such misplaced generosity would not constitute diparamita. Talking about giving perfection, we dealt with from four different points of such as: (a) to whom a gift is given, (b) what is given, (c) how it is given, and (d) why or with what motive it is given. This classification will enable us to extract from the voluminous literature of the subject some of its more important conclusions.

(a) Though sentient beings in general are the objects of the bodhisattva's generosity, three classes of recipients are specially mentioned. These are (1)

419 Edward Conze ( ed)., Buddhist Texts Through The Ages { USA: Oneworld, 2000), 136-137

204 his own friends and relatives; (2) the poor, the sick, the afflicted, and the helpless; and (3) the members of the . (l)The Mahayanist would agree that 'charity begins at home'. But his emphasis would be on the verb. As the practice of metta- also indicates, Buddhism does not require the suppression of the natural affections so much as their universalization. That same feeling which, when directed to one person only, is a source of bondage and suffering, becomes as soon as it is radiated towards all, one of the conditions making for liberation and bliss. Though for a lay bodhisattva his own kith and kin are among the first objects of generosity, by no means are they the last. As he recollects that all living things have, in one birth or another, been his own mother and father, his own wives and children, his generosity becomes an ever-expanding circle that seeks to include all. A bodhisattva who is a monk feels for his lay supporters the same affection as for his mother and father; his pupils he loves as though they were his own children. He treats all sentient beings as his friends. (2)The poor, the sick, the afflicted, and the helpless have been recipients of charity in most civilized communities and under all higher religions, so that abstracted from the important question of motive there is little that is distinctively Buddhist to distinguish this aspect of giving. Perhaps, its most remarkable feature is that, in sharp contrast to the Semitic faiths. Buddhism expresses by such dana the service not only of human beings alone but also of animals. (3) The term by which the texts denote the third class of recipients of dana is sramana-brahmana. The whole of the Brahmana-vagga, the concluding chapter of the makes clear that bramana is not meant one who is merely a member of the Brahmin caste. Sramana and brahmana are in fact essentially synonymous terms. The former merely superimposes upon the spiritual ideal the aspect of formal monasticism. The

205 Buddhist is enjoined to support all who are leading a life which, by Buddhist standards, is one of genuine holiness. In the present context, therefore, sramana-brahmana means primarily the members of the sangha. The lay bodhisattva will be an ideal dayaka, faithfully serving and supporting the monks and nuns, and helping them not only with material requisites but also, if he is in a position to do so, with spiritual advice. (b) What can be given away is potentially co-extensive with what can be possessed. The objects which the bodhisattva gives away are multitudinous. They may be classified under the following headings: (1) material things; (2) fearlessness; (3) education; (4) life and limbs; (5) merits; and (6) the . (1) Material things: giving of material things occupy the lowest place in the hierarchy of gifts. It means performing acts of generosity to all living beings; feeding the hungry; giving drink to the thirsty; clothing those who are cold; refi-eshing those overcome by the heat; being ready to help the sick; whether it be carriages, horses, boats, equipment, or any kind of precious material or famous jewel, or beloved or son or kingdom or whatever it may be that you are asked to give, it means giving at once. A bodhisattva should exercise his discretion in the choice of gifts. He should not give anything which may be used to inflict injury on other living beings. He should also refrain from supplying others with the means of gratifying their sensual appetites and passions (rati-knda-vastti). He should not give away poisons, weapons, intoxicating liquor, and nets for the capture of animals. He should not bestow on others a piece of land, on which the animals may be hunted or killed. He should not give anybody the instruments for suicide or self-torture. He should not offer unsuitable gifts. Thus, for example, he should not give alcoholic beverages to teetotalers or unwholesome food to the sick. The wealth that he gives in charity must be acquired righteously and peacefully. If he has little, he gives what he has. If

206 he possesses something, which is very rare and precious, or which has been obtained with great difficulty, he does not refuse to part with it. (2)The giving of fearlessness (abhaya) is a uniquely Buddhist conception. More than any other religion. Buddhism realizes the havoc which may be wrought in the mind by fear, worry, and anxiety, and the consequent importance of developing fearlessness as an integral part of the spiritual life. In the scriptures, the Buddha himself is invariably depicted as devoid of even the faintest trace of fear: his confidence is unshakeable. This mental quality is possessed in a pre-eminent degree by the bodhisattva, who develops it not merely for his own benefit but in order to impart it to other beings. Like happiness, fearlessness in the highest sense of the term is unattainable by material means; fear being essentially fear for oneself can be overcome only with the elimination of the ego-sense. Absolute fearlessness is synonymous with enlightenment and the giving of fearlessness is equivalent, ultimately, to the conferring of enlightenment. In the present context, however, the giving of fearlessness means that the bodhisattva attempts to relieve people of anxiety with regard to person, property, and livelihood either by providing material safeguard or psychotherapeutic treatment, or simply by means of his own radiant presence and confidence-inspiring behaviour. Among the immense Buddhist repertoire of spiritual exercises are many which especially aim at the conquest of fear. Midnight visits to graveyards and other fearsome places, concentration on the various stages of decomposition of a corpse, meditation on , are all practices in which fear, stimulated to the point at which it invades the conscious mind, can be faced and overcome. The enemy must be dragged out into the open before it can be slain. Though the bodhisattva's efforts are for the moment directed mainly to the creation of a feeling of confidence and security in the minds of men and animals he does not forget that the deathblow of fear can be struck only with the Excalibur of

207 non-ego. (3)The giving of education (siksa) is included in dana principally for two reasons. Firstly, education enables an individual to exercise his rights and perform his duties as a citizen and a member of society; secondly, only when he has reached a certain level of general culture is it possible for a man to understand the doctrines which constitute the theoretical basis for the actual practice of the teaching. Theories of education of course vary from age to age. The traditional Buddhist disciplines comprise philosophy, logic, grammar, and medicine, together with the various arts, crafts, and sciences. But there is nothing in the Buddhist conception of education that obliges us to debar from the curriculum of , say at monastic schools and colleges, the main elements of modem knowledge. Care should only be taken to preserve intact its traditional hierarchical structure, wherein the rank assigned to each branch of knowledge is directly related to the part it plays in the attainment of wisdom. The acquisition of knowledge by methods which like vivisection (to take an extreme case) violate a principle of ethics, on whatsoever plea, can find no place in a truly Buddhist scheme of education. Moreover, no Buddhist should help in the advancement of scientific researches the results of which are likely to be utilized for the destruction of life. The bodhisattva gives only that education which is not incompatible with effective taking of the threefold refiige and following the path. (4)The giving away of his life and limbs by the bodhisattva is the theme of numerous jatakas, many of which have become a permanent part of the literature and folklore of Buddhist lands. The king of the Sivis, who gave away his eyes, JTmutavahana, who allowed himself to be sacrificed to the garuda in the place of a naga boy, and of course the anonymous hero who offered his body to feed the starving tigress live in the popular Buddhist imagination far more vividly than any historical figures.

208 It should not be thought, however, that the bodhisattva is required merely to sacrifice his life at the first opportunity. According to the consensus of responsible Mahayana opinion, the body of the bodhisattva does not belong to himself but to all beings; it is a sacred trust; consequently he has the right to sacrifice it only when the person for whom the sacrifice is made is able to render to sentient beings a service greater than his own. As was pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, the bodhisattva ideal is to be interpreted not literally but symbolically. Instead of trying to draw logical conclusions from the jatakas we should imbibe their spirit. The story of the starving tigress does not mean that the bodhisattva should make it an invariable rule to sacrifice his own life in order to preserve the lives of animals. It means that he should develop compassion to such a pitch that he has no thought for himself. Whether he actually sacrifices his life for others in a given situation is for wisdom to determine. The fact that the giving of life and limbs makes its appearance here as one of the recognized forms of dana shows that the Mahayana does not exclude the possibility of the bodhisattva being called upon to sacrifice himself in a quite literal sense, and therefore requires him to be fiilly prepared even for this eventuality. (5)The practice of making a gift of one's merits is technically known as their 'transference' (parinamana). Between the transference of merits included in the list of preliminary devotional practices and the transference of merits which forms part of the perfection of giving there is in fact only one difference, though this is of ftmdamental importance. Whereas formerly the transference was effected in dissociation from prajna, so that the aspirant to bodhisattvahood thought of himself as in reality giving something away and of others as in reality receiving it, now the same gift is made in association with prajna, and the bodhisattva, as the aspirant has become, makes it with a mind absolutely free from all thought of self and others. Like the previous

209 forms of giving, the transference of merits now flows spontaneously from the depths of the bodhisattva^ s realization of the truth of non-duality. (6)Their doctrinal differences notwithstanding, the are unanimous that dharma-dana, the gift of the doctrine, is the highest form of giving. It is this fact which makes Buddhism a missionary religion in the true sense of the term. Being as it were in possession of the means to enlightenment, the bodhisattva out of compassion desires to share it with all sentient beings. Hence in the same way that wisdom gives birth to compassion (for though the two are metaphysically identical one is logically prior to the other), compassion in its turn is productive of various methods, technically known as upaya or devices, by means of which the bodhisattva enables beings to participate in his own transcendental experience. One of the most important of these devices is the communication at the intellectual level, through the medium of the spoken or the written word, of those conceptual formulations which are the theoretical basis for the practice of the doctrine. It is this communication which is known as dharma-dana. Perhaps the only aspect of dharma-dana which ned special attention is its dual function as both promulgation of truth and refutation of error. Mafiijusri, the bodhisattva who as the embodiment of wisdom, presides over the propagation of the dharma, and is iconographically represented not only as bearing in his left hand a lotus blossom upon whose open petals rests a book, the scriptures of perfect wisdom, but also as wielding with his right hand a flaming sword. While the first symbolizes the establishment of truth, the second symbolizes the destruction of untruth, that is to say, of those doctrines which do not constitute a basis for the attainment of the transcendental path. The two functions are inseparable. The bodhisattva can no more preach the dharma without refuting such wrong views as belief in a creator God and an unchanging individual self than it is possible for the sun

210 to rise without dispelling the darkness. If the bodhisattva happens to be a bhiksu, the performance of this dual function will be, from the social point of view, his principal duty; Even if he is a layman he will by no means neglect it. In neither case will there be any compromise with false teachings. (c) How or in what manner the bodhisattva give? He should always be very courteous to the supplicants, and receive them with every mark of respect and deference (satkrtya). He should also be happy and joyful, when he gives away anything. This condition is important and essential. The donor should be even happier than the recipient of the gift. A bodhisattva should not repent of his generosity after bestowing gifts on others. He should not talk of his charitable deeds. He should give quickly and with a humble heart. He should make no distinction between friends and enemies, but should give to all alike. He should give to the deserving and the undeserving, the wicked and the righteous, everywhere and at all times. But he should not lose the sense of measure and proportion in his charity. The Ratna Guna Samcay GathaPrajna Paramita describes the maner of perfect giving that the bodhisattva should practice: Na ca vastunissraya karoti da ditva danam Vipaku naiva pratikanksati so kada cit Evam tyajantu bhavate vidu sarvatyagi Alpam tyajitva bhavate bahu aprameyanf^'^ When he [bodhisattva] has given a gift, he does not make it into a basis of support And he does never expect any reward from it. Having thus renounced, he becomes a wise renouncer of all The little he has renounced becomes much and immeasurable.''^' As emphasized above, though the bodhisattva is prepared to sacrifice

''^° Akira Yuyama (ed.), Prajria Paramita Ratna Gum Samcay { London: Cambrige University Press, 1976), 127. ^^''^'' Edward ConzCon e (trans.). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary^ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994), 70

211 even his own life for the sake of sentient beings, he will actually make such a sacrifice only if it is really needed. Moreover, in the giving of material things, he exercises discretion. He does not, for example, supply anybody with the means of indulging in lust and cruelty, or in fact with anything which might be used in contravention of the precepts. Again, whatever the bodhisattva gives away has been acquired by honest means, and is both legally and morally his; He is not a person who plunders the rich to provide for the poor. Much less still is he one of those financial wizards who think that dana can be given by creating mammoth charitable trusts out of the ill-gotten gains of a career of legalized robbery and exploitation. (d) Why or with what motive the bodhisattva practises the perfection of giving has already been partly disclosed. He practises it not for the sake of acquiring merits, or for the sake of gaining individual emancipation, but simply and solely for the sake of bringing enlightenment to all sentient beings. If his practice is dissociated fi"om prajna, it is said to be mundane, if associated with prajna, it is transcendental. It is in the practice of the transcendental perfection of giving that dana-paramita essentially consists. The difference between transcendental and mundane giving has been made clear in the following passage from one of the scriptures of Perfect Wisdom: Yas CO upayakusalo vidu bodhisattvo Tesam sa punyukriyavastvanumodayitva Sattvartiia agravarabodhayi namayeya Abhibhoti sarvajagatrparinSmayanto Kacasya va manina rasi siya mahanto Vaiduryaratna abhibhoti ta sarva elco Em eva sarvajagatTprthu danaslcandho Abhibhoti sarvam anumodaicu bodhisattva''^^

*^^ Akira Yuyama (ed.), Prajna Paramita Ratna Guna Samcay Gatha (London: Cambrige University Press, 1976), 128.

212 And if a bodhisattva, wise and skilled in means, Would rejoice at the foundation of their meritorious deed, And would, for the weal of beings, turn it over into the best and most excellent enlightermient, By having turned over he surpasses the [merit of the] entire world. If there were a large heap of spurious glass jewels, One single gem of lapis lazuli surpasses it all: Just so the bodhisattva, who rejoices, siirpasses The [merit from the] whole vast heap of gifts of the entire world.'*^^ V, 1.2 Sila Paramita or Morality Perfection STla or morality is the second of the six perfections. It of course, means the observance of the rules of conduct, of which there are five for the laity and two hundred fifty or three hundred forty eight (according to the Mahayana) for Buddhist monks and nuns respectively.The word is explained as a derivative of the root sTla, meaning "to exercise, to practice" .'*^'* STla as a paramita has been defined in three ways. It has been identified with virtue in general, and many admirable qualities have been enumerated as its characteristics. It has also been interpreted in relation to the ideals of purification and restraint, as they are realized with the body, the speech and the mind (deed, word and thought). It is usually understood as referring to the five moral precepts and the ten good and meritorious "ways of action", which constitute the Buddhist layman's definite code of practical ethics.The definition of perfect morality is given by the Buddha in the Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajna Paramita SUtra: "Subhuti: What is a boddhisattva's perfection of morality?

""^^ Edward Conze (trans.). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary{ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994), 70 "^^ M.R. Kale, A Higher Sanskrit Grammar {DQM: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2007), 132

213 The Lord: He himself lives under the obligation of the ten ways of wholesome acting, and also others he instgates thereto."'*^^ Srla is a very important category in . It occurs in several numerical formulae. It figures among the six recollections {anusmrtis), the four blessings, accomplishments {sampads), the seven treasures {dhanas), and the three, four or five items of meritorious action (pimya- kriya- vastuni). It is also one of the three original (group of factors in spiritual progress), the other two being concentration and wisdom, as has already been indicated above. The Buddhist writers have pointed out the fundamental importance of sTla in eloquent words. STla is compared to a flawless gem, crystal or lapis lazuli.^^^ It is more precious than silver and gold. A Buddhist without sila is an impostor, and he can be neither a layman nor a monk. All auspicious actions depend on sTla. A virtuous man is infinitely superior to a great conqueror. Sila adorns a person like a beautiful silk garment. Its fragrance spreads far and wide. {2i)STla, as a general term for many virtues, embodies the Buddhist's ideal of moral perfection. It is attained by completely extinguishing the fire of the passions. It is especially related to the qualities, which are the opposites of the three basic faults, the "roots of evil or demerit" (akusala-mulani). These three sources of "all our woe" are i%a (passion, lust, and sense-desire), dvesa (hatred, ill-will) and (delusion, foUy).'*^^ These three dire causes of all evil are like a devastating fire. A bodhisattva frees himself from them in the third or fifth bhumi stage .'*^^The

'*" Edward Conze, LB Homer, David Snellgrove & Arthur Waley ( trans & ed.), Buddhist Texts Through TheAges{ USA: Oneworld, 2000), 135 "^^ H. Kern & Bunyiu Nanjia (ed.), Saddharma Pundarika (Tokyo: Meicho- Fukyu-Kai, 1977), 24.11 "^^ J.Rahder (ed.), Dasa Sutra ( Paris, 1926), 57.4 ^^* H. Kern & Bunyiu Nanjia (ed.), Saddharma Pundarika {lo^o: Meicho- Fukyu-Kai, 1977), 68.1 "^^ P. Ghosa (ed), Sata-Sahasnka-PraJiia-parawita(C&\cutta, 1902-13) I 456

214 Buddhists seem to teach that all sins and vices are due to and dvesa, which are mentioned together in several passages. All errors and heretical views spring from moha. Riga and dvesa are the enemies of virtue, while moha cuts at the root of wisdom. The suppression or control of raga and dvesa may thus be regarded as the general principle for the cultivation of sTla as a paramita. STla is thus rooted in the absence of sensuality and hatred, but its ramifications are many. The Buddhist philosophers' catalogue of virtues is long and varied.The virtues of the beings,who inhabit {ihQ Region of Bliss), are enumerated in the Sukhavati vyuha Sutra. They are distinguished for unselfishness, purity, love of equality and peace, fortitude, equanimity, friendliness, tenderness of disposition, honesty, love, joy fulness, activity, forbearance, patience, composure, serenity, self-control, calmness, and complete freedom from avarice, arrogance and envy.'*^^ (b)These rambling and over-lapping lists of virtues were reduced to some ^ kind of order in the threefold classification, which was based on the ideal of restraint and self-control (samvaraj as applied to body, speech and mind. This triad of deed, word and thought may have been borrowed from Zoroastrianism, but it is probably of indigenous origin, as it is also found in Jaina literature. STla is often defined as the control and restraint of kaya (body), vaca (speech) and (mind). The author of the Samadhiraja-sutra attaches particular importance to this aspect of sTla. Samvara is thus regarded as the keynote of sTIa by several Buddhist philosophers. A bodhisattva, who practices samvara, examines himself and discovers his own faults and shortcomings. He does not care for worldly honour or gain of any kind. He scorns even the power and privileges of universal sovereignty. He acquires perfect spiritual vigilance (apramah) and

"^^ F. Max Muller & B. Nanjio (ed.), SukhavatTvyuha (Oxford, 1883), 58,61

215 exhibits it in five ways. He combats and counteracts the sins and vices (apatti) of the past, the present and the future; and he is inspired by the ardent zeal to act in such a way that no new sins may arise. Finally, all his actions are free from sin. Such is his watchfulness or vigilance against himself. He is also firm and serene in deportment, is self-confident and pure. The body, speech and mind must be controlled and disciplined; they must also be purified. This idea of purification is applied to the bodhisattva's personality. According to the accepted Buddhist doctrine, the body can be controlled and purified by practising abstention from the three sins of killing a living being, thefl and unchastity; speech can be controlled and purified by abstaining from falsehood (untruthfulness), slander, harsh or impolite speech and fnvolous, senseless talk; and the mind can be purified by the avoidance of covetousness, malevolence and wrong views. (c) Sila is usually under mud as referring to the five moral precepts and the ten good and meritorious "ways of action".These ten precepts owe their origin to the fusion of four old Indian ethical rules with the three "roots of evil" (raga, dvesa, moha). The ancient Hindu sages inculcated four virtues and discouraged four vices by teaching the people to abstain from killing, falsehood, theft and unchastity. These four basic articles of social ethics are found in several ancient Hindu scriptures and also in the -sutras. They represent the minimum of morality, without which organised society carmot exist. The Buddhists and the Jainas borrowed them from Hinduism. These four precepts are mentioned in several passages of the Pali canon."^^' The rules with regard to speech were increased and amplified by the Buddhists, and three other faults were added to "falsehood". It is a peculiar characteristic of the Indian ethical systems that the duty of pleasant speech is especially emphasised. The number of the precepts was thus raised to seven,

"^^ D.,III 133; 182

216 and this group of seven is also found in the Pali canon."*^^ Only these seven rules are discussed in the opening sections of the Brahma-jala-sutta and some other passages. It may be inferred that the formula included only these seven precepts at a certain stage of its development. Finally, the three "roots of evil" were added in order to reach the round number ten. The eighth sin to be avoided is called abhidhya, which is almost a synonym of raga. The ninth item is vyapada, which is the same thing as dvesa; and the tenth is mithya- drsti, which is equivalent to moha. It was not a happy idea to combine these general terms with the seven definite rules for practical action. The two groups of precepts do not mix well, like oil and water. The spirit of the first set of seven is different from that of the second set of three. The former is concrete and relates to action; the latter is abstract and deals with general motives and ideas. The ten "ways of action" are given in both positive and negative forms. The sins and errors are mentioned as ten "evil or demeritorious Ways of Action". When the word virati or viramana (abstention) added to them, the different items are called "good or meritorious ways of action".The ten "ways of action" may now be considered in detail. 1. Abstention fi^om killing living beings (pran-atipatad viratih). This precept corresponds to the ahj'insa of the Hindu scriptures. A bodhisattva does not use weapons of any kind. He does not hate any being, and cannot kill a living creature even in thought.'*^^ He understands that all things originate in causes, and cultivates pity and compassion. He knows that he has fi"ee will in action, and he believes in the doctrine of . Life is dear to all creatures, and a bodhisattva does not do unto others what he wishes that others should not do

"^^ D., I 3; A., II 83; I 273 ^" J.Rahder (ed.), Dasa Bhumika Sutra ( Paris, 1926), 23.6

217 unto him.'^^'^ (not killing) is indeed the highest virtue. From all these motives and considerations, a bodhisattva abstains from taking the life of any living being. He also condemns and shuns the barbarous custom of war among the states and kings of the world. War has its origin in hatred, avarice, cruelty and selfishness, and the glory of victorious kings is stained with blood. It is better for a king to abdicate than to wage war. A virtuous king tries his best to avoid war, as he knows that the so-called duty (dharma) of the warrior caste is based on cruelty and unrighteousness. The Mahayanists also extended the scope of this precept to the relations between human beings and animals, as an animal is also a pranin (living being). The idea of humaneness to animals is found in the Pali canon. This tendency towards the humane treatment of animals is also fostered by the doctrine that sinful men and women may be reborn as animals. Some animals are said to possess a few human attributes. They can speak as a result of "merit", and some snakes and parrots can even hear and understand sermons. was bom as a hare, a swan, a fish, a quail, an ape, a woodpecker and an elephant in his previous existences.'^^^ The chief Mahayanist writers also teach that it is a sin to eat meat. They abrogate the old rule that a monk may eat meat, if it is not especially cooked for him. The Lankavatara-sutra devotes a long chapter to this subject, and several arguments are adduced in favour of vegetarianism.'*^^ It is possible that an animal may really be one's relative, who is reborn in this state of woe; one's father, mother, brother, sister, son or daughter may reappear on earth in the form of a brute. There is no reason why the meat of some species should be eaten while other species are spared, hence meat of all kinds should be regarded as inedible. Meat is impure and repulsive, as it is always blended

*^^ " Yathaham-arthTjrvitena na me kasajfv/tad vyaparopayef Bodhisattva Bhumi, fol. 75a 1.1 ^^' H Kern (ed.), JatakaMalai Boston, 1891) ^^^Laiikavatara-sutra, 244-245,248,257,259

218 with blood and the secretions of the body. It is not right to spread terror and agony among the animals which flee from men as from a ruthless demon. The practice of flesh-eating makes men cruel and sensual. Men are not carnivorous by nature, like tigers or wolves. Such diet paves the way for rebirth in a dreadful world. For these reasons, the author of the Lankavatara- sutra teaches that vegetarianism is the only proper course for a bodhisattva. Apart from strict vegetarianism, extreme moderation in eating and drinking is also enjoined on a bodhisattva, who practises the samvara of the body. He should eat neither too much nor too little. He should eat only to keep the body healthy and active; as ointment is applied to a wound and as a ship is rigged and repaired. Intemperance in eating and drinking causes disease, torpor and weakness. 2. Abstention from theft (literally, "from taking what is not given" {adatt- adanad viratih). A bodhisattrva is contented with his possessions and does not covet those of other people. He respects the rights of property in things that belong to others. He does not steal even a leaf or a blade of grass."*^^ 3. Abstention from unchastity (literally, false conduct with regard to sensual pleasures,'''-mithy-acarah). A bodhisattva is content with his own wife and does not cast longing eyes on the wives of other men. He does not harbour even a lustful thought with regard to other married women. Adultery is like poison that mars and destroys human life, even if it is committed in secret. ^^^ 4. Abstention from telling lies (mrsa-vadad viratih, or, anrta-vacanad viratih). A bodhisattva speaks the truth and nothing but the truth, and he does so at the proper time. His actions are in harmony with his words.'*^^ He does not tell a lie even in a dream. Truthfiilness is the highest spiritual austerity.

"" J.Rahder (ed.), Dasa Bhumika Sutra ( Paris, 1926), 23. ««Ibid "^^ J.Rahder (ed.), Dasa Bhumika Sutra ( Paris, 1926), 23; Asia., 448

219 5. Abstention from slander (paisunyad viratih, or pisimavacanad viratih). A bodhisattva does not sow strife and discord in society by uttering slanderous libels. He does not act as a tale-bearer. He does not repeat what he has heard. He does not separate good friends or take delight in causing disunion among people by his words.'*'*^ 6. Abstention from harsh speech (parusyad viratih, or parusavacanad viratih). A bodhisattva does not indulge in harsh, bitter, offensive, vulgar and angry speech, which cuts others to the quick and wounds and lacerates their feelings. His speech is always sweet, polite, gentle, pleasant, agreeable, beneficial and dignified. It gives joy both to him and to others, as it is sweet both to the ear and the heart. But he may speak harshly in order to restrain foolish persons from evil actions.'*'*' 7. Abstention from frivolous and senseless talk (sambhinnapralapad viratih). A bodhisattva speaks at the proper time, and his utterances are always cogent, relevant and instructive. He speaks of righteousness and religion. He avoids all conversation about common stories and legends. He is not interested in aimless gossip about "kings, robbers, soldiers, villages, towns, countries, kingdoms, capital cities, ministers, officials, eunuchs, carriages, gardens, palaces, monasteries, tanks, ponds, lakes, mountains, demons, ogres, hobgoblins, food, drink, clothes, ornaments, music, dance, love," etc.'*'*^The Mahayanists are very severe on what is called "light talk". Pleasant and useful speech is also regarded as one of a bodhisattva's four items of sympathy or conversion. A bodhisattva is not talkative or loquacious; he is inclined to be reticent and speaks little. "Sweet speech" is the means of teaching the doctrine (desana). It removes the doubts of the inquirer and sets forth the proper arguments.

"'"' J.Rahder (ed.), Dasa Bhumika Sutra ( Paris, 1926), 24. •*•" J.Rahder (ed.), Dasa Bhumika 5u^/a( Paris, 1926), 24; JatakaMala, 96.13 ''' Asta., 344

220 As a general rule, a bodhisattva's speech is intended to encourage, delight or instruct others. He encourages others by being the first to speak to them with a smiling and joyous countenance. He inquires about their welfare and their health, and addresses words of hearty welcome to them.'*'* He also delights other people by conforming to the ways of the world like a fellow- citizen, and wishes them abundant increase of sons, daughters, wives and relatives, or of wealth and worldly goods. He expresses the hope that they will grow in faith, virtue, knowledge, charity and wisdom. He instructs them in religion for their good and weal, and is always ready to benefit them by his speech which is devoted to spiritual teaching. It is a very difficult task indeed to speak sweetly to one's enemies and adversaries, or to preach with great patience to very stupid and dull persons, or to hold encouraging and uplifting conversation with false, dishonest and cunning people. But a bodhisattva cultivates sweet speech even in his intercourse with such individuals. Further, he exhorts the people to abandon the five mvaranas (hindrances), to aim at happy rebirths, and to ponder on the . He rebukes and admonishes lax monks and easy-going householders, removes their doubts and helps them to enter the path of earnestness. He preaches the ten ethical precepts, which free a person from sin and show him the way leading out of all sorrow. As a general rule, a bodhisattva permits others to do what is permissible according to the Scriptures and prohibits them from doing such things as are forbidden. 8. Abstention from covetousness (abhidhyaya viratih). 9. Abstention from malevolence (malice, ill-will: Vyapadad viratih). The Pali word byapada is given as a synonym of dosa (hatred) in the Dhamma-sangani (Sections 419, 1137). A bodhisattva's heart is free from malice. He is

^^^ Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library),86a.3-4

221 friendly, merciful, benevolent, compassionate and kind-hearted towards all living beings. He abandons all anger, hatred, and enmity. He cultivates thoughts of love and pity towards all creatures, and desires for their welfare and happiness. 10. Abstention from wrong views (heretical opinions: mithya-drster viratiH). A bodhisattva walks in the path of righteousnes and has firm faith in the Buddha, the Doctrine and the Confraternity. He is straightforward, honest and sincere. He does not go for evil and improper pursuits and actions. As regards the motives and sanctions for right action, Buddhist philosophers speak of the ordinary worldly in allurements, as the case of charity (dana) leads to fame, popularity, beauty, happiness, and rebirth in wealthy family on earth or as a in a heaven enables a person to meet death calmly and peacefully. Samadhiraja-sutra mentions ten advantages of sila. A bodhisattva, whose conduct is pure, attains complete knowledge, follows the example of the Buddhas does not break his promises, remains firm in the ways of behaviour, flees the world, lives free from hindrance caused by prepossessions or adverse conditions, acquires Concentration, and is not afficted with poverty. Prajha Paramita Ratna Guna Samcaya Gatha describes the nature that a bodhisattva should practice perfect morality:'*'^'*

When he gioards morality, he turns [the resulting merit] over to the foremost enlightenment, But he does not feel conceited about that, nor does he exalt himself When he has got rid of the notion of I and the notion of other beings, Established in the perfection of morality is that Bodhisattva called. If a Bodhisattva, coursing in the path of the Jinas,

rak^antu sTla parinamayi agrabodhiih; na ca tena manyati na atmana karsayethaj ahusamjnata ca parivarjita sattvasarhjna; sthitu sTlaparamiti vucyati bodhisattva

yasyo na asti ahasaihjffa na sattvasamjna; saihjnaviragu kutu tasya asariivaro'stil yasyo na samvari asarhvari manyanasti; ayu sTlasarhvani prakasitu nayakena / (Prajna Paramita Ratna Guna Samcaya Gatha, 124-125)

111 Makes [a difference between] these beings as observers of morality and those as of bad morality, Intent on the perception of multiplicity he is perfectly immoral. He is faulty in his morality, not perfectly pure in it. He who has no notion of I and no notion of a being, He has performed the withdrawal from perception, [and] he has no [need for] restraint. One who minds neither about restraint nor about non-restraint. He has been proclaimed by the Leader as restrained by morality.'*'*^

V.1.3 K^aDtiParamita or Patient Perfection Ksantiparamita or the perfection of patience is a composite virtue. It is blended not only in patience and forbearance, the literal meanings of the term, but also love, humility, endurance, and an absence of anger and of desire for retaliation and revenge. Around this sublime conception has been woven some of the most beautiful stories and teachings in Buddhist literature, and it is to these stories and teachings, rather than to any abstract doctrinal analysis, that we must turn for an understanding of the spirit by which the practice of the perfection of patience should be animated. A. B. Keith'*'*^, following D. T. Suzuki, interprets Ksanti paramita diS "not feeling dejected in the face of evils",'^'^^ however, this explanation is not quite adequate. Ksanti \s always described as the opposite of anger {krodha), hatred {dvesa), repugnance {pratigha) and malice (vyapadi)!"^^ It is defined as freedom from anger and excitement (akopana, aksobhanata) and as the habit of enduring and pardoning injuries and insults.The definition of ksanti paramita is

'*'*' Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summaryi Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),68-69 ""* A.B. Keith, Buddhist Philosophy in and Ceylon C^Ji^K: Oxford, 1923), 260 "''^ D.T. Suzuki, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharial Publishers, 2007), 69. ""* P. Ghosa(ed.) Sata-sahasrikaPrajna-paramita{ Calcutta:!902-13),95,276

223 presented through the conversation between the Buddha and Subhuti as following:'*'*^ The Lord: A Tathagata's perfection of patience is really no perfection. Because, Subhuti, when the king of Kalinga cut my flesh from every limb, at that time I had no notion of a self, or of a being, or of a soul, or of a person, nor had I any notion or non-notion. And why? If, Subhuti, at that time I had had a notion of self, I would also have had a notion of ill-will at that time. If I had had a notion of a being, of a soul, of a person, then I also would have had a notion of ill-will at that time. And why? By my superknowledge I know the past five hundred births, and how I have been the Rishi, "Preacher of Patience". Then also I have had no notion of a self, or a being, or a soul, ora person. Therefore then, Subhuti, a bodhisattva, a great being should, after he has got rid of all notions, raise his thought to the supreme enlightenment. Unsupported by form a thought should be produced, unsupported by sounds, smells, tastes, touchables, or mind-objects a thought should be produced, unsupported by dharma a thought should be produced, unsupported by no-dharma a thought should be produced, unsupported by anything a thought should be produced. And why? What is supported has no support."*^" The Prajhaparamita- Ratnagunasamcayagatha defines the perfection of patience as '"''ksantisihitasya parisudhyati atmahhavo; dvatrimsalaksanaprabhava anantaparo; sattvana sunyavaradharma nisamayati; priyu bhoti sarvajagati ksamamanu vijnd'''^^^-VS\Q personahty of one who is established in patience is completely purified, exalted by the thirty-two marks, [it becomes] boundless. He preaches the best empty dharma to beings. Dear to the entire world do the patient and discerning become.'*^^These tremendous sentences are of the utmost importance. In them, the worldling's and the Hlnayanist's conception of patience are clearly distinguished from

'*'" Vajraccbedika, 14e '*'" Edward Conze, I.I.BB Homer, David Snellgrove & Arthur Waley (trans & ed.), Buddhist Texts Throughi The Ages { USA: Oneworld, 2000), 139 '*'""' Akira Yuyama (ed.)(ed.),Prajna, Paramita Ratna Guna Samcaya Gatha (London: Cambridge Universitiv y Press, 1976), 121 ''""^^" Edwar Edward dConz Conze (trans.)e (trans.). The, Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary{ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),67

224 each other, and both from that of the Mahayanists. The worldUng's conception is stoical. He thinks that forms, sounds, smells, etc., are realities and constitutive of realities, whether beings or things. With the thought that his sufferings are inflicted by real beings and things he endures them as best he can and suppresses his anger. Such a practice of ksanti is said to be supported by form (rupa) and the rest of the six ayatanas. ^^^ The Hinayanist, analysing beings and things into their constituent dharmas or psychosomatic phenomena, practises ksanti by realizing the foolishness of becoming angry with collocations of material and mental states. There is no doubt that by this method the grosser forms of anger and impatience can not only be controlled but even permanently eradicated. Unfortunately, the Hinayanists developed the habit of thinking of the dharmas themselves as realities, so that it became impossible for them to eliminate the subtler forms of anger. Hence their practice oi ksanti is said to be supported by diiarma. The bodliisattva 's practice is supported not even by no-dhaima. The Maliayana puts forward the doctrine of sarvadliamianairatmya, according to which not only the so-called person but also his constituent diiarmas were sunya. Had the Mahayanists thought of sunya itself as possessing some kind of self-existence, and of the bodliisattva as therefore practicing the perfection of patience with no-dlianna as his support, they would only have been repeating the mistake of the Hinayanists at a higher and subtler level. Consequently, the Lord emphasizes that in his practice of patience, the bodliisattva should be unsupported by no-dliaima. Further explanation can be

•*" ayatana (field or base), in Buddhist philosophy, means the field of cognition. Human physical existence consists of 12 ayatanas: Xhe, 6 cognitive faculties (5 sense organs and the mind) and the 6 corresponding categories of objects. This classification of the elements of the world is based on human experience and is used by Buddhist philosophers to explain how everything in the temporal world is transient and nonsubstantial.

225 given only by having recourse to paradox. If what is supported has no support, only that which has no support is truly supported. For this reason, the transcendental practice of patience is, in the last resort, what is termed anutpattika-dharma-ksanti, or acquiescence in the truth that all phenomena are in reality illusory, non-existent, unproduced, and undifferentiated. According to the Dasabhumika, the bodhisattva practices the perfection of patience in this exalted sense only from the eighth stage of his career. As the normal level, three aspects of ksanti paramita which a bodhisttva should practice are forbearce, endurance and acceptance of the truth.'*^'* Firstly, a bodhisattva knows that the Buddhas are "the ocean of forbearance".'*^^ Gentle forbearance is their spiritual garment. He cultivates this virtue in its full perfection. He forgives others for all kinds of injury, insult, contumely, abuse and censure, "When he hears someone else speaking to him harshly and offensively, the wise bodhisattva remains quite at ease and contented. '^^^He thinks: 'Who speaks? Who hears? How, to whom, by whom?' The discerning is then devoted to the foremost perfection of patience""*". He forgives them everywhere, in secret and in public. He forgives them at all times, in the forenoon, at noon and in the afternoon, by day and by night. He forgives them for what has been done in the past, for what is being done at present and for what will be done in the future. He forgives them in sickness an in health. He forgives them with his body, as he never thinks of striking them with his hands or a stick or a stone; forgives them with his

"'" Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2004), 209 ''" S.C.Das & H.M Vidyabhusana (ed.) Ksemendra- Bodhisattva- - kalpalata (Calcuta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1888), ii, 915.7 "'*" parusarh srunitva vacanaih parato duruktarh; paritosayati susukhaih vidu bodhisattvo; ko bhasate ka srnute kutu kasya kena ;soyukta ksantivaraparamitaya vijUd' (Akira Yuyama (Qd.),Prajna Paramita Ratna Guna Samcaya Gatha,I2I) "" Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary{ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),67

226 speech, as he never utters harsh words; and he forgives them with his mind, as he harbours no anger or evil thoughts against them. Even if his body is destroyed and cut up into a hundred pieces with swords and spears, he does not conceive an angry thought against his cruel persecutors. One very good example for forbearance of ksantiparamita is the story of Puma - a Buddhist disciple.'*^^The story of his ksanti begins with his ordination as a monk. He resolved to go as a missionary to a country which was inhabited by wild barbarous tribes. He asked permission of the Buddha, who tried to dissuade him from his risky enterprise. Buddha said: "The people of Sronaparantas are fierce, violent and cruel. They are given to abusing, reviling and annoying others. If they abuse, revile and annoy you with evil, harsh and false words, what would you think?" Puma replied: "In that case, I would think that the people of Sronaparanta are really good and gentle folk, as they do not strike me with their hands or with stones." The Buddha continued: "But if they strike you with their hands or clods, what would you think?"/V7/77a said: "In that case, I would think that they are good and gentle folk, as they do not strike me with a cudgel or a weapon",..Then, the Buddha said: "But if they kill you, Puma, what would you think?" He replied: "In that case, I would still think that they are good and gentle folk, as they release me from this rotten carcass of body without much difficulty. I know that there are monks, are ashamed of their body and distressed and disgusted with it, who slay themselves with weapons, take poison, hang themselves with ropes or throw themselves down from precipices".The Buddha declared: ''Puma, you are endowed with the greatest gentleness and

"'* Purna's story is related in the Pali canon of Samyutta, iv, 60 and of Majjhima, iii, 267. In Sanskrit, it is found in the D/vy-avadana(JSJand the Avadana--lata.

227 forbearance. You can live and stay in that country of the Sronaparantas. Go and teach them how to be free, as you yourself are free". The second aspect of ksanti paramita is endurance. A bodhisattva also exhibits the virtue of ksanti hy enduring hunger and thirst, cold and heat, and also all the severity and inclemency of wind and weather. He lives happily even in places infested with fleas, gnats, serpents and other such obnoxious and dangerous insects and reptiles. He is also capable of enduring any amount of labour, drudgery, hardship and privation, because he loves all who suffer in this world of woe, and wishes to help them."*^^ In spite of all this, he is happy and cheerfiil,'*^^ "If someone had taken a basket containing sandalwood powered, and, with respect and affection, strewed it over the bodhisattva^, and if a second one were to throw live coals over his head, he should produce a mind equal to both of them."'*^'He experiences pleasure even when he is subjected to the most excruciating pain, torture and mutilation, because he sends out loving thoughts and wishes to all creatures. He also knows that only the body suffers in this way, and he does not identify his personality with the body. He reflects that he has undergone many troubles and tribulations during many lives only for the sake of transient pleasure and a wretched livelihood; but now he must endure comparatively slight pain in order to acquire merit and attain bodJii.He works hard day and night to purify his heart from all evil, and he does not yield to indolence and lassitude. He does not rest or recline on a couch or a seat, or even on a bed of grass and leaves, at the wrong

'*'' Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library),77b.5, 78a.l,78b.3 '**" saci kascicandanaputaih grahiyana sattvo; abhyokireyagurupremata bodhisattvam; dvitTyo'pi] agni sakale stasi k^ipeya; ubhayatra tulyu manu tena upaditavyo {Akira. Yuyama (ed.),PraJna Paramita Ratna Guna Sanicaya Gatha,121) "*' Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summaryi Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),67

228 "Whip, stick, sword, murder, imprisonment, and blows, Decapitation, and amputation of ears, hands and feet, and of nose, As many ills as there are in the world, [all] that I [will] endure, [When he thinks thus, then] the Bodhisattva stands in the perfection of patience. "'^^^ TJie last aspect of ksanti paramita is acceptance of the truth. A bodhisattva exercises ksanti of the highest and most difficult kind by the realisation of insight into the real law and truth of the universe. He investigates the doctrine thoughtfully and intelligently, and thus acquires firm faith in the merits of the Buddha, the doctrine and the confi*atemity, in the truth, in the power and glory of the Buddhas and the bodhisattvas, in the cause, in the fruit, in the sutnmum bonum and in his own methods and efforts for its attainment.

V. 1.4 Vuya Paratm/'/ia or Perfection of Vigour

The next of the six perfections is vigour.The word vTrya, derived from vTra and vTr, literally means "the state of a string man, vigour, strength, power, heroism, prowess, valour, fotitude, courage, firmness, and virility".'^^'*As a paramita, it has been translated as"strength", "energy", "strenuousness", "manliness", "zeal", "courace", "power", "diligence", "vigour", etc. It is advisable to leave it untranslated, or to adopt "energy" as a conventional rendering.

kasadandasastra vadhabandhanatadanasca; sirachedakamacaranakaranasachedah; yavanti duhkhajagaffahu tatsahami; ksantiya paramita tisthati bodMsattvo^Akka Yuyama (ed.),Prajna Paramita Ratna Guna Samcay Gatha, 122) ^^^ Edward Conze (trans.). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary^ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),67 "•^ T.W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede, Pali- English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2007)

229 Vnya is an important category in Buddhist philosophy and reUgion. It is also reckoned among the five baJas (the five strenghts/^^ and (faculties) and the seven bodhy-angas (factors of awakening). The Dhamma- sanganf^^ defines it thus: "The striving and onward effort, the exertion and endeavor, the zeal and ardour, the vigour and fortitude, the state unfaltering effort, the state of sustained desire, the state of notputting down the yoke and the burden, the solid grip of the yoke and the burden, energy, right endeavour, this is vTrya'^^^ According to Santideva'*^' and others, vigour is simply "energy in pursuit of the good". This more succinct statement, which is a definition in the logical sense, has the merit of defining the perfection of vigour in terms of its ultimate objective. But what is "the good"? According to the HTnayana, it is individual enlightenment, the attainment of the , according to the Mahayana, it is supreme for the sake of all sentient beings. As the ascent of Everest requires far more strength and resourcefiilness than the scaling of one of its foothills, so the Mahayana objective, being infinitely

''*' The (Sanskrit, Pali: panca bala) in Buddhism are faith, effort, , concentration, and wisdom. They are one of the seven sets of "qualities conducive to enlightenmenf'.They are parallel facets of the five "spiritual faculties". ''** , literally "belonging to or agreeable to Indra" is the Sanskrit and Pali term for physical strength or ability in general, and for the five senses more specifically. In Buddhism, the term refers to multiple intrapsychic processes and is generally translated as "faculty" or, in specific contexts, as "spiritual faculty" or "controlling principle" ''*^ The Dhamma-sangani is a Buddhist scripture and translated in English as A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics. It is a part of the Pali Canon of Buddhism, where it is included in the Abhidhamma Pitaka. "^^^ C. A. F. Rhys Davids(trans), Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics (Bristol: Royal Asiatic Society, 1900), section 1.3 ''*'He was an 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar at University and an adherent of the philosophy of .Santideva is particularly renowned as the author of the Bodhicaryavatara . An English translation of the Sanskrit version of the Bodhicaryavatara is available online, as well as in print in a variety of translations, sometimes glossed as A Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way Of Life or Entering the Path of Enlightenment It is a long poem describing the process of enlightenment from the first thought to full buddhahood and is still studied by Mahayana and Buddhists today

230 greater than that of the HTnayana, naturally demands for its attainment an infinitely greater output of energy. Though the sravaka, too, is one who stirs up energy, his comparatively limited exertions can no more be compared to the cosmic scale on which the bodhisattva operates than the tiny trickle of a garden waterfall can be compared to the thundering cataracts of Niagara. At the same time, however, between vigour as practised by the sravaka and vigour as practised by the bodhisattva, there is still a difference not of kind but only of degree. HTnayana texts generally speak of vigour in terms of the suppression and prevention of unwholesome, and the development and cultivation of wholesome, mental states. Those of the Mahayana speak of it, more broadly, as the energetic practice of the perfections, which are, thus, no less dependent upon vigour than upon wisdom. For whereas only the transcendental practice of the perfections depends upon wisdom, both the mundane and the transcendental practice depend upon vigour. Hence Santideva is not wrong in declaring "In vigour lies enlightenment". But whether, with the Hlnayanists, we think of vigour principally in terms of meditation, or, with the Mahayanists, in terms of all the remaining five perfections, the practice of vigour is still mundane. In Mahasatipatthana Sutta, one word repeated through out the sutt^ is 'atapF' meaning 'ardent'."^^^ "Adrent" is considered as one of the most important aspects and manners that every practitioner wants to go to the final goal, they could leave it. Similarly, vigour plays very important position for the bodhisattva on the way to help other beings and to their full enlightenment:'*^'

''™ See chapter IV ''^' parasattvapudgalanidana visuddhasattva vicarantivTryabalaparamitabhiyuktahj yatha kumbhadasi avasavasa bhartikasya tatha sarvasattvavasatamupayapti dhTra.

231 "They have pure and courageous minds and are linked to other beings and persons, [When] they are practising the excellent perfection of Vigour. As a maid servant is submissive to her master who is not subject to anyone else, So do the firmly wise submit to subjection by all beings. The servant does not answer back to her master, Even when abused, struck, or beaten. Exceedingly trembling in mind, and overcome by fear, She thinks. He surely will kill me for that! Just so the Bodhisattva who has set out for the foremost enlightermient, Should behave towards the entire world like a true servant. Thereupon he obtains enlightenment, and the fulfilment of the qualities takes place. Fire, which has arisen fi-omgras s and sticks, [then] bums them up. Having renoimced a happy destiny for himself, Practising his duty towards other beings, day and night, in his thought free from hesitation: Like a mother, ministering to [her] only child, He abides in his resolute intention unexhausted"'*^^ VTrya is often praised by tlie Mahayanist writers, and its fiandamental importance is indicated in unequivocal terms. Enlightenment depends entirely on vTrya; where there is virya, there is bodhif^^ VTrya is the chief and paramount cause of all the auspicious principles that are conducive to enlightermient (bodhi-karakanam kusala-dharmanam pradhanam karanam)f^'* It promotes a bodhisattva's material and spiritual well-being. It is far better to live only for a day with full vTrya than to vegetate without energy during a hundred years. VTrya destroys all pain and darkness, and it has therefore been avasrjya atma sugatarh parasattvakarye abhiyukta ratridiva nispratikanksacittoj mateva ekasutake paricaryamano adhyasayenaparikhinna upasthihetiH{^Prajfia Paramita Ratna Gum Samcaya Gatha,! 15-116) ''" Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary{ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),64-65 "" Asta., 186.9; Sad Pu., 10.10 '*''* Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library),81a.2

232 praised by all the Buddhas. It ensures success and protection, and counteracts all fears and evil proclivities. The Buddha himself was a great vfra (hero) and owed his victory over chiefly to his vnya. The Prajna Paramita Ratna Gima Samcaya Gatha decribes how a bodhisattva should practice the perfection of vigour as following: "prathamaih upadu varabodhayi cittupado so va anuttarasivamanuprapuneySl ratrimdivaikamanasS tamadhisthiheya arambhavTrya vidupanditu veditavyo'^^^ "Beginning with the production of the first thought of the foremost enlightenment Until in the end he reaches the unsurpassed Bliss, If night and day he would persevere single-mindedly, The wise and learned should be known as one who has put forth vigour."'*^^ Three aspects of practicing vTrya paramita that a bodhisattva should follow are vigour for moral development, vigour for stuty of the scriptures and general education and vigour for altruistic activity"^^^. Firstly, a bodiiisattva resolutely combats all the great and small sins and vices that may drag him down. He employs a suitable antidote to every dangerous fault and weakness. He dispels hatred by the cultivation of love, counteracts sensuality by the on impurity, and so on. He exerts himself continually and seriously (satatya-satlqtya)f^^ He keeps vigils and restrains his senses. He is not contented with a little progress and achievement, but

•*" Akira Yuyama {eA.),Prajna Paramita Ratna Guria Samcaya Gatha {London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 118-119 ''^^ Edward Conze (trans.). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary { Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),66 "" Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2004), 217 ''^* Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library),82a.3 ''™Ibid.,82a.5.3

233 hopes to equal and surpass the great bodJii'sattvas of o\d.^^^ He is inspired, and not discouraged, by their example. He does not yield to despair, as he knows that all shall and can become Buddhas. Secondly, a bodhisttva should be diligent for study of the scriptures and general education. In the early days of the Mahayana, learning was perhaps not considered very important. The Saddharma Pundarlka contrasts Gautama Buddha, who possessed vTiya, with Ananda, who had much knowledge, but who lagged behind in the race for wisdom."*^' In course of time, the importance of religious instruction and liberal education was fully recognised. A bodhisattva is diligent in studying the scriptures. He knows the doctrine well. Santideva mentions eighty different ways of commencing the acquisition of religious learning. But a bodhisattva also studies the arts and sciences, and thus gets a good liberal education. He devotes his energy to the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of the five principal subjects of study or branches of learning. They are Buddhist philosophy, logic or dialectics, grammar, medicine, and the technical arts and crafts. These accomplishments help a bodhisattva in his work of converting the people, healing the sick, and conferring material benefits on all. The last aspect of practicing perfection of vigour is diligence for altruistic activity. A bodhisattva reflects carefiilly before he embarks on an enterprise; but he carries all his work to a successful issue. He does not leave it half-done, and he is not daunted and fiscouraged by difficulties and dangers.He maintains the same energy and resolution under all circumstances:

"^"ibid^SZb.S.l ''*' H. Kern & Bunyiu Nanjia (ed.), Saddharma Pundarlka (Tokyo: Meicho- Fukyu-Kai, 1977), 218.11 "^^ Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library),98a.4 ^*Mbid.,40a.6;81b.6;98a.3

234 yo bodhisattva cirasamsaranabhiprayo sattvartha ksetraparisodhanayuktayoglI na ca khedabuddhi anumatra upadiyati so vTryaparamitayukta atandritasca "^"^^ The Bodhisattva who intends to wander about in birth-and-death for [a] long [time], A Yogin devoted to the purification of the [Buddha-] field for the welfare of beings, And who does not produce the least thought of fatigue, He is endowed with the perfection of vigour, and undaunted.'*^^ A bodhisattva devises the proper expedients for attaining his end. He is indefatigable and optimistic. He does not lose hope on account of the stupidity and wickedness of the people; he does his daily task like the sun. Like a king, he has his devoted soldiers, whose names are zeal, strength, Joy, exclusive application, self-mastery and courage. He develops a healthy in himself and his own capacity, and is, therefore, eager to undertake the most difficult tasks. He always overcomes all passions and endures all trials. He thinks: "I will conquer everything: nothing shall conquer me." This is pride, which stimulates noble ambition, self-confidence self-respect, must be clearly distinguished fi"om vanity, conceit and arrogance, which ruin the soul. Such noble pride leads a bodhisattva to regard himself as the very embodiment of virtue and wisdom:'^^^

^^ Akira Yuyama iQA.),Prajna Paramita Ratna Gum Saipcaya GatAa {London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 118 "^^ Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfect/on of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summaryi Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),66 ''** saci kayacittavacasa ca parSlcrameyya paripacayitvajagatrkari^yamiarthaml kausFdyaprapta bhavatlsthitu atmasamjUaih nairatmabhavanavidurinabhath va bhumeh// yasminna kayu napi na sattvasarhjUa saihjnavivarti sthitu advayadharmacan j ayu vTryaparamita ulcta hitamkarena

235 "If he would exert himself with body, thought and speech, [thinking] Having matured [it] I will work the weal of the world, Then, established in the notion of a self, he is affected by indolence. He is as far distant from the meditational development of not-self as the sky is from the ground. When one has no notion of either body, or thought, or a being, Standing rid of perception, coursing in the non-dual Dharma That has been called by Him who bestows benefits the perfection of vigour 487 Of those who desire the blissfiil, imperishable, foremost enlightment." In sliort, vnya paramita is the enlightened quality of energy, vigor, vitality, endurance, diligence, enthusiasm, continuous and persistent effort. In order to practice the first three paramita of generosity, virtuous conduct, and patience in the face of difficulties, we need this paramita of joyous effort and perseverance. Joyous effort makes the previous paramitas increase and become even more powerful influences in our life. The essence of this paramita of joyous effort is the courage, energy, and endurance to continuously practice the dliarma and pursue the supreme goal of enlightenment for the highest good of all beings. From a feeling of deep compassion for the suffering of all sentient beings, we are urged to unfailing, persistent, and joyous effort. We use our body, speech, and mind to work ceaselessly and untiringly for the benefit of others, with no expectations for personal recognition or reward. We are always ready to serve others to the best of our ability. With joyous effort, devoted energy, and the power of sustained application, we practice the dharma without getting sidetracked by anything or falling under the influence of laziness. Without developing vTrya paramita, we can become easily disillusioned and drop our practice when we meet with adverse conditions. The word vTrya means persistence and akank?amanu sivamacyutamagrabodhini\ (Akira Yuyama {QA\Prajna Paramita Ratna Guna Samcay Gadia (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 119-120) ^^^ Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight' Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary { Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),66-67

236 perseverance in the face of disillusionment, energetically striving to attain the supreme goal of enlightenment. When we cultivate this type of diligence and perseverance, we have a strong and healthy mind. We practice with persistent effort and enthusiasm because we realize the tremendous value and benefit of our dharma practice. Firmly establishing ourselves in this paramita, we also develop self-reliance, and this becomes one of our most prominent characteristics. With joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance, we regard failure as simply another step toward success, danger as an inspiration for courage, and affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion. To develop strength of character, self-reliance, and the next paramita of concentration, is not an easy achievement, thus we need enthusiastic perseverance on the path.

V.1.5 Dbyana Paramita or Perfection of Concentration

Dhyana paramita, or the perfection of concentration, differs hardly at all from the corresponding practices of the original teaching. Maliayana sQtras and sastras describe the bodliisattva as resorting to jungle, cave, or cemetery, and passing through the various stages of meditation, from mindfiilness and self- possession to attainment of the superconscious states and development of the supernormal powQrs.LaiiJcavatara goes to the extent of speaking of ''sawadhi is innumerable". But most of these are to all appearances only various states of transcendental consciousness as it were suffused with different emotional hues, and the three "doors to emancipation" (vimoIcsa-muAJias) that is to say the samadJiis of , signlessness, and emptiness which, as the destroyers of the three unwholesome roots of greed, hatred, and delusion, occupy so prominent a.place in the original teaching, are still regarded as being of all samadJiis the most important. Diiyana, derived from dtiya, is one of the terms that cannot be

237 translated. It has been rendered as "meditation", "trance", "contemplation", etc. E. J. Thomas has shown that "ecstasy" is also an inadequate rendering.'*^^It is really inadvisable to apply European terms to Indian concepts, as the lines of intellectual development in Europe and India have been different. It is easier and more profitable to understand the Indian terms than to search for an exact equivalent, which does not exist. C. A. F. Rhys Davids explains dhyana as "the practice of rapt musing or abstraction"."*^^ This may be accepted as a conventional rendering for the present. The Bodhisattva-bhumi defines dhyana as "citta-aikagryam citta- sthitih'^^^ (concentration and stability or fixity of the mind). Dhyana is primarily and principally the means of experiencing and attaining serenity and calm (), which is indeed coupled with mental concentration in the Sata-sahasrika Prajna-paramita.^^^ Pancavimsatisahasnka gives a full definition of dhyana through the conversation between Buddha and Subhuti: Subhuti: What is the BodhJsattva's perfection of concentration (or meditation)? The Lord: He himself, through skill in means, enters into the trances, yet he is not reborn in the corresponding heavens of form as he could; and others also he instigates to do likewise.'*'^ Dhyana paramita is . the enlightened quality of concentration, meditation, contemplation, , mindfulness, mental stability. Our minds have the tendency to be very distracted and restless, always moving fi^omon e thought or feeling to another. Because of this, our awareness stays fixated in the ego, in the surface layers of the mind and emotions, and we just keep

•"^^ E. J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha as Legend and History ( USA: Kessinger Publishing-LLC, 2006),181 "^'C^«'C.A.. A. IF . Rhys Davids, Gotama ^Ae Ma/7 (London: 1928),78 '"^'o" BodhisattvaBodhi - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library), 82b.6 '"^"' P. Ghosa (ed.(ed.) Sata-sahasrilca Prajria-paramita{ Calcutta: 1902-13),95 "'^ Edward ConzeCotij , LB Homer, David Snellgrove & Arthur Waley (trans & ed.), Buddhist Texts Through The Ages { USA: Oneworld, 2000), 135

238 engaging in the same habitual patterns of behavior. The perfection of concentration means to train our mind so that it does what we want it to. We stabiUze our mind and emotions by practicing meditation, by being mindful and aware in everything we do. When we train the mind in this way, physical, emotional, and mental vacillations and restlessness are eliminated. We achieve focus, composure, and tranquility. This ability to concentrate and focus the mind brings clarity, equanimity, illumination. Concentration allows the deep insight needed to transform the habitual misperceptions and attachments that cause confusion and suffering. As we eliminate these misperceptions and attachments, we can directly experience the joy, compassion, and wisdom of our true nature. There is no attainment of wisdom and enlightenment without developing the mind through concentration and meditation. This development of concentration and one- pointedness requires perseverance. Thus, the previous paramita of joyous effort and perseverance brings us to this paramita of concentration. In addition, when there is no practice of meditation and concentration, we cannot achieve the other paramitas, because their essence, which is the inner awareness that comes fi-om meditation, is lacking. To attain wisdom, compassion, and enlightenment, it is essential that we develop the mind through concentration, meditation, and mindfulness. A bodhisattva, who begins to practise dhyana, must go through a preliminary stage of preparation, which may be said to include renunciation and solitude, the cultivation of the four sublime or perfect states (brahma- viharah), and the use of the krtsnayatanas {nmwQvsdX bases). 1. Renunciation and Solitude: A bodhisattva must now give up family life and ordinary social intercourse, and retire to a secluded spot in the forest. He must

239 live as a celibate hermit and recluse i"*^^ "Those of great might who dwell in the four Trances Those of great might who dwell in the four Trances Do not make them into a place to settle down in, nor into a home. But these four Trances, with their limbs, will in their turn become The basis for the attainment of the supreme and unsurpassed enlightenment.'*^'* The well-known Pali aphorism, which condemns the householder's life, is found in the Sanskrit version in several passages such as life in the home is narrow and full of hindrances, while a monk's life is like the open air. It is difficult to lead the pure, austere and holy spiritual life as a householder. According to the Sata-sahasrika Prajna-paramita, celibacy is necessary for enlightenment. Even if a bodhisattva is married, his marriage is really a "pious fraud" for the conversion of others. He does not really enjoy sensual pleasure: he remains a celibate.'^^^The Bodhisattva-bJiumiteaches that a bodhisattva becomes a monk in the first stage of his career.'*^^ Furthermore, Astsahasrika-Prajnaparamita-Sutr^^^ mentions that an irreversible bodhisattva is one who has turned away fi"om the level of

'"^ caturbhi ca dhyana viharantimahanubhava na ca alayo na pi ca nisrayu kurvayatij api kho punasrayu ime catudhyana saiiga bhe^yanti bodhivarauttamaprapanaya (Akira Yuyama {ed.),PraJna Paramita Ratna Guna Samcaya GiaiSfta (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 112) '*''' Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary{ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),63 "'' P. Ghosa (ed.) Sata-sahasrika Prajna-paramita { Calcutta:1902-13),116, 117 '"* Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library),22.13 "*" ''''punaraparatn subhute avinivartanryo bodhisattva mahasattvo na namaguruko bhavati, na kirtisabdaslokaguruko bhavati, na namni sajjate /so 'saink^ubhitacitto bhavati, sarvasattvefu hitacittasca bhavati/so 'bhikraman va pratikraman va abhrantacitto 'bhikramati, abhrantacittah pratikramati/smrtimanevabhikramati, smrtimanevapratikramati... evamevasubhute avinivartanTya bodhisattva mahasattva agaramadhyavasantoyanyaneva kamanparibhunjate, tamstananarthika eva agrddha eva asakta eva kaman paribhunjate /anarthika eva ca te bhavanti priyarupasatarupaihpancabhiti kamagunaih /te 'garamadhyavasanto na samavisamenajTvikSm kalpayanti... evam hi subhute agaramadhyavasanti bodhisattva mahasattva yathapi nama prajnaparamitabaladhanapraptatvat / ebhir api subhute akarairebhirlingairebhimimittaih saman vagata bodhisattva mahasattva a vinivartanTya anuttarayah samyaksambodherdharayita vyah //(Asta., 166)

240 Disciples and Pratyekabuddhas, and who has proceeded in the direction of all-knowledge. According to plan, he enters into the first, second, third and fourth trance, and he dwells in those four trances. He becomes a complete master over the trances, i.e. he enters into the trances, but his fliture rebirth is not determined by their influence. It is on the dhannas of ihQ sphere of sense- desire that he bases his rebirth. This also should be known as a mark of irreversibility in an irreversible bodhisattva. Furthermore, an irreversible bodhisattva does not attach weight to a name, nor to renown, title or fame. He does not get attached to a particular name [which in any case is absent in emptiness]. His mind remains undismayed, and interested only in the welfare of all beings. Whether he goes out or comes back, his mind does not wander, and he remains ever mindful. When he lives the life of a householder, he has no great love for pleasant things, and he does not want them too much. With fear and disgust, he possesses all pleasant things. Situated in a wilderness infested with robbers, one would eat one's meals in fear, and with the constant thought of getting away, of getting out of this wilderness, and not with repose. Just so an irreversible bodhisattva who lives the life of a householder, possesses any pleasant things he may have simply without caring for them, without eagerness, without attachment. He is not one of those people who care for dear and pleasant forms. Those who live the lives of householders and who are involved in the five kinds of sensuous pleasures do not earn their living in an irregular way, but in the right way. Neither do they incur death in a state of sin, nor do they inflict injuries on others. For they have incited all beings to win the supreme happiness,those worthy men, those great men, supermen, excellent men, splendid men, bulls of men, sublime men, valiant men, heroes of men, leaders of men, waterlilies of men, lotuses of men, thoroughbred men, Nagas of men, lions of men, trainers of men. It is in this spirit that bodhisattvas live the life of householders,

241 inasmuch as they have been impregnated with the power of the perfection of wisdom, and that is another token of their irreversibility.'*^^ Santideva declares that a married man cannot attain enlightenment, and he also indulges in that amazing tirade against passion, which has already been referred to. He teaches that a bodhisattva must renounce the world in all his lives after taking the great vow."*^^ Ksemendra^^° also regards celibacy and renunciation as indispensable for a bodhisattva. He even relates the story of a couple, who maintained a purely spiritual relation in married life, though they could not avoid marriage on account of the pressure of external circumstances.^^' A similar story is told in the Advadanasataka, which also praises several women for their aversion to marriage. Ksemendra goes so far as to say that ordination as a monk confers absolution even for the sin of matricide.^^^ It is true that the Saddharma Pundarika speaks of the duties of a bodhisattva who is a king; and Santideva also seems to admit that a bodhisattva may be a householder.^^'* The Bodhisattva-bhimi definitely mentions both "laymen and monks" in connection with the first four

'"* Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summaryi Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),204-205 499 C. Bendall (ed.), Santides Siksa-samuccaya{St. Petersburg, 1897-1902),193.5;114.3 '"" K§emendra (c. 990 - c. 1070 CE) was a Kashmirian poet of the 11th century, writing in Sanskrit. He was bom into an old, cultured, and affluent family,both his education and literary output were broad and varied. He studied literature under "the foremost teacher of his time, the celebrated Shaiva philosopher and literary exponent Abhinavagupta".He also studied and wrote about both Vaishnavism and Buddhism. His literary career extended from at least 1037 (his earliest dated work, Brihatkathamanjari, a verse summary of the lost "Northwestern"Brhatkaths, itself a recension of Gunadhya's lost Brhatkatba , "Great Story") to 1066 (his latest dated work, Dasavataracharita, "an account of the ten incarnations of the god Visnu").In addition to the genres listed below, Kshemendra also composed plays, descriptive poems, a satirical novel, a history, and possibly a commentary on the (all now known only through references in other works) "' S. C.Das & H.M.Vidyabhusana (ed.), Bodhisattvavadana- kalpalata ( Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1888), ii, 299;795.84 '"^ J. S. Speyer (ed.), Advadanasataka, ( St. Perersburg: Bibliotheca Buddhica, 1909),ii,3,10,16,37 '"^ S. C.Das & H.M.Vidyabhusana (ed.), Bodhisattvavadana- kalpalata ( Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1888), ii, 690 '"'' H. Kern & Bunyiu Nanjia (ed.), Saddharma Pundarika (Tokyo: Meicho- Fukyu-Kai, 1977), chapter xiii, 289;S. C.Das & H.M.Vidyabhusana (ed.), Bodhisattvavadana- kalpalata { Calcutta: Bibliotheca Indica, 1888), I 20.3,62.12

242 paramitas, but it does not refer to the laymen in the chapter on dhyana. On the whole, it may be inferred that the Mahayanist philosophers exalt and glorify monastic celibacy and seclusion, while they only condone and tolerate domestic life as an inferior state. 2. The cultivation of the four sublime or perfect states (brahma-viharah): A bodhisattva should practise the four meditations called the brahma- viharahbrahma-viharas. The forms of brahma-viharah and brahmya-vihara are also found in many sutras just as Bodhisattva-bhumif^^ Karuna- pimdarikaf^^Mahayana-sutralankaraf^^ The word has been translated as "sublime or divine state of mind",^^^ "pious conduct, perfect state",^*^^ "god- moods",^'° or "excellent states"^" The word brahma, derived from brh (to increase), here means "excellent, perfect", as in other words like brahma-jala-sutta (the perfect net), brahma-cariya, brahma-vada, etc. Perhaps, it is best to translate: "Perfect or Excellent States".The four brahma-viharas consist in the cultivation of four feelings, according to a certain method, viz. mai'trf {\OVQ or friendliness), karuna (compassion),/77wd?Ya (sympathetic joy) and upksa (equanimity).It is possible to indicate the growth of this fourfold fore in Buddhist Sanskrit literature. In many passages, only maitri is mentioned. At other places,

CIO only maitrfand karuna are mentioned together.

'"' Bodhisattva - bhumi (Sanskrit Manucript Add. 17022, Cambridge University Library),38a,4.2 ^^ S.C.Das & S.C.Sastri (ed.), Karuna- pundarTka( Calcuttta.Budhhist Text Society, 1898), 114.30 '"^ S. Levi (trans.), Mahayana- sutralanicara (Paris: 1911), 122.7 508 J^^ jy^yg Davids and W. Stede, Pali- English Dictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2007) ^^ Monier Williams, A Sanskrit - English Dictionary {0\iord, 1872) "°C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Gotama /'Ae Ma/7 (London: 1928), 183 '" Lord Chalmers (trans.), Majjhima Nikaya, " Further Dialogues of the Buddha" (^onAon, 1926- 7), ii, 40 ''^ Sata-Sahasrika- Prajna- paramita, 261.4; Mahayana- sutralankara,259; Ksemendra,ii,501.57;Advadanasataka, ii,34.15 ''^ Sata-Sahasrika-Prajna-paramita, 19.8,134.4,134.6;Dasa Bhumika Sutra, 19.21,39.13

243 In course of time, these social virtues were appreciated in an increasing degree. The Mahayanist writers even reckon mahakaruna among a perfect Buddha's attributes. It is considered as important as the balas, the vaisaradyas, and the avenika-dharmas. All the brahma-viharas were emphasised and inculcated with greater zeal, and karuna was chosen as the most important among them. The honorific title maha was also prefixed to all, especially to waitrfand karuna. Mai'trT is translated as 'friendliness", benevolence" or "love". It is a feeling that is directed towards those who are happy in life. Its opposite is vyapada (malice). It is, thus, distinguished fr"om karuna, which is shown to unhappy and afflicted living hQings.Maitnis mentioned and extolled more frequently in the Pali canon than karuna. The Hmayana emphasises maitri, while the Mahayana lays stress on karuna. This seems to be their distinctive note. As a brahma-vihara, maitri \s exercised through a certain meditative practice, and the same formula is applied to all the other bralima-viharas. This practice belongs to the dhyana-paramita in the Mahayana^ and the Sata- Sahasrika- Prajiia-paramita actually places these bralima-viliaras betv^een the four dhyanas and the four samapattis in its oft-repeated lists of a bodhisattva 's duties. The process of meditation is thus described in the case of all the brahma-viharas, substituting karuna, and upeksa respectively for maitri: 'He (the bodhisattva) abides pervading the whole universe (with its chief element, the truth, and its remotest element, space) with his mind, accompanied by maitri, with vast, great, undivided, unlimited and universal freedom from hatred, rivalry, narrow-mindedness and harmfulness."^^'* Mudita means sympathetic joy. This word has been variously translated as "appreciation", "satisfaction", "joy", "delightflilness" etc. E.

^'•^ J.Rahder (ed.), Dasa Bhumika i'u/'/a (Paris, 1926), 34.

244 Senart suggests that it may be a Prakrt form of mudita (gentleness, softness).^ *^ But this feeling is said to be directed towards virtuous and righteous persons. Its chief characteristics are joy, faith, and freedom from despondency, craving, jealousy, insincerity and hostility. It is associated with the alertness of all the faculties.^'^

3. The use of the krtsnayatanas (universal bases): A bodhisattva should practise certain exercises in concentration and self-hypnotism, in which his attention is fixed on one of the ten krtsnayatana (bases or objects of such exercises). These ten objects are the four colours and the six elements: blue, yellow, red, white, earth, water, fire, air, space and mentality (intellection). By gazing at them, visualizing them, or concentrating his mind on them in other ways, a bodhisattva can produce that mental state of calm and quiet somnolence, which is favourable to dhyana.

V.2. PmjMParamita or Perfection of Wisdom

V.2.1.Who can practice PrajMParamita

The Astasahasrika contains in thirty two chapters dialogues between Buddha and his disciples Subhuti, Sariputra and Punta Maitrayaniputra, and frequently Sakra, the prince of the gods, and sometimes a bodhisattva joins them. The discourse was delivered by the Buddha at Rajagriha, on the Vulture Peak.One of the most important of all associations with a 'place' in the life and teachings of the Buddha, other than the and Deer Park, is with Vulture Peak, a small mountain just outside the city of the ancient city of , India. Here, sixteen years after his enlightenment, he set forth the second turning of the wheel of dharma to an assembly of five thousand monks, nuns and laity, as well as innumerable bodhisattvas. This

^'^E. Senart (ed.) Le MahS-vastu {Var'is: 1882-97),iii, 523 "^ P. Ghosa (ed), Sata-Sahasrika- PrajM-paramita {C&\cmdi, 1902-13) 482,141 '" Sata-Sahasrika- Prajna-paramita ,1429;Majjhima Nikayajii, 79

245 collection of teachings, which extended over twelve years, includes the Saddharma-Pundarika and the , as well as many Prajha- Paramita Sutras, which, as the Buddha himself told Ananda that they contain the very essence of all his teachings. The sutrahQgms with: "evam srutam / ekasmin samaye rajagrhe viharati sma grdhakute parvate mahata bhiksusamghena sardhamardhatrayodasabhirbhiksusataih, sarvairarhadbhih ksmasravaimihklesairvaslbhutaih suvimuktacittaih suvimuktapraj nairaj fiairaj aneyairmahanagaih krtakrtyaih kftakaraniyairapahrtabharairanupraptasvakarthaih pariksmabhavasamyoj anaih samyagaj nasuvimuktacittaih sarvacetovasiparamaparamipraptairekam pudgalam sthapayitva yaduta ayusmantamanandam //"^'^ at one time. The Lord dwelt at Rajagriha, on the Vulture Peak, together with a great gathering of monks, with 1,250 monks, all of them ,— their outflows dried up, undefiled, fully controlled, quite freed in their hearts, well freed and wise, thoroughbreds, great Serpents, their work done, their task accomplished, their burden laid down, their own weal accomplished, with the fetters that bound them to becoming extinguished, their hearts well freed by right understanding, in perfect control of their whole minds—with the exception of one single person, i.e., the Venerable Ananda.^'^ We see here that the Buddha taught this discourse in the great assembly with a great gathering of monks, with 1,250 monks, all of them arhats {sarvairarhadbhih) except Ananda. So the hears of this discourse are arhats. It means that the persons who can understand, practice, and get the most essence of this teaching properly is only arhats. The character and natures of arhats are described that their outflows are dried up or exhausted (Jcsfna-asrava), undefiled, fully controlled, quite freed in their hearts

''^ Asta., 1 '" Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary^ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),83 "° asrava, ( Sanskrit: "what leaks out") is also called klesa (Sanskrit: "affliction"), in Buddhist philosophy, the illusion that ceaselessly flows out from internal organs {i.e., five sense organs and the mind). To the unenlightened, every existence becomes the object of illusion or is inevitably

246 {suvimuktacittaih), well freed and wise {suvimuktaprajna), thoroughbreds, their work done, their task accomplished, their burden laid down, their own weal accomplished, with the fetters that bound them to becoming extinguished, their hearts well freed by right understanding, in perfect control of their whole minds. So we see here the hearers of this discourse are different from those who listen to the MahaSatipatthana Sutta. In that sutra, the Buddha only addressed the monks and then he delivered the discourse. The hearers of MahaSatipatthana Sutta are monks. They can be any one who wants to purify their mind, to overcome the sorrow and lamentation, to extinguishing sufferings and grief, to walk on the path of truth, to realize nirvana. The goal of practice of method described in this sUtra is to become an arhat, an awakening one.

The Astasahasrika- Prajnaparamita-Sutra also mentions more requests for its practitioner. When Subhuti asks the Buddha Who can understand this perfection of wisdom; he replied that bodhisattvas who have coursed under Tathagatas in the past, and who have matured their wholesome roots; their own-being is isolated from the need for discipline; After he has known full enlightenment, they will become the resort of countless beings; they have armed themveves with this armour: "Immeasurable and incalculable beings I shall lead to nirvanS\ For the reason that they put on their armour for the sake of all beings, surely they should desire the level of a Buddha not for the vehicle of the Disciples^^^ or Pratyekabuddhas.^^'*

accompanied by illusion. Such an existence is called sasrava. Even if one leads a good life, it is still regarded as sasrava, insofar as it leads to another existence in the world of transmigration. Through the effort of ridding oneself of asrava, one can attain anasrava (the Enlightenment), or freedom from the bond of illusion by undefiled wisdom. "' Maha., 3 "^ Edward Conze (trans.). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary^ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),190 '^"^ SravakaSravalca mean meanss "hearer "hearer"" or or, ,mor moree generally generally, ,"disciple".Thi "disc s term is used by both Buddhists and Jains. In Jainism, a shravaka is any lay Jain. Thus the term shravaka has been used for the Jain

247 V.2.2. Definition of PmjSa Paramita

Prajna Paramita is the central term of the structure of the description of the uhimate state of mind. Moreover, it is the main term of the Astsahasrika- Prajnaparamita-Sutra and all the Prajnaparamita literature. It is the most important and also the chief one among six paramitas which a bodhisattva must practice for their full enlightenment. The definition of Prajnaparamita \s given in AstsahasrikaPrajnaparamita-Sutra as following: ''sarvajnajnanaparinispattirbhagavan prajnaparamita, sarvajnatvam bhagavan prajnaparamitS\ "The perfection of wisdom, 0 Lord, is the accomplishment of the cognition of the all-knowing. The perfection of wisdom is the state of all-knowledge.^ ^ This paramita is the enlightened quality of transcendental wisdom, insight, and the perfection of understanding. The essence of this paramita is the supreme wisdom, the highest understanding that living beings can attain beyond words and completely fi"ee from the limitation of mere ideas, concepts, or intellectual knowledge. Beyond the limited confines of intellectual and conceptual states of mind, we experience the awakened heart- mind of wisdom and compassion (prajnaparamita). Prajnaparamita is the community itself (for example see Sarak and Saraogi). In Buddhism, the term is sometimes reserved for distinguished disciples of the Buddha.In , savaka (m.) or savjka(£) is a disciple who accepts: • the Buddha as their teacher • the Buddha's teaching (the Dharma) • the Buddha's rules of conduct ( for laypersons, Patimokkha for monastics). In Mahayana texts, sravakas (or arhats) are sometimes contrasted with bodhisattvas .In the Pali canon, the term "disciple" transcends monastic-lay divisions and can refer to anyone from the following "four assemblies" • monks {) • nuns {bhikkuni) • laymen (upasaka) • laywomen (upasika) "'' A Pratyekabuddha literally "a lone buddha", "a buddha on their own"or "a private buddha", is one of three types of enlightened beings according to some schools of Buddhism. The other two types are the arhats and samyaksambuddhas ^^M^/'a., 86 '^* Edward Conze (trans.). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Suwmaryi Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994),135

248 supreme wisdom {prajna) that knows emptiness and the interconnectedness of all things. This flawless wisdom eliminates all false and distorted views of the absolute. Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra gives a definition of Prajnaparamita through a conversation between the Buddha and Subhuti:^^^ "Subhuti: What is a bodhisattva's perfection of wisdom? The Lord: He does not settle down in any dharma, he contemplates the essential original nature of all dharmas, and others also he instigates to the contemplation of all dharmasr^^^ With perfertion of wisdom, the boddhisattvas see the essential nature of reality with utmost clarity; their perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence. With the perfection of wisdom, they develop the ability to recognize the truth behind the temporary display of all appearances. Prajnaparamita is a result of contemplation, meditation, and rightly understanding the nature of reality. The bod/iisattva does not settle down in any dharma, he contemplates the essential original nature of all dharmas, and he also instigates others to have the same contemplation of all dharmas. The Astsahasrilca Prajnaparamita Sutra gives further definition of prajnaparamita^^ "This perfection of wisdom cannot be expounded, or learnt, or distinguished, or considered, or stated, or reflected upon by means of the skandhas, or by means of the elements, or by means of the sense-fields. This is a consequence of the fact that

"^ Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajna Paramita Sutra, 194-195 "^ Edward Conze, LB Homer, David Snellgrove & Arthur Waley (trans & ed.), Buddhist Texts Through The Ages { USA: Oneworld, 2000), 135 "' "neyaw subhute prajnaparamita sicandhaso va dhatuso va ayatanaso va nirde^tum va srotuin va upalak^ayitum va samanvahartum va upapadayitum va upadharayitum va / tatkasya hetoh? sarvadharmaviviktatvatsubhute, atyantaviviktatvatsubhute sarvadharmanam na sakya prajnaparamita nirdesturn va srotuin va upalaksayiturn va samanvahartum va upapadayitum va upadharayitum va / na canyatra skandhadhatvayatanebhyah prajnaparamita avaboddhavya / tatkasya hetoh? skandhadhatvayatanameva hi subhute sunyain viviktam santam / iti hi prajnaparamita ca skandhadhatvayatanarn ca advayametaedadvaidhikaram s'unyatvadviviktatvat / evam santatvannopa/abhyate / yo 'nupalambhah sarvadharmanam, sa prajnaparamitetyucyate / yadana bhavatisatnjMsamajnaprajnaptirvyavaharah, tadaprajnaparamitetyucyate//"; Asta., 89

249 all Dharmas are isolated, absolutely isolated. Nor can the perfection of wisdom be understood otherwise than by the skandhas, elements or sense-fields. For just the very skandhas, elements and sense-fields are empty, isolated and calmly quiet. It is thus that the perfection of wisdom and the skandhas, elements and sense-fields are not two, nor divided. As a result of their emptiness, isolatedness and quietude they cannot be apprehended. The lack of a basis of apprehension in all Dharmas, that is called 'perfect wisdom'. Where there is no perception, appellation, conception or conventional expression, there one speaks of 'perfect wisdom'".^^" The Sanskrit word 'Pra-jna-param-ita', literally means 'wisdom gone beyond', or, as we might say it is "transcendental wisdom". Buddhists at all times have compared this world of suffering, of birth and death, with a river in full spate. On the hither shore, we are erring about, tormented by all kinds of unease and distress. On the yonder shore lies the beyond, the paradise, nirvana, where all ills have, together with separate individuality, come to an end. All researchers of the prajnaparamita-without exception believed that it was possible to find, adequate equivalents for the word prajnaparamita in modem European languages. Some of them, mainly Japanese scholars headed by D. T. Suzuki completely ignored the independent existence of prajnaparamita as a term and said that its meaning was equivalent to the meaning of the term prajiiaihdit according to Suzuki means intuition. Others, mostly European and American scholars starting with M. Walleser understood prajiiaparamita as the ultimate limit prajnia. In Th. Stcherbatsky's translation, it is the "climax of wisdom".^^^ Lex Hixon^^^ and E. Conze at the

"° Edward Conze (trans.). The Perfect/on of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary{ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994), 138 "' Linnart Mall, Studies in the Astasahasrilca Prajnaparamita and Other Essays (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Pulishers, 2005), 61 "^ Ibid., 61 '" Lex Hixon (trans.). Mother of the Buddha: Meditation on the Prajnaparamita Sutra (USA: Quest Book, 1993)

250 beginning of his academic career used the translation 'perfection of wisdom' but in some cases it is replaced by 'perfect wisdom'.^^

We think that the meaning of prajnaparamita cannot be established through its grammatical or etymological analysis. Replacing the Sanskrit word prajnaparamitahy a word or a combination of words in the researcher's own language does not mean that we have understood the Sanskrit term. Moreover, this technique does not make research of the prajnaparamita literature easier as the suggested translation options only approximately express one aspect of the complex Buddhist term.

V.2.3. Classification and Nature of PrajMParamita

V.2.3.1 Classification of Prajfla

The Frajna Parami'ta represents the summum bonum of Buddhist philosophy. It is the right understanding of the nature of the world in the light of transiency^ sorrowfulness and soullessness. A bodhisattva meditates on these three characteristics but not to such an extent as to attain arhatship, for to do this would be deviating from his goal. At the same time, he does not disparage worldly wisdom. He tries to acquire knowledge even from his servants. Never does he show any desire to display his knowledge nor is he ashamed to plead ignorance even in public, for under no circumstances does he ever prove to be a charlatan. What he knows is always at the disposal of others, and that he imparts to them unreservedly. He tries his best to lead others from darkness to light. Prajna is of three kinds^^^ that which depends on hearing the teaching from another person and on the study of scripture (wisdom awareness of the mudane); that which arises from reflexion (wisdom

"'' Edward Conze (trans.), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary{ Delhi: Sri Satguru Pulication, 1994), "' Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2004),236

251 awamenss of the lesser supramundane); and that which is developed by cultivation and realization (wisdom awamenss of the greater supramundane). Firstly, wisdom awareness of the mundane^^^ is the study of medicine and healing, the study of reasoning, the study of linguistics, and the study of the arts. The wisdom awareness which arises in dependence on these four is called wisdom awareness of the mundane.In the ancient days when printing was not in vogue, knowledge was acquired by hearing hence a learned man was then called bahussuta (he who has heard much), corresponding to English erudition.Seccondly, the lesser supramundane wisdom awareness, is the wisdom awareness that arises from the hearing, reflection, and meditation of the hearers and solitary realizers. It is the realization that the afflicted aggregates of personality are impure, of the nature of suffering, impermanent, and without self. This kind of knowledge is acquired by thought. The practical scientific knowledge of the West is the direct outcome of this kind of knowledge. Lastly, the greater supramundane wisdom awareness is the wisdom awareness that arises from the hearing, reflection, and meditation of the followers of the Mahayana. The third kind of knowledge or wisdom is acquired by meditation and contemplation. It is by such meditation that one realizes intuitive truths which are beyond logical reasoning. Meditation is not a passive reverie, but an energetic striving. It leads to self-elevation, self- discipline, self-control, and self-illumination. It is the realization that all phenomena are, by nature, emptiness, unborn, without a foundation and without root. 700 Stanza Perfection of Wisdom says: The realization that all phenomena are unborn that is the perfection of wisdom awareness".^^^And the Condensed Perfection of Wisdom Sutra further explains that fully

Gampopa, The jewel Ornament of Liberation (trans. By Konchog Gyaltsen ) (New York: Snow Lion Publication, 1998),235 "' Ibid.,236

252 realizing that phenomena are without any inherent existence is the practice of 538 the supreme perfection of wisdom awareness. The wisdom can also be divided into three parts: wisdom that knows the ultimate, wisdom that knows the conventional, and wisdom that knows how to act for the welfare of living beings. Firstly, wisdom that knows the ultimate cognizes the reality of selflessness, either by means of a concept or in a direct manner. Next, wisdom that knows the conventional is wisdom that is proficient at the five topics of knowledge. The Ornament for the says: "Without making effort at the five topics of knowledge, Even supreme noble beings do not reach omniscience. So they must strive for these so as to refute others, To care for others, and to know everything."^'"' The topics are distinguished by the different sorts of purposes for pursuing them. To refiite those who do not believe in the teaching, we pursue knowledge of grammar and logic. To help those who do believe, we pursue knowledge of the arts and medicine. To achieve knowledge of all for ourrself, we pursue Buddhist knowledge. But to attain Buddhahood, there are no such distinctions between them; we must pursue all the topics of knowledge.Lastly, wisdom that knows how to act for the welfare of living beings knows the way to accomplish blamelessly the welfare of beings in their present and future lives. Wisdom is the apex of Buddhism. It is the first factor in the {samyag-drsti- right view). It is one of the seven factors of

539 ^^''^•' S. Badchi (ed.) Mahayana- sutralamkara- karika, ( Darbhanga: Mithila Institute, 1970), 9.60 Tseng- Kha-Pa, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (^^-^ York: Snow Lion Publication, 2004),222

253 enlightenment {dharma vicaya bodhyanga- investigation of Dharma). It is one of the four means of accomplishment (vimamsa-samadhi). It is one of the five powers (panca-balani) and one of the five controlling faculties (panca- indriya). It is wisdom that leads to purification and to final deliverance.

V.2.3.2. Nature of Praj&a Paramita

a. Prajna Paramjta controls five other perfections " bi/ih prakirna prthivisthita sariibha vanti samagri labdhva vinihanti anekarupah yavanti bodhigima paramitasca panca prajnaya paramita te vinihanti sarvS'^*^ "Gems exist potentially scattered in the earth, And, when conditions are favourable, they grow in great variety: All the qualities of enlightenment [that are in] the five perfections, They all grow from the perfection of wisdom"^'*'* The Prajnaparamita is the most important among six perfections. It guides other five perfections. Even though a bodhisattva may have practices of generosity through meditative concentration, the rank omniscience will not be achieved if he lack the perfection of wisdom. Why is this so? It is like a group of blind people who of get to the city of their wishes without a guide. As it is said in die Condensed Perfection of Wisdom Sutra that if millions

''" In Buddhism, the Seven Factors of Enlightenment (PaH: satta boj/'Aariga or satta sambojjhangs, Skt.: sapta bodhyanga) are: Mindfulness {) i.e. to remember the Dhamma. Investigation {) of the Dhamma. Energy (viriya) Joy or rapture {ptti) Relaxation or tranquility {) of both body and mind Concentration {samadhi) a calm, one-pointed state of concentration of mind'*' Equanimity (upekldia)', to be able to face life in all its vicissitudes with calm of mind and tranquility, without disturbance, with dispassion and detachment. ^"^ Narada, Buddha And His Teachings { Mumbai: Jaico Publishing House, 2010), 409 '"^ Akira Yuyama (ed.),Prajna Paramita -Ratna -Guna -Samcaya -Gatha (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 24. ''"' Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary{JieWn: Sri Satguru publications, 1994), 15-16.

254 upon billions of blind people are without a sighted guide and do not know the road, how can they enter the city? Without wisdom perfection, the five eyeless perfections, being without a guide, will not be able to reach enlightenment.^"*^ On the other hand, if a bodhisattva possesses perfection of wisdom, then he will attain the state of omniscience because, like a group of blind people who are led into a city with the help of a guide, the entire body of the accumulation of virtue, generosity and so forth, has been taken onto the path of Buddhahood.The Prajm Paramita-Ratna Guna-Samcaya- Gatha describes the important role of perfection of wisdom as followingi^"*^ "Wherever, we know, the Universal Monarch may travel, There is all the army of all the seven precious things: Wherever there is this perfection of wisdom of the Jinas, There also all dhatmas of good quality are brought along."^'*^ Moreover, the Buddha also states that the perfection of wisdom controls the five perfections.^'*^ When Ananda asks the Lord why he does not praise the perfection of giving, nor any of the first five perfections; he does

''*' , The Jewel Ornament of Liberation (trans. By Khenpo Konchog Gyaltsen Rinpoche) (New York: Snow Lion Publication, 1998),233 ''** yenaiva raja vrajate sa lia ca/cravartf tenaiva sapta ratana balalcaya sarve/ yenaiva prajHa iya paramitajinanam tenaiva sarvagunadliarma samagamanti{A)drai Yuyama (Q(\.),Prajiia Paratnita -Ratna- Guna Samcaya- (3a£fta (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 24 ''" Edward Conze (trans), Tlie Perfection of Wisdom in Eigiit Tliousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {T>Q\\\r. Sri Satguru publications, 1994),16. '''* "a/Aa Jdia/vayusmananando bliagavantametadavocat - na bliagavan danaparamitaya varnani blia§ate, na namadlieyam parHtFrtayati / na sTlaparamitayah, na k^antiparamitayah, na vTryaparamitayaii /na bliagavan dliyanaparamitaya varnam blia?ate, na namadlieyam pariklrtayati/ api tu prajMparamitaya evaikasya bhagavan varnam bha^ate, namadlieyam ca pariklrtayati / bhagavanaha evametadananda, evam etat / prajMparamitaya evahamananda varnam bha^e namadheyam ca parikTrtayami, nanyasam paramitanam /tatkasya hetoh?prajHaparamita hi ananda purvamgama pancanam paramitanam mahaprthivT ca te^aqi bTjanatn prati^tha / mahaprthivTprati§thitani ca tani bijani virohanti / evameva ananda prajnaparamitasarngrhltah pafica paramitah sarvajHatayam pratisthante / prajHaparamitaprati^fhitah pafica paramita virohanti / prajMparamitaparigrhTtatvacca paramitanamadheyam labhante / tasmattarhi ananda prajHaparamitaiva paHcanarn paramitanam purvamgama nayika parinayakS'' IIAsta., Ill, p.40

255 not proclaim their name. Only the perfection of wisdom, the Lord praise, its name alone he proclaims.The Buddha replies: ''prajnaparamitaya evahamananda varnam. bhase namadheyam ca parikirtayami, nanyasam paramitananf^'^'^, (For the perfection of wisdom controls the five perfections).^^°The Lord further proclaims that the wisdom inconceivable which turns over the wholesome roots by dedicating them to all-knowledge, He explains that because the perfection of wisdom gets its name fi-om its supreme excellence (paramatvat). Through it, the wholesome roots, dedicated to all-knowledge, get the name of 'perfections'.Therefore, it is because it has dedicated the wholesome roots to all-knowledge that the perfection of wisdom controls, guides and leads the five perfections. The five perfections are in this manner contained in the perfection of wisdom, and the term 'perfection of wisdom' is just a synonym for the fulfilment of the six perfections. In consequence, when the perfection of wisdom is proclaimed, all the six perfections are proclaimed. Just as gems, scattered about in the great earth, grow when all conditions are favourable; and the great earth is their support, and they grow supported by the great earth; even so, embodied in the perfection of wisdom, the five perfections rest in all-knowledge, they grow supported by the perfection of wisdom; and as upheld by the perfection of wisdom do they get the name of 'perfections'. So it is just the perfection of wisdom that controls, guides and leads the five perfections. Sariputra further gives the definition of the perfection of wisdom that it is the accomplishment of the cognition of the all-knowing. The perfection of wisdom is the state of a\\-know\edge;^^\sarvaJnajnanapan'nispattjrbJiagavan

^^' Asta., Ill, p.40 Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Tliousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {T>Q\h\: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),111. "' Edward Conze (trans), Tlie Perfection of Wisdom in Eigiit Tliousand Lines & Its Verse Summary(DoM: Sri Satguru publications, 1994), 135.

256 prajnaparamita, sarvajnatvam bhagavan prajhaparamitaj . He gives the praise of perfection of wisdom that the perfection of wisdom gives light. He pays homage to the perfection of wisdom because she is worthy of homage. She is unstained; the entire world cannot stain her. She is a source of light, and from everyone in the triple world she removes darkness, and she leads away from the blinding darkness caused by the defilements and by wrong views. In her, we can find shelter. Most excellent are her works. She makes us seek the safety of the wings of enlightenment. She brings light to the blind; she brings light so that all fear and distress may be forsaken. She has gained the five eyes, and she shows the path to all beings. She herself is an organ of vision. She disperses the gloom and darkness of delusion. She does nothing about all dharmas. She guides to the path those who have strayed on to a bad road. She is identical with all-knowledge. She never produces any dharma, because she has forsaken the residues relating to both kinds of coverings, those produced by defilement and those produced by the cognizable. She does not stop any dharma. Herself unstopped and unproduced is the perfection of wisdom. She is the mother of the bodhisattvas, on account of the emptiness of own marks. As the donor of the jewel of all the Buddha- dharmas, she brings about the ten powers of a Buddha. She cannot be crushed. She protects the unprotected, with the help of the four grounds of self-confidence. She is the antidote to birth-and-death. She has a clear knowledge of the own-being of all dharmas, for she does not stray away from it. The perfection of wisdom of the Buddhas sets in motion the wheel of the dharma/'' It is, thus, that when a bodhisattva trains in the perfection of wisdom, all the perfections are automatically incorporated, taken up, followed after

'" Asta., 86 ^" Asia., 86-87

257 and included. The view of individuality includes all the sixty-two views, and even so, for a bodhisattva who trains in the perfection of wisdom, all the perfections are included in that. As long as someone's life-faculty goes on, all the other faculties are included in it. Even so for a bodhisattva who trains in perfect wisdom all the other wholesome dharmas are included in that. When someone's life-faculty is stopped, all the other faculties are also stopped. Even so, for a bodhisattva who trains in perfect wisdom, all the other unwholesome dharmas are stopped when only non-cognition is stopped, and all the other perfections are included in that, and automatically taken hold of.The Prajfia Paramita Ratna-Guna- Samcaya- G'a/Aa concludes:^^'* "As when the life faculty has been stopped Also all the other faculties that may exist are stopped: Just so, when the best of the wise course in wisdom, All these perfections have been said to be therein comprehended"^^^ b. PrajfiaParamitais unthinkable,deep and infinitude Next nature of Prajnaparamita is unthinkable, deep and infinitude. Any times, when the Buddha, Sariputra or Subhuti gives the definition of Prajiiaparamita, they often use negative words to describe elusiveness of the perfection of wisdom such as: the perfection of wisdom cannot be expounded, or learnt, or distinguished, or considered, or stated, or reflected upon by means of the skandhas, or by means of the elements, or by means of the sense-fields... etc. Even, Subhuti^^^ who was one of the ten great Sravalcas of Sakyamuni

"'* yathajTvitendriya niruddhiya kecidanye bhonti niruddha pfthu indriya yavadastij emeva prajnacarite vidu uttamanam sarveta paramita uktaya sarngfAM (Akira Yuyama (ed.),PraJna Paramita Ratna Guna Satjicaya Gatoa (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 100) "' Edward Conze (trans), Tlie Perfection of Wisdom in Eiglit Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {DeXhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),56. "* Subhuti was one of the Ten Great Sravakas of Sakyamuni Buddha, and foremost in the understanding of emptiness. In Sanskrit, his name literally means "Good Existence". He is also sometimes referred to as or "Elder Subhuti" (Sthavira Subhuti). He was a contemporary of such famous arhats as Sariputra, Mahakasyapa, Mahamaudgalyayana, Mahakatyayana, and

258 Buddha, and foremost in the understanding of emptiness also shows his confusions when talking about perfection of wisdom. He says: "0 Lord Buddha, when the conventional mind speaks ut the bodhisattva, the one committed to universal conscious enlightenment, to what substantial, independent being does this term Eder? After profound investigation, I still cannot discover any such bodhisattva. Neither can I find any subjective or objective structure corresponding to the term prajnaparamita, or Perfect Wisdom." As other passage, ^^^Subhuti compares perfection of wisdom as an unthinkable, incomparable, immeasurable, incalculable enterprise, as an enterprise which equals the unequalled.^^^The Buddha also adds explaination that why is it an unthinkable enterprise? Because unthinkable are Tathagatahood, Buddhahood, self-existence, and the state of all-knowledge. And on these, one cannot reflect with one's thought, since they cannot be an object of thought, or of volition, or of any of the dharmas which constitute thought. And why is it an incomparable enterprise? Because one cannot reflect on Tathagatahood, etc., nor compare it. And why is it immeasurable? It is because Tathagatahood, etc., is immeasurable. And why is it incalculable? That is because Tathagatahood, etc., is incalculable. And why is it an enterprise which equals the unequalled? Because nothing can be equal to the Tathagata, to the fully enlightened one, to the self-existent, to the all-

Ananda.Among the Mahayana traditions, Subhuti is perhaps best known as the disciple with whom the Buddha speaks when imparting the (Skt. VajracchedikS Prajnaparamita Sutra), an important teaching within the Prajnaparamita genre. This, along with the (Skt. Prajnaparamita Hrdaya), is one of the most well-known sutras among both practitioners and non- practitioners of Buddhism. Subhuti is also responsible for much of the exposition in earlier Prajnaparamita sutras.In the (Skt. Saddharma PundarUia Sutra), Chapter 6 (Bestowal of Prophecy), the Buddha bestows prophecies of enlightenment on Subhuti, along with other sravakas such as Mahakasyapa, Mahakatyayana, and Mahamaudgalyayana. '" Lex Hixon (trans.), Motlier oftlie Buddlia: Meditation on ttie Prajnaparamita Sutra (USA: Quest Book, 1993), 55 ^^^'''...malialcrtyena bateyam bliagavan prajnaparamita pratyupastliita / acintyai(rtyenatulya]qtyenaprameyalirtyenasam]diyeyal(rtyenasamasamal(rtyena bateyam bhagavan prajnaparamitapratyupastliitS^ Asta., XIII p. 138 '' Edward Conze (trans), Ttie Perfection of Wisdom in Eiglit Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary (Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994), 180.

259 knowing.^^^Sakra strongly states: "•mahaparamiteyamarya subhute yaduta prajMparamita / apramanaparamiteyamarya subhute yaduta prajnaparamita / aparimanaparamiteyamarya subhute yaduta prajnaparamita / anantaparamiteyamarya subhute yaduta prajnaparamita / "This perfection of wisdom, Subhuti, is a great perfection, unlimited, measureless, and infinite".^" Subhuti supports it and further explains that perfect wisdom is great, unlimited, measureless and infinite because form, feelings, etc., are so. Hence, one does not settle down in the conviction that this is a 'great perfection', and 'unlimited perfection', a 'measureless perfection', and 'infinite perfection'. That is why perfect wisdom is a great perfection, unlimited, measureless and infinite. Perfect wisdom is an infinite perfection because objects as well as individual beings are infinite. Perfect wisdom is an infinite perfection because one cannot get at the beginning, middle, or end of any objective fact since as a dharma it has no own-being. Moreover, perfect wisdom is an infinite perfection because all objective facts are endless and boundless, and their beginning, middle, or end is not apprehended. For one cannot apprehend the beginning, middle and end of form, etc. In that way, perfect wisdom is an infinite perfection by reason of the infinitude of

560 Ibid., '*' Asta., II p.23 '^^ Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & hs Verse Summary{Y>e\h\: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),100. '*^ "...evametatlcaus'ika, evam etat / mahaparamiteyam Icausi/ca yaduta prajnaparamita / apramanaparamiteyani kaus'ika yaduta prajnaparamita /aparimanaparamiteyam kausika yaduta prajnaparamita / anantaparamiteyam kausika yaduta prqjriaparamita / tatkasya hetoh? rupamahattaya hi kausika mahaparamiteyam yaduta prajnaparamita / evam vedanasamjnasainskatah / vijhanamahattaya hi kausikamahaparamiteyam yaduta prajnaparamita / rupapramanataya kausika apramanaparamiteyani yaduta prajnaparamita / evam vedanasamjhasamskarah / vijhanapramanataya kausika apramariaparamiteyam yaduta prajnaparamita / rupSparimanataya kausika aparimanaparamiteyam yaduta prajnaparamita / evam vedanasamjMsarnskarah / vijnanaparimanataya kausika aparimanaparamiteyam yaduta prajnaparamita.... "Asta., II p.23

260 objects. And further again, a being is endless and boundless because one cannot get at its beginning, middle or end. Therefore, perfect wisdom is an infinite perfection by reason of the infinitude of beings. Then, Sakra asks holy Subhuti why perfect wisdom is an infinite perfection by reason of the infinitude of beings? Subhuti replies that the word 'being' denotes no dharma or non-dhaima. It is a term that has been added on to what is really there as something adventitious, groundless, as nothing in itself, unfounded in objective fact.Therefore; a being is pure fi-om the very beginning, perfectly pure. In this way also perfect wisdom is infinitude perfection by reason of the infinitude of beings. In this manner also the infinitude of perfect wisdom should be known fi-omth e infinitude of beings. c.Prajna Paramj'ta is a source of great merit. Many passages in Astsahasrik- Prajnaparamita -Sutra^^^ describes one of natures of Prajnaparamita is a source of great merit. Through conversation between the Buddha and Sakra, it gives an example^^^ that there are two persons. One of the two, a son or daughter of good family, has written down this perfection of wisdom, made a copy of it; he would then put it up, and would honour, revere, worship, and adore it with heavenly flowers, incense, perfiimes, wreaths, unguents, aromatic powders, strips of cloth, parasols, banners, bells, flags, with rows of lamps all round, and with manifold kinds of worship. The other would deposit in the relics of the Tathagata who has gone to pan'ni'rvana; he would take hold of them and preserve them; he would honor, worship and adore them with heavenly flowers, incense, etc., as before. Sakra asks the Buddha which one of the two would beget the greater merit? The Lord replies that the son or daughter of good family who has made a copy of the perfection of wisdom, and who worships it, would beget

'*" Edward Conze (trans), The Perfect/on of Wisdom in Eiglit Tliousand Lines & Its Verse Summary (Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994), 120-124,254 565 Ibid., 106

261 the greater merit. For by worshipping the perfection of wisdom, he worships the cognition of the all-knowing.^^^ The Buddha explains that the Tathagata does not derive his name from the fact that he has acquired this physical personality, but from the fact that he has acquired all-knowledge. And this all-knowledge of the Tathagata has come forth from the perfection of wisdom. The physical personality of the Tathagata, on the other hand, is the result of the skill in means of the perfection of wisdom. And that becomes a sure foundation for the cognition of the all-knowing. Thanking to this foundation, the revelation of the cognition of the all-knowing takes place, the revelation of the buddha-body, of the dharmabody, of the Sanghabody. The acquisition of the physical personality is thus the cause of the cognition of the all-knowing. As the sure foundation of that cognition it has, for all beings, become a true shrine, worthy of being saluted respectftilly, of being honoured, revered and adored. After Tathagata have gone to , his relics also will be worshipped, It is for this reason that the person who would copy and worship the perfection of wisdom would beget the greater merit. For, in doing so, he would worship the cognition of the all-knowing. Moreover, it is also mentioned that the merit would be greater for those who would truly believe in this perfection of wisdom; who would, trustingly, confiding in it, resolutely intent on it, serene in his faith, his thoughts raised to enlightenment, in earnest intent, hear it, learn it, bear it in mind, recite and study it, spread, demonstrate, explain, expound and repeat it,

^^ "...sarvajnajmnasyahikausika tenakulaputrena vakuladuhitra vapujakrta bhavi^yati,yah kulaputro vakuladuhita va iha prajnaparamitayam likhyamanayam pustakagatayam va satkaram gurukaram mananani pujanamarcanamapacayanam pujam ca vividharn kuryat, ayameva tato bahutaram punyam prasavet / tatkasya hetoh? sarvajnajmnasya hi kausika tenapujakrta bhavi^yati, yah prajfiaparamitayaipQjam kari$yati"Asta., Ill, p. 29

262 illuminate it in detail to others, uncover its meaning, investigate it with his mind; who, using his wisdom the fullest extent, would thoroughly examine it; who would copy it, and preserve and store away that copy so that the good dharma might last long, so that the guide of the Buddhas might not be annihilated, so that the good dharma might not disappear, so that the bodhisattvas, the great beings might continue to be assisted, since their guide will not give out. The merit of the devotee of the perfection of wisdom would be greater when we makes comparison of the merit of those who would build many kotis of 5ft//>a5 made of the seven precious things, enshrining the relics of the Tathagata. It would be greater than the merit produced by all beings in a four-continent world system if each single one of them were to build such a . The devotee of the perfection of wisdom would have greater merit than that which results from the effect of the meritorious deeds of all those beings who erect and worship those countless stupas. It is because the person who honours the perfection of wisdom, in an absolute sense, he honours the past, future and present Buddhas in all the world systems, which can be comprehended only by the cognition of a Buddha.^^^ His merit will be greater even than that of all beings in great trichiliocosms countless like the sands of the Ganges, if each single being in them would build a Stupa, and if each one of them would build all those stupas, and honor them for an aeon or the remainder of an aeon.^^^ Considering the nature of merit from practicing perfection of wisdom, another example is given for comparision of merit that there are two

"... evametadbhagavan, evametatsugata /prajnaparamitam hi bhagavan satkurvata gunikurvata manayata pQjayata arcayata apacayata kulaputrena va kuladuhitra va atTtanagatapratyutpanna buddha bhagavanto buddhajnanaparijnate?u sarvalokadhatusu atyantataya satkrta gurukrta manitah pujita arcita apacayitasca bhavanti... "Asta., Ill, p. 35 * Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {DQM: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),120-124,254

263 persons.^^^The one truly believes in the perfection of wisdom, trustingly confides in it, etc. And when he has heard this exposition, he will resolve that he will never abandon this perfection of wisdom, he will guard and preserve it, because it is exceedingly hard to get. And he himself would honour, worship and adore it. The other person would first venerate it, and then give a copy of it to another son or daughter of a good family who is desirous of it and eager, asks for it. Sakra asks the Buddha which one of the two would beget the greater merit? The Lord replies that the person who would give this perfection of wisdom to others, who helps others, who intends to give it away; he would on the strength of that beget the greater merit. If in addition he would go to where there are persons who have become fit vessels for this perfection of wisdom, and would share it with them, then he would beget still more merit. The Buddha also proclaims that the merit would be greater if there someones who would make a copy of this perfection of wisdom, would believe in it and have faith in it, faith serene and firm; who would raise his thoughts to enlightenment, and with earnest intention would give this perfection of wisdom to another bodhisattva who had raised his thoughts to enlightenment; would first of all perfect himself by tireless writing and reciting; then after much zealous labour, he would persuade the other bodhisattva, explain this perfection of wisdom to him, instigate to it, fill with enthusiasm for it, make him rejoice in it, would, by his words, lead him to it, educate him in it, illuminate its benefits to him, cleanse his thought and remove his doubts. This merit can be compared with the merit of someone who establishes in the observation of the ten wholesome ways of acting all the beings in world systems of any size, even in all the world systems that

^^'Ibid., 120

264 there are, numerous as the sands of Ganges River. Or if it is compared with that of someone who would establish others in the four trances, the four unlimited, the four formless attainments, the five superknowledges, in any number of world systems. In each case, a person who would not only write this perfection of wisdom and recite it by himself, but would write it for others and give it away to them, would easily beget the greater merit. And finally, someone would also beget a greater merit if they were conversant with the meaning when reciting this perfection of wisdom; and having written it for others, would give it away, expound and light it up, both the meaning and the letter,^^^ d.PraJna Paramita is the mother of all Buddhas "" matraya putra bahu santi gilani kaye te sarvi dwmanasa tatra prayujyayeyuhj emeva buddha(pim) dasaddisi lokadhatau ima prajnaparamita matra samanvaharantf^^^ "If a mother with many sons had fallen ill, They all, sad in mind, would busy themselves about her: Just so also the Buddhas in the world-systems in the ten directions Bring to mind this perfection of wisdom as their mother.""^ The role of perfection of wisdom to bodhisattvas is so important that the Astsahasrika Prajnaparamit^^^ concerns the perfection os wisdom as the morther of all Buddha. Sariputra uses many good words to praise the perfection of wisdom. He says that the perfection of wisdom shines forth as a sublime light. She is worthy of infinite praise. She is utterly unstained, because nothing in this insubstantial world can possibly stain her. She is an

"° Ibid., 120-121 571 Akira Yuyama {QA.),Prajna Paramita Ratna Guna Samcaya Gatha (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976),3S) "^ Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {DQWIV. Sri Satguru publications, 1994),31 "Mbid., 31,172

265 ever-flowing fountain of incomparable light, and from every conscious being on every plane, she removes the faintest trace of illusory darkness. She leads living beings into her clear light from the blindness and obscurity caused by moral and spiritual impurity as well as by partial or distorted views of reality. In her alone, we can find true . Sublime and excellent are her revelations through all persons of wisdom. She inspires and guides us to seek the safety and certainty of the bright wings of enlightenment. She pours forth her nectar of healing light to those who have made themselves appear blind. She provides the illumination through which all fear and despair can be utterly renounced.^^"^ She manifests the. five mystic eyes of wisdom, the vision and penetra­ tion of each one more exalted than the last. She clearly and constantly points out the path of wisdom to every conscious being with the direct pointing that is her transmission and empowerment. She is an infinite eye of wisdom. She dissipates entirely the mental gloom of delusion. She does not manipulate any structures of relativity. Simply by shining spontaneously, she guides to the spiritual path whatever beings have wandered into dangerous, negative, self-centered ways. Sariputra further proclaims that mother Prajiiaparamita is total awakeness. She never substantially creates any limited structure because she experiences none of the tendencies of living beings to grasp, project or conceptualize. Neither does she substantially dismantle or destroy any limited structure, for she encounters no solid limits. She is the perfect wisdom which never comes into beings and therefore never goes out of beings. She is known as the great mother by those spiritually mature beings who dedicate their

"'* Lex Hixon (trans.), Mother of the Buddha: Meditation on the PrajMparamita Sutra (USA: Quest Book, 1993),95

266 mind streams to the liberation and full enlightenment of all that lives. She is not marked by fundamental characteristics. This absence of characteristics is her transcendent, mystic motherhood, the radiant blackness of her womb. She is the universal benefactress, who presents, as a sublime to truth, the limitless jewel of all Buddha qualities, the miraculous gem which generates the ten inconceivable powers of a Buddha to elevate living beings into consciousness of their innate Buddha nature. She can never be defeated in any way, on any level. She lovingly protects vulnerable conscious beings who carmot protect themselves, gradually generating in them unshakable fearlessness and diamond confidence. She is the perfect antidote to the poisonous view which affirms the cycle of birth and death to be a substantial reality. She is the clear knowledge of the open and transparent mode of being shared by all relative structures and events. Her transcendent knowing never wavers. She is the perfect wisdom who gives birthless birth to all Buddhas. And through these sublimely awakened ones, it is mother Prajnaparamita alone who turns the wheel of true teaching. Moreover, the Lord gives a very good example to describle this nature of Prajnaparamita. He says that it is as with a mother who has many children, five, or ten, or twenty, or thirty, or forty, or fifty, or one hundred or one thousand. If she fell ill, they would all exert themselves to prevent their mother from dying, to keep her alive as long as possible, and to keep and unpleasantness away from her body. Because they are aware that to her they owe their existence, that in great pain she has brought them into the world, that she has instructed them in the ways of the world. They would, therefore, look well after her, give her everything that can make her happy, protect her

"' Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {DQM: Sri Satguru publications, 1994), 172

267 well, make much of her, and they will hope that she be free from pain which is derived from contact with eyes, ear, nose, tongue, body or mind, or coming from wind, bile, phlegm, or a disorder of the humours, or from stinging insects, mosquitoes, or crawling animals, from men or from ghosts, from anything falling upon her, or tearing her asunder, or from a disastrous crash. In this way, those sons honour their mother by giving her all that can make her happy, make much of her, cherish and protect her, because they are aware that she is their mother and begetter, that, in great pain, she brought them into the world, that she instructed them in the ways of the world. In just this same way, the Tathagatas bring this perfection of wisdom to mind, and it is through their might, sustaining power and grace that people write, learn, study, spread and repeat it. And also the Tathagatas who dwell in other world systems just now,- for the weal and happiness of the many, out of pity for the many, for the weal and happiness of a great body of people, from pity for gods, men and all beings-they also all bring this perfection of wisdom to mind, and they put forth zeal so that this perfection of wisdom may last long, so that it may not be destroyed, so that Mara and his host may not prevent this perfection of wisdom from being taught, written, and practiced. So fond are the Tathagatas of this perfection of wisdom, so much do they cherish and protect it. For she is their mother and begetter, she showed them the all-knowledge; she instructed them in ways of the world. From her have the Tathagatas come forth. For she has begotten and shown that cognition of the all-knowing, she has shown them the world for what it really is.The all knowledge of the Tathagatas has come forth from her. All the Tathagatas, past, future and present, win fiill enlightermient thanks to this very perfection of wisdom. It is in this sense that the perfection of wisdom generates the Tathagatas, and instructs them in this world.^''^

'\..esa hi mats janayitri tathagatanamarhatam samyaksambuddhanam / asyah sarvajfiataya

268 V.3. How a BodbisattvaPmcdcGS FrajMParanu'ia

V.3.1 How a Bodhisattva Stands in and Train in Praj&a Paramita

"rupasmi yo na sthihate na ca vedanayarh samjnaya yo na sthihate na ca cetanayam/ vijnaniyo na sthihate sthitu dharmatayam esS sa prajfiavaraparamitaya carya' "He (a bodhisattva) does not stand in form, perception or in feeling, In will or consciousness, in any skandhas whatsoever. In Dharma's true nature alone he is standing. Then that is his practice of wisdom, the highest perfection." Through the inexhaustible power of Buddha nature, Subhiiti teachs Kausika know how a bodhisattva should stand in perfect wisdom. He says: "sUnyatayaw kausika tisthata bodhisattvena mahasattvenaprajnaparamitayam sthatavyam", "Through standing in emptiness, should he stand in perfect wisdom".^^° Armed with the great armour, the bodhisattva should so develop that he does not take his stand on any of these: not on form, feeling, perception, impulses, consciousness; not on eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind; not on forms, sounds, smells, tastes, touchables, mind-objects; not on eye-

darsayitn lokasya ca samdarsayitrT/ atonirjata hi subhute tatbagata arhantah samyaksambuddhali / prajMparamitS hi subhute tathagatanamarhatam samyaksambuddhanamasya sarvajHajnanasya janayitn darsayitn, evamasya lokasya samdarsayitrT / atonirjata hi subhute tathagatanamarhataw samyaksarnbuddhanam sarvajhata / ye 'pi kecitsubhute atite dhvani tathagata arhantah samyaksaipbuddha anuttaram samyaksarnbodhimabhisainbuddhah, te 'pi sarve enaweva prajhaparamitamagamya anuttararn samyaksambodhimabhisainbuddhah / ye 'pi te subhute bhavisyantyanagate 'dhvani tathagata arhantaif Asta., XII, p. 125 "^ Akira Yuyama {eA.),Prajfia Paramita Ratna Guna Samcaya Catta (London: Cambridge University Press, 1916), 17) Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & its Verse Summary {Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),13. "'/45&.,II,p.l7 '*° Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {Delhv. Sri Satguru publications, 1994),97.

269 consciousness, etc.^^^ The bodhisattva is not rooted, focused or established in the perception of material forms or in the experience of personal feelings, perceptions and impulses. The bodhisattva is not rooted, focused or established in any possible state of individual or communal awareness within the cosmic display of earth, water, fire, wind, space and perspectival consciousness. The bodhisattva is not even rooted, focused or established in the practice of mindfulness and other contemplative disciplines, nor in their fi-uits, the supra-normal powers. The bodhisattva is not identified with exalted levels of the spiritual path, including gnostic sainthood or solitary sagehood, or even with the supreme goal of Buddhahood. Astsahasrilca PrajfiaparamitafmihQV proclaims that the bodhisattva vAio stands courageously in perfect wisdom experiences no identification with the noble stream enterer, who begins to flow as the stream of realization, nor with the noble once returner, who has only one more incarnation before achieving complete personal liberation, nor with the noble never returner, who will achieve complete personal liberation at the moment of death. Nor does the bodhisattva identify with or idolize even the sublime arhat, or gnostic saint, who has already achieved complete personal liberation while living out this present lifetime. The great being who stands courageously in perfect wisdom does not identify with any idea, statement or doctrine from common experience or fi-om any philosophical or religious fi-amework, beginning with the conventional assumption, the world consists of material forms, all the way

".. bodhisattvena mahasattvena mahasamnahasaninaddhena bhavitavyam /na rupe sthatavyam / na vedanayam na sawjmyam na samskare^u /na vijnane sthatavyam /na caksu^i sthatavyam /na rupe sthatavyam / na caksurvijhane sthatavyam / na cak^uhsamsparse sthatavyam / na cak^uhsamsparsajayarn vedanayam sthatavyam / evam na srotraghranajihvakayamanahsu sthatavyam /na sabdagandharasasprAstavyadharme^u, na srotravijnane, yavanna manovijnane /na manahsamsparse, na manahsamsparsajayani vedanayam sthatavyam /na prthivTdhatau sthatavyam / nabdhatau, na tejodhatau, na vayudhatau, nakasadhatau, na vijnanadhatau sthatavyam / na smrtyupasthane?u sthatavyam ... "Asta.,ll, p. 18 ^*^ Edward Conze (trans), The Perfect/on of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {T>Q\h\: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),97

270 to the exalted teaching, the world consists of Buddha natuTQ.^^^PraJna Paramita-Ratna -Guna- Samcaya-Gatha says-^^'^ Coursing thus, the wise and learned Bodhisattva, Trains not for Arhatship, nor on the level of Pratyekabuddhas. In the Buddha-dharma alone he trains for the sake of all-knowledge. No training is his training, and no one is trained in this training. ^^^ The bodhisattva is not rooted, focused or established in any philosophical analysis, either Buddhist or non-Buddhist, which concludes that the principle of form is impermanent or that it is permanent. The bodhi'sattya does not identify truth with the assertion that the processes of form constitute suffering or that they constitute happiness, that the processes of form are not the self or are the self, that the processes of form are repulsive or attractive, or that form is inherently empty of substantiality or inherently substantial. The bodhisattva is not identified with any philosophical or religious notion that the fruits of the holy life of Buddhist or non-Buddhist practice derive their value and dignity from a separate, unconditioned reality. The bodhisattva does not seek to become established in the sublime station of a self-realized sage nor even in the supremely wondrous state of a fully awakened Buddha, when such is conceived as a separate individual state above or apart from all conscious beings. The great being who courageously stands in perfect wisdom does not adopt or lean for support upon the notion that any advanced level of Buddhist or non-Buddhist attainment is worthy of earthly or heavenly praise, honor or

'"'^Ibid. '*'' evam carantu vidu pan^itu bodhisattva narhaihmi sik^ati na pratyayabuddhabhumauj sarvajnataya anusik^ati buddhadharme siksaasik^a na ya siksati esa siksa; Akira Yuyama (ed.),Prajna Paramita -Ratna -Guna -Samcaya- Cia/Zfa (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976),/^ '^' Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse 5u/n/na/y(Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),13-14

271 reward. The bodhisattva does not even lean for support upon the inspiring idea of the supreme praise worthiness of a Buddha who has attained final nirvana that state of absolute fulfillment that leaves behind no impurity or suffering whatsoever. The bodhisattva does not objectify even this heroic Buddha, who has succeeded in bringing about the physical and spiritual wellbeing of countless living beings and has led to nirvana, or total liberation, thousands of millions of billions of beings, maturing them gradually through the stages of common experience, then through discipleship, sainthood, sagehood and Buddhahood. The bodiiisattva who stands courageously in perfect wisdom is not fixated even upon the imageless image of total liberation. While listening to this radical discourse by his dharma brother Subhuti, incomparable master of Prajnaparamita and noble companion of Shakya Budha, the holy elder Sariputra experiences a flash of thought: If even there on one should not take one's stand, how then should one stand, and train oneself? The Venerable Subhuti, through the Buddha's might, read his thoughts and said: What do you think, Sariputra, where did the Tathagata stand? Sariputra replies: Nowhere did the Tathagata stand, because his mind sought no support. He stood neither in what is conditioned, nor in what is unconditioned, nor did he emerge from them. Then, Subhuti supports it and explains that this traceless way of the transcendent Tathagatas is the very way that the bodiiisattva train and stand in perfect wisdom. With ultimate courage and adamantine conviction, the bodiiisattva goes completely beyond convention, vowing: "Yatha tathagata 'rhan samyaksambuddlio na kvacitsthito nasthito na visfhito navisthitah, tatha sthasyamityevamanena sik^itavyam / yatha tathagatasthmam tattta sthasyamTti, tatha siksisye iti, yatlia tatiiagatasthmam tatha sthasyamTti, tatha

111 siksisye iti, yatha tathagatasthanam tatha sthasyamiti susthito 'sthanayogeneti evamatra bodhisattvena mahasattvena sthatavyamevani siksitavyam' "As the Tathagata does not stand anywhere, nor not stand, nor stand apart, nor not stand apart, so will I stand." Just so should he train himself "as the Tathagata is stationed, so will I stand, and train myself." Just so should he train himself. "As the Tathagata is stationed, so will I stand, well placed because without a place to stand onr''' When bodhisattvas generate the infinite courage to live existentially in this spirit, their entire awareness becomes aligned with prajnaparamita, absorbed in perfect wisdom. Inseparable fi*om every breath of every conscious being, their heartfelt meditation on perfect wisdom never ceases, even for a moment. Moreover, through conversation between Sariputra and Subhuti, Astsahasrika-Prajnaparamita also states that a bodhisttva should not course in the skandhas, nor in their sign, nor in the idea that 'the skandhas are signs,' nor in the production of the skandhas, in their stopping or destruction, nor in the idea that 'the skandhas are empty,' or 'I course,' or 'I am a bodhisattva.^ And it should not occur to him, 'he who courses thus, courses in perfect wisdom and develops it.' He courses but he does not entertain such ideas as 'I course,' 'I do not course,' 'I course and I do not course,' 'I neither course nor do I not course,' and the same four with 'I will course,' He does not go near any dharma at all, because all dharma are unapproachable and unappropriable. The bodhisattva then has the concentrated insight 'not

^^^ Asta.,\\,^.n '*' Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {DQ\h\: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),98 '** "..sacedayusman sariputra bodhisattvo mahasattvo na rupe carati, na rupanimitte carati, na rupam nimittamiti carati, na rupasyotpade carati, na rupasya nirodhe carati, na rupasya vinase carati, na ruparp sunyamiti carati, nahaiti caramiti carati, naham bodhisattva iti carati / evam sacenna vedanayam na sam/nayam na sarnskaresu / sacenna vijMne carati, na vijMnanimitte carati, na vijnanam nimittamiti carati, na vijhanasyotpade carati, na vijUanasya nirodhe carati, na vijnanasya vinase carati, na vijUanani sunyamiti carati, naham caramTti carati, naham bodhisattva iti carati... "Asta.,l, p. 7

273 grasping at any dharma' by name, vast, noble, unlimited and steady, not shared by any of the Disciples or Pratyekabuddhas, When he dwells in this concentrated insight, a bodhisattva will quickly win the full enlightenment which the Tathagatas of the past have predicted for him. But when he dwells in that concentration, he does not review it, nor think 'I am collected,' 'I will enter into concentration,' 'I am entering into concentration,' 'I have entered into concentration.' All that in each and every way does not exist for him. Besides standing in emptiness, a bodhisttva must train in all- knowledge. The Buddha says: He must train in extinction, in non-production, in non-stopping, in no-birth, in the absence of positivity, in isolatedness, in dispassion, in space, in the element of dharma, and nirvana ; {sacetsubhute bodhisattvo mahasattvah ksaye siksate, sarvajnatayam siksate /evamanutpade 'nirodhe 'jatau abhave viveke virage akase dharmadhatau / sacetsubhute bodhisattvo mahasattvonirvane siksate, sarvajnatayam siksate ).^^^Q further explains why a bodhisattva trains in that amount of all- knowledge that a bodhisattva who trains himself in all-knowledge, he trains in the conviction that "Suchness does not get extinct." When he trains thus, he will reach the perfection of all training. He cannot be crushed by Mara, or by Mara's associates or by Mara's host. Soon, he shall reach the condition of irreversibility. Soon, he shall sit on the terrace of enlightenment. He courses in his own range. He is trained in the dharmas which make him into a saviour, in the great fi-iendliness, the great compassion, the great sympathetic joy, the great impartiality. He trains for the turning of the wheel of dharma, with its three revolutions and twelve aspects. He trains so as to save no fewer beings than he should. He trains to ensure the non-interruption of the of the Tathagatas. He trains in order to open the door of the deathless

589 589 Ej^ard Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eiglit Tliousand Lines & Its Verse Summary(DeM: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),248 ^"'/l5/'a.XXV,p.210

274 element. An inferior being is, however, incapable of this sublime training. For a weakling carmot be trained in this training. Because those who are trained in this training are the very cream of all beings, are persons who want to save all beings. They want to reach a state where they are elevated above all beings. A bodhisattva who trains, thus, is not reborn in the hells, nor among animals, nor in the realms of the , nor among the , nor in outlying districts among barbarous populations, nor in the families of outcasts or fowlers, of hunters, fishermen or butchers, nor in the other low class families of that kind, in which one is addicted to low deeds. He does not become blind, deaf, or one-eyed; he is not a cripple, nor a man with withered hand or arm, nor limping, nor lame, or stunned, not tremulous, quivering or shaky; his limbs are not puny, nor incomplete, nor abnormal; he is not weak, nor has he a bad complexion or shape; his faculties are not inferior nor incomplete, but they are in every way perfect; and he has a melodious voice. He does not become a person who takes life, or who takes what is not given, or who goes wrong about his sense-desires, or who speaks falsely, or maliciously, or harshly, or who prattles indistinctly, or who is covetous, or who harbours ill will in his heart, or who has wrong views, and he does not earn his livelihood in the wrong fashion. He is not reborn among the long- lived gods, he does not take up bad moral practices, does not take hold of unreal dharmas, and he does not get reborn through the influences of his trances and formless attainments. For there is his skill in means, and endowed with that he does not get reborn among the long-lived gods. Skill in means of a bodhisattva here is just this perfection of wisdom. And he applies himself to this skill in means in such a way that, endowed with it, the bodhisattva enters into the trances without being reborn through the influence of the trances. When he trains thus, a bodhisattva incurs the perfect purity of the powers, of the grounds of self-confidence, of the Buddha-dharmas. He reaches all that.

275 Furthermore, all dharmas are just by their essential original nature perfectly pure. Therefore, when a bodhisattva who trains in perfect wisdom does not lose heart and remain uncowed although all dharmas are by their nature perfectly pure, then that is his perfection of wisdom.On behalf of those things, the bodhisattva struggle on and exert vigour so that those who do not know may be enabled to know, so that those who do not see may be made to see. In this training they train, and therefore in the world of appearance, a bodhisattva reaches the powers, the grounds of self-confidence, and all Buddha-dharmas. When they train thus, bodhisattvas wisely know the throbbing thoughts and actions of other beings, of other persons as they really are. And then they go beyond the knowledge of the thoughts and actions of others.The PrajHaParamita-Ratna-Guna-Samcaya -Gatha runs:^^^ When he trains himself, he does not anywhere approach a training, Nor does he get at one who trains, nor at the dharma which [constitute] training. Who trains himself, without discriminating between both, training and no-training, He trains himself in this Buddha-dharma

When they train thus in wisdom, to the wise shedders of light Not even one single thought arises that is unwholesome: As when the sun goes through the sky, before the impact of its rays No darkness can maintain itself in the intermediate space.^^^

'" yo sik^amaifu na upaiti kahimci siksath na ca sik^akam labhati napi ca sik^adharmanl sik^aasiksa ubhayo avikalpamano yo siksate sa iha siksati buddhadharme sik^antu eva vi'du prajffa prabliaifikarariam notpadyate akusalamapi ekacittamj surye yatha gagani gacchati antarlk^e rasmigate na sthihatepurato'ndhakaram; Akira Yuyama {QA.),Prajna Paramita -Ratna -Guna - Saipcaya- Gatha {London: Cambridge University Press, \976),99 ^'^ Edward Conze (trans), The Perfect/on of Wisdom in Eiglit Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary{De,\h\: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),56

276 Regarding discussion of skill in means of a bodhisattva when he practices the perfection of wisdom, Subhuti asks the Buddha that how should a bodhisattva, who courses in perfect wisdom, achieve the complete conquest of emptiness, or how should he enter into the concentration on emptiness? The Lord replies :^^^ He should contemplate form, etc., as empty. But he should contemplate that with an undisturbed series of thoughts in such a way that, when he contemplates the fact that "form, etc., is empty", he does not regard that true nature of dhaimas [i.e. emptiness] as something which, as a result of its own true nature [i.e. emptiness] is a real entity. But when he does not regard that true nature of dharmas as a real thing, then he cannot realise the reality-limit.^^'' Through the answer, the Buddha clearly states that a bodhisattva should not realise emptiness, {na bodhisattvena mahasattvena sunyata saJcsatkartavyeti)/^^e further explains that it is because a bodhisattva contemplates that emptiness which is possessed of the best of all modes i.e. of the six perfections. He does, however, not contemplate that "I shall realize", or "I should realize", but he contemplates that "this is the time for complete conquest and not for realization". Without losing himself in the concentration, he ties his thought to an objective support for his compassion and he determines that he will take hold of perfect wisdom which is essential­ ly skill in means, and that he will not realize emptiness, because its realization is not the final goal. Meanwhile, however, the bodhisattva does not lose the dharmas which act as the wings to enlightenment. He does not affect the extinction of the outflows which would prevent renewed rebirths,

''^ "jJia subhute bodhisattvena mahasattvena prajhaparamitayam carata rupam sunyamiti pratyaveksitavyam / evam vedana samskarah / vijnanam sunyamiti pratyaveksitavyam / tatha ca pratyavek$itavyamaviksiptaya cittasamtatya yatha pratyavekfamano rupamiti tarn dharmatam dharmataya na samanupasyet / tarn ca asamanupasyan dharmatani na sak?atkuryadbhutakotim"AstaXX, p. 183 '''' Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary(De\hi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),222 '^^ Asta.XX,p.n3

277 but over that also he achieves complete conquest. At the time when a bodhisattva dwells in the concentration on emptiness which is one of the doors to deliverance; he should also dwell in the concentration on the signless, but without realizing the signless. For, endowed with the dharma of the wholesome root which has thus come about, he contemplates that "this is the time for maturing beings, and not for realization." Taken hold of by perfect wisdom, he does not realize the reality-limit.The Prajna Paramita- Ratna-Guna-Samcaya-Gatha mentions: ""paksisya nastipadu gacchata antarikse no capj tatra sthitu no capatati bhuwau/ tatha bodhisattva caramanu viwoksadvare na ca nirvrtim sprsatino ca nimittacarf^^^ "A flying bird has no footing in the intermediate space. It does not stand on it, nor does it fall to the ground. So the Bodhisatti'a who courses in the doors to freedom Neither experiences the Blessed Rest, nor does he course in the sign"^^^ To make it clearer, the Buddha gives three similes that there were a most excellent hero, very vigorous, of high social position, handsome, attractive and most fair to behold, of many virtues, in possession of all the finest virtues, of those virtues which spring from the very height of sovereignty, morality, learning, renunciation and so on. He is judicious, able to express himself, to formulate his views clearly, to substantiate his claims; one who always knows the suitable time, place and situation for everything. In archery, he has gone as far as one can go; he is successful in warding off all manner of attack, most skilled in all arts, and foremost, through his fine

''* Akira Yuyama (e

278 achievements, in all crafts. He has a good memory, is intelligent, clever, steady and prudent, versed in all the treatises, has many friends, is wealthy, strong of body, with large limbs, with all his faculties complete, generous to all, dear and pleasant to many. Any work, he might undertake he manages to complete, he speaks methodically, shares his great riches with the many, honours what should be honoured, reveres what should be revered, worships what should be worshipped. Then he asks Subhuti such a person would feel ever increasing joy and zest or not? Subhuti answers that he would. The Buddha further supposes that this person, so greatly accomplished, should have taken his family with him on a journey, his mother and father, his sons and daughters. By some circumstances, they find themselves in a great, wild forest. The foolish ones among them would feel fright, terror and hair-raising fear. He, however, would fearlessly say to his family: "Do not be afraid! I shall soon take you safely and securely out of this terrible and frightening forest. I shall soon set you free!" If then more and more hostile and inimical forces should rise up against him in that forest, the Lord askes Subhuti again that this heroic man would decide to abandon his family, and to take himself alone out of that terrible and frightening forest or not? When he is not one to draw back; he is endowed with all the force of firmness and vigour; he is wise, exceedingly tender and compassionate, courageous and a master of many resources? Subhuti replies that no, he would not. Subhuti explains because that person, who does not abandon his family, has at his disposal powerfiil resources, both within and without. On his side, forces will arise in that wild forest which is quite a match for the hostile and inimical forces, and they will stand up for him and protect him. Those enemies and adversaries of him, who look for a weak spot, who seek for a weak spot, will not gain any hold over him. He is competent to deal with the situation, and is able, unhurt and uninjured, soon to take out of that forest

279 both his family and himself, and securely and safely they will reach a village, city or market-town. The Lord, then, says Just so is it with a bodhisattva who is full of pity and concerned with the welfare of all beings, who dwells in friendliness, compassion, sympathetic joy and impartiality, who has been taken hold of by skill in means and perfect wisdom, who has correctly turned over his wholesome roots, employing the kind of transformation which has the Buddha's sanction. Although he enters into the concentrations which are the doors to deliverance, i.e. the concentrations on emptiness, the signless and the wishless; he nevertheless just does not realise the reality-limit, i.e. neither on the level of a Disciple, nor on that of a Pratyekabuddha. It is because he has at his disposal very strong and powerful helpers, in perfect wisdom and skill in means. Since he has not abandoned all beings, he is thus able to win full enlightenment, safely and securely. At the time when a bodhisattva has made all beings into an objective support for his thought of friendliness, and with the highest friendliness ties himself to them, at that time he rises above the factiousness of the defilements and of Mara, he rises above the level of Disciple and Pratyekabuddha, and he abides in that concentration on friendliness. But he is not one who has attained the extinction of the outflows; he achieves a complete conquest of emptiness, which in his case is endowed with the highest perfections. At the time when a bodhisattva dwells in the concentration on emptiness, which is one door to freedom, at that time he does not dwell in the concentration on the signless, nor does he realise the concentration on the signless. It is just like a bird that on its wings courses in the air. It neither falls onto the ground, nor does it stand anywhere on any support. It dwells in space, just in the air, without being either supported or settled therein. Just so a bodhisattva dwells in the dwelling of emptiness, achieves complete conquest over emptiness. Just so he dwells in the dwelling

280 of the signless and wishless, and achieves complete conquest over the signless and wishless. But he does not fall into emptiness, or into the signless, or into the wishless, with his Buddha-dharmas remaining incomplete. It is as with a master of archery, strong, well trained, and perfectly trained in archery. The bodhisattva first would shoot one arrow upwards. He would then send after that another arrow which would check the fall of the first. By a regular succession of arrows he would not permit that first arrow to fall to the ground, and that arrow would be kept up in the air until he should decide that it should fall to the ground. In the same way, a bodhisattva who courses in perfect wisdom and who is upheld by skill in means, does not realise that farthest reality-limit until his wholesome roots are matured, well matured in full enlightenment. Only when his wholesome roots are matured, well matured in full enlightenment, only then does he realise that farthest reality- limit. A bodhisattva who courses in perfect wisdom, who develops perfect wisdom, should, therefore, contemplate and meditate on the deep true nature of those dharmas, but he should not realise \X.Prajna Paramita -Ratna -Guna - Samcaya -aJ//?J summarizes: A skilful man, endowed with all qualities, Powerful, unassailable, well-qualified, instructed in many arts, Perfect in archery, devoted to many crafts, Perfect in knowing the various forms of magical illusion, keen on the welfare of the world He takes his mother and father, together with his sons and daughters And enters a wilderness, full of many hostile forces.

^'' puru?o yatha kusala sarvagunairupeto; balavan dudharsu krtayogya kalavidhijnoj isvastraparamigato prthusilpayukto; mayavidhijnaparamojagadarthakamol mats pita ca parigrhya saputradaram; kantaramargi pratipadya bahuamitroj so nirminitva purusan bahu suravTran; ksemena gatva puna gehamupagameyyaj emeva yasmi samaye vidu bodhisattva; mafiamaitri sarvi upabandJiati sattvadhatau/ caturo sa mara atikramya dvaye ca bhumi; masmin samadhi sthitu no ca spfsati bodhim; Akira Yuyama {ed.),Prajna Paramita -Ratna -Guria -Samcaya- Gatha (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 74-75

281 He conjures up many men, heroic champions, Gets away safely, and again goes back to his home; Just so at that time when a wise Bodhisattva Extends the great friendliness to all in the world of beings, Having passed beyond the four Maras, and the two levels, He permanently abides in the best of concentrations, but he does not experience enlightenment.^^"

V.3.2. How a Bodhisattva Practice the Bodhisattva Path with His Perfect Wisdom and Skill in Means

Generally, a bodhisattva's career is said to commence with the "production of the thought of bodhi" (bodhi-citta-utpada). He thinks of becoming a Buddha for the welfare and liberation of all creatures, makes certain great vows, and his future greatness is predicted by a living Buddha. These three events mark the conversion of an ordinary person into a bodhisattva. For the bodhisattva who is only just beginning stand in perfection widom, the sutra gives him the beginner's task that he should tend, love and honour the good friends. His good friends are those who will instruct and admonish him in perfect wisdom, and who will expound to him its meaning. They will expound it as follows :^^' "Come here, son of good family, make endeavours in the six perfections. Whatever you may have achieved by way of giving a gift, guarding morality, perfecting yourself in patience, exertion of vigour, entering into concentration, or mastery in wisdom, - all that turn over into full enlightenment. But do not misconstrue full enlightenment as form, or any other skandhas. For intangible is all-knowledge.

*°° Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary (DeM: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),223 *"' "eA/ tvam kulaputra danaparamitayaiji yojamapadyasva, evam sTlaparamitayam k^antiparamitayatn vTryaparamitayam dhyanaparamitayam prajHaparamitayam yogamapadyasva / yadyadeva tvam Icuiaputra danam dadasi, tatsarvamanuttarayatn samyaksambodhau parinamaya / ma ca tvam kulaputra anuttaram samyaksambodhiiji rupatah paramrksah, evaiji ma vedanato ma samjUato mi samskarebhyah / ma ca tva/p kulaputra anuttaram samyaksambodhim vi/ifanatali paramrksah ...evam hi subhute adikarmiko bodhisattvo mahasattvo 'nupurvena kalyanamitraih praj/iaparamitayamavatarayitavyah" Asta.XV, p.\A6

282 And do not long for the level of Disciple or Pratyekabuddha. It is thus that a Bodhisattva who is just beginning should gradually, through the good friends, enter into perfect wisdom" The above passage shows very clearly that the first task of the boddhisatva is the arising of the thought of full enlightenment or the will to become a full- enlightened person entering into perfect wisdom but not go for the level of Disciple or Pratyekabuddha.The Sanskrit term translated here is -utpada, and it is one of the most important terms in the whole field of Mahayana Buddhism. As we have seen, bodhi means enlighteimient or awakening. Citta, one of the multifaceted terms encountered so often in Buddhist Sanskrit, means mind, thought, consciousness, heart all these things. Utpada is more straightforward; it means simply arising or, more poetically, awakening. Bodhicitta-utpada is sometimes translated as 'the arising of the thought of enlightenment', but this is exactly what it is not. We can think about enlightenment as much as we like. We can read about it, think about it, talk about it. We say "enlightenment is both wisdom and compassion" as though just saying the words means that we know all about it. But whatever we say, whatever we think, the bodhicitta has not arisen. Thinking about enlightenment has certainly not transformed us into bodhisattvas. So the bodhicitta is not just a thought about enlightenment; it is very much more than that. Guenther translates it as 'enlightened attitude^^^'^my own preferred translation is 'the will to enlightenment' or 'the bodhi heart'. All these translations are considerably better than 'the thought of enlightenment', but none of them is completely satisfactory. This isn't the

*°^ Edward Conze (trans), T/ie Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse 5u/n/narK(Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),188 ^^ Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Literature (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2004), 59 *°'' Sangharakshita, The Bodhisttva Ideal: Widom and Compassion in Buddhism ( Uk: Windhorse Publications,2008),32

283 fault of the English language so much as the fault of language itself. In fact, bodhicitta is a very unsatisfactory term for the bodhicitta. The bodhicitta is not a mental state, activity, or function at all. It is certainly not a thought that people could entertain. It has nothing to do with thought. It is not even an act of will in the sense in which we understand the term — it is not one's personal will. Neither is it 'being conscious', if by that one merely means being conscious of the fact that there is such a thing as enlightenment. The bodhicitta represents the manifestation, even the irruption, within us of something transcendental: the emergence within our ordinary experience of something of a totally different nature. The author of a short but profound work called the Bodliicittavivarana/^^descnbQs the bodhicitta as being 'free from all determinations, that is, it is not included in the categories of the five skandhas^^^ The Mahayana tradition takes account of the dynamic nature of the bodhicitta by making a distinction between the 'absolute' bodhicitta and the 'relative' bodhicitta. It should be admitted straightaway that there is very little that can be said about the absolute bodhicitta. In its ultimate essence, it is beyond thought and beyond speech. But some great teachers do, very provisionally, have something to say about it. They say, for instance, that it is of the nature of emptiness that is to say, it is identical with ultimate reality. It is imbued with the essence of compassion. It is not a blank, featureless; it pulses with the spiritual life and activity which we call compassion. And it is like pure light, radiant and immaculate. It cannot be touched, cannot be soiled, and cannot be shaken. Furthermore, it transcends both space

**" The work is said to be Nagarjuna though not the Nagarjuna who is the famous philosopher of the Madhyamaka ^ D.T. Suzuki, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2007), 69.Qouted in Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Outline of Mahayana Buddhism (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.Ltd., 2007),297-298

284 and time. Very mysterious! Suffice it to say that even the absolute bodhicitta, although identical with reality itself, and thus beyond change - or rather beyond the opposition between change and non-change - is not a static, fixed thing (in fact, not a 'thing' at all). The relative bodhicitta is more comprehensible, more accessible. It is, one could say, the reflection of the absolute bodhicitta in the web of conditioned existence, the stream of time, the cosmic process. We still have to be careful to realize the limits of imagery here: whereas a reflection isn't real the moon isn't actually in the pool the relative bod/iicitta actually is in the individuals in which it appears to arise by virtue of the reflection in them of the absolute bodhicitta. And it is an active force at work in the world. This is why the translation 'will to enlightenment' seems appropriate (especially when one is referring to the relative, as distinct fi-om the absolute, bodhicitta)

The fact that the absolute bodhicitta and the relative bodhicitta share the same name is confusing, given that they are so different in nature. Here again we are faced with the difficulty of finding appropriate terminology. There are two alternatives: either to use different terms and hence imply that the two are entirely different, or to use the same term and thereby suggest that they are the same. To speak of the relative and the absolute bodhicitta is to opt for sameness, while to give them two quite different names would be to go to the other extreme and opt for difference. The difficulty arises in part, perhaps, through the use of the word 'absolute'. The translation of paramartha bodhicitta as absolute bodhicitta is not meant to suggest a philosophical, unitary absolute into which everything has to be incorporated in a Hegelian sense. Paramartha bodhicitta is literally translated 'bodhicitta in the highest sense', which makes things a little clearer. These considerations are of great importance. One could say that the relative bodhicitta represents the path and the absolute bodhicitta represents

285 the goal. To say that the two are the same or to say that they are different is a serious mistake; in fact, it is in effect to destroy the foundation of the spiritual life. They are neither the same nor different. To speak of a samvrtti and a paramartha bodhicitta is perhaps the best solution available to us, providing for both unity and difference the unity reflected in the common noun and the difference in the different adjectives.The next step of bodhisattva path is descriled in the Asta as following: "duskarakaraka bhagavan bodhisattvah mahasattvah, ye 'nuttaram samyaksambodhimabhisaijiboddhum samprasthitah / evawnJpam danamagamya, evaijirupam sHam, evamrupam ksantim, evamrupam vFryam, evaimvpam dhyanam, evamrupam prajHamagamya svadhine 'pi parinirvane necchanti parinirvatum / api tu paramaduhkhitam sattvadhatumabhisamiksya anuttaram samyaksambodhimabhisamboddbukamahsamsaramiotrasyand'^^^ "Doers of what is hard are the Bodhisattvas who have set out to win full enlightenment. Thanks to the practice of the six perfections, as described above, they do not wish to attain release in a private Nirvana of their own. They survey the highly painful world of beings. They want to win full enlightenment, and yet they do not tremble at birth-and-death."^°* So, after the bodhicitta has arisen, one has set out on the bodhisattva path, one's heart burning with the desire that all sentient beings may be free fi-om suffering and attain enlightenment. But the arising of the bodhicitta is only the first of the ten stages (bhumis) of the bodhisattva's path to enlightenment;^°^ there is still a long way to go. What is the next step? The sutra states that thanking to the practice of the six perfections, the

*°M5te.XV,p.l46 *°* Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {T>6M: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),188 ^°' The ten bhumis art enumerated in two Mahayana worits, the Dasabhumika Sutra anA the Bodhisattvabhumi-Sastra. The stages are pramuditS, the joyful; vimala, the immaculate; prabhakarf, the illuminating; arcifmati;ihe blazing; sudarjaya, the very difficult to conquer; abhimukhf, the face-to-face; duraihgama, the far-going; acalS, the immovable; sadhumati, good thoughts; and dharmamegha, the cloud of the doctrine. For more about the ten bhumis, see Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, op. ch., pp.490-9.

286 bodhisattvas do not wish to attain release in a private nirvana of their own.The Lord makes it clearer through his explaination: "Doers of what is hard are the Bodhisattvas who have set out for the benefit and happiness of the world, out of pity for it. "We will become a shelter for the world, a refuge, the place of rest, the final relief, islands, lights and leaders of the world. We will win fijll enlightenment, and become the resort of the world",with these words they make a vigorous effort to win such a full enlightenment."^" It is important to remember that it is the relative bodiiicitta we are concerned with here. The absolute bodiiicitta, as we have seen, is identical with enlightenment, above and beyond time and space. It is, in a sense, beyond our reach, in the realm of eternity. But the relative bodiiicitta which manifests within the stream of time, is more accessible to us. It is traditionally said to have two aspects: a vow aspect and an establishment aspect. The establishment aspect involves what are known as the six prajnaparamitas, the six transcendental virtues or perfections, the practice of which moves the bodliisattva towards enlightenment: giving, uprightness, patience, vigour, meditation and wisdom.The Budhha then lists eight points which mentions in very detail how bodliisattvas can become a shelter for the world, a refuge, the place of rest, the final relief, islands, lights and leaders of the world; and how they will win fiill enlightenment, and become the resort oftheworld:^'^

*'" "du^karakarakah subhute bodhisattva mahasattvSfi ye hkahitaya samprasthitalf, lokasukhaya lokanukampayai saijiprasthitaji, lokasya tranam bhavisyamah, lokasya saranam bhavi^yamah, lokasya layanam bhavisyamah, lokasya parayanam bhavisyamah, lokasya dvTpam bhavisyamah, lokasyaloka bhavisyamah, lokasya parimyaka bhavisyama, anuttaram samyaksambodhimabhisambudhya lokasya gatirbhavisyamah, ityevamrupamanuttarayam samyaksambodhau vrryamarabhante"Asta.X\, p. 146 *" Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {T>Q\h\: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),188 *'^ kathani ca subhute bodhisattva mahasattva anuttarain samyaksambodhimabhisainbuddhah santo lokasya tranam bhavanti?yani tani subhute satnsaravacarani duhkhani lokasya, tata enam trayante, tesatn duhkhanam prahanaya vyayacchante, vTryamarabhante / evaip hi subhOte bodhisattva mahasattva anuttararp samyaksambodhimabhisambuddhali santo lokasya trariam bhavanti/katham ca subhute bodhisattva mahasattva anuttaraip samyaksambodhimabhisambuddha santo lokasya

287 1. How then do the bodhisattvas awakened to full enlightenment become the world's shelter? They protect from all the sufferings which belong to birth-and-death, they struggle and make efforts to rid the world of them. 2. How do they become the world's refiige? They set free from birth, decay, illness, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness and despair those beings that are doomed to undergo these conditions. 3. How do they become the world's resting place? The Tathagatas demonstrate Dharma to beings so that they may learn not to embrace anything. The non-embracing of form, etc., is the same as its non-connection, and as its non-production and non-stopping. One, thus, learns not to embrace anything as a result of the cognition and vision that all dharmas are non- embracing, non-connected. 4. How do they become the world's final relief? The state beyond form is not form; and yet, as the beyond, so form, etc., and all dharmas. The bodhisattvas must fully know all dharmas. They fully recognize that form, etc., and all dharmas are the beyond. There is no discrimination between them. In that beyond, there is no discrimination. Through their non­ discrimination do all dharmas become frilly known to the bodhisattvas. This also is most hard for the bodhisattvas that they meditate on all dharmas, but neither realize, nor become cowed, and that they meditate thus: "In this way saranam bhavanti? ye subhute sattva jatldharmino jaradharmino vyadhidharmino maranadharminah sokaparidevaduhkhadautmanasyopayasadharmiriiah sattvalf tan sarvan jatijaravyadhimaranasokaparidevaduhkhadaunnanasyopayasebhyah parimocayanti / evam hi subhute bodhisattva mahasattva anuttararp samyaksambodhimabhisarnbuddhah santo lokasya saranam bhavanti / katham ca subhute bodhisattva mahasattva anuttaram samyaksambodhimabhisarnbuddhah santo lokasya layanam bhavanti? yatsubhute tathagata arhantah samyaksambuddhah. sattvebhyo 'sle?aya dharmam desayanti / evam hi subhute bodhisattva mahasattva anuttaram samyaksambodhimabhisambuddhali santo lokasya layanam bhavanati / subhutiraha - katham bhagavan asleso bhavati? bhagavanaha - yah subhute rupasySsambandhah, sa rupasyasle$ah / yo rupasyasle?ah, sa rupasyasatribandhah / yo rupasyasambandhah, sa rupasyanutpado 'nirodhah /yo rupasyanutpado 'nirodhah, sa rupasyasle^ah /yorupasyasle?ah, ayamrupasyasambandhah, ayam rupasyasle?ah/..... AstaXV, 146-149

288 should all these dharmas be folly known; and thus, awakened to foil enlightenment, will we demonstrate these dharmas, and reveal them." 5. How do they become the world's islands? 'Islands' are pieces of land limited by water, in rivers or great lakes. Just so form, etc., is limited at its beginning and end, and so are all dharmas. But the limitation of all dharmas is the same as the calm quiet, the sublime, as nirvana, as the really existing, the unperverted. 6. How do they become the world's lights? Here the bodhisattvas win foil enlightenment, and then take away all the darkness and gloom of the uncognition from beings who for long are enveloped in the membrane of the eggshell of ignorance, and overcome by darkness, and they illuminate them through wisdom. 7. How do bodhisattvas become the world's leaders? When they have become enlightened, the bodhisattvas demonstrate dharma in order to reveal the absence of production and stopping in the essential nature of form, etc., and in the dharmas which constitute and distinguish ordinary people, dis­ ciples, pratyelcabuddhas, bodhisattvas and buddhas, and in all dharmas in general. 8. How are they the world's resort? When they have become enlight­ ened, the bodhisattvas demonstrate dharma by teaching that form, etc., is situated in the world's space. All dharmas are situated in space, they have not come, they have not gone, and they are the same as space. Space has no come, nor gone, it is not made, nor unmade, nor effected; it has not stood up, does not last, nor endure; it is neither produced nor stopped. The same is true of all dharmas which are, after the fashion of space, undiscriminate. It is because the emptiness of form, etc., neither comes nor goes; nor does the emptiness of all dharmas. For, all dharmas are situated in emptiness, and from that situation they do not depart. They are situated in the signless, the

289 wishless, the ineffective, in non-production, no-birth, in the absence of positivity, in dream and self, in the boundless, in the calm quiet, in nirvana, in the unrecoverable; they have not come, nor gone, situated in immobility; they are situated in form, etc., and in the full enlightenment of arhats and pratyekabuddhas. Another nature that a bodhisattva has to observe when he helps other beings which the Buddha points out through answering the question of Subhuti that how should a bodhisattva behave, how should he train, if he wants to go forth to the full and supreme enlighteimient?The Lord answers^^"^ that the bodhisattva should adopt the same attitude towards all beings, his mind should be even towards all beings, he should not handle others with an uneven mind, but with a mind which is firiendly, well disposed, helpful, fi:ee from aversion, avoiding harm and hurt, he should handle others as if they were his mother, father, son or daughter. As a saviour of all beings should a bodhisattva behave towards all beings, should he train himself If he wants to know the full and supreme enlightermient; He should, himself, stand in the abstention from all evil, he should give gifts, guard his morality, perfect himself in patience, exert vigour, enter into the trances, achieve mastery over wisdom, survey conditioned coproduction, both in direct and in reverse order; and also others he should instigate to do the same, incite and encourage them. In the same way, he should stand in everything from the meditation on the truths to the stage when he reaches the certainty that it is as a bodhisattva that he will be saved, and when he matures beings, and also others he should instigate to do the same, incite and encourage them. When he longs eagerly for all that and trains himself in it, then everything will be uncovered to him,

^^^ Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary (jy^iM: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),188-190 *"'^5/'a.XV,p.l59-160

290 from form to the established order of dharmaf'^ Moreover, regarding door to deliverance and vows about beings, Astsahasrika Prajnaparamita mentions that bodhisattvas are persons who do the hardest job if he courses and dwells in emptiness, if he enters into the concentration on emptiness, and yet does not realise the reality- limit.^'^The5i7/ra explains that because the bodhisattva has not abandoned all beings, he has made the special vows to set free all those beings. If the mind of a bodhisattva forms the aspiration not to abandon all beings but to set them free, and if in addition he aspires for the concentration on emptiness, the signless, the wishless, i.e. for the three doors to deliverance, then that bodhisattva should be known as one who is endowed with skill in means, and he will not realise the reality-limit midway, before his Buddha-dhaimas have become complete. For, it is this skill in means which protects him. His thought of enlightenment consists in just that fact that he does not want to leave all beings behind. When he is thus endowed with the thought of enlightenment and with skill in means, then he does not midway realise the reality-limit. Moreover, while a bodhisattva either actually contemplates those deep stations, i.e. the three doors to deliverance, or becomes desirous of contemplating them, he should in his mind form the following aspiration: "For a long time those beings, because they have the notion of existence, course in the apprehension of a basis. After I have won ftiU enlightenment I shall demonstrate dharma to those beings so that they may forsake the

*'* Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary (Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994), 199 *'* "dus/carakarako bhagavan bodhisattvo mahasattvah / paramadufkarakarako bhagavan bodhisattva mahasattvah, yati sunyatayarn carati, sunyataya ca viharati, sunyatam ca samadhini samapadyate, na ca bhutakotim saksatkaroti / atyascaryamidam bhagavan, paramascaryamidarji sugata "Asta.XX, p. 185

291 erroneous views about Ja basis''.^'^ As a free agent, he then enters into the concentrations on emptiness, on the signless, on the wishless. A bodhisattva who is, thus, endowed with this thought of enlightenment and with skill in means does not midway realise the reality-limit. On the contrary, he does not lose his concentration on friendliness, compassion, sympathetic joy and impartiality. For, upheld by skill in means, he increases his pure dharmas more and more. His faith, etc., becomes keener and keener, and he acquires the powers, the limbs of enlightenment, and the path. Moreover, a bodhisattva reflects that "for a long time those beings, because they perceive dharmas^ course in the apprehension of a basis", and he develops this aspiration as he did the former one, entering the concentration on emptiness. Furthermore, he reflects that by perceiving a sign, those beings have, for a long time, coursed in the sign, and he deals with this aspiration as before, entering the concentration on the signless. Furthermore, a bodhisattva reflects: "For a long time have these beings been perverted by the perceptions of permanence, of happiness, of the self, of loveliness. I will act in such a way that, after my ftiU enlightenment, I shall demonstrate dharma in order that they may forsake the perverted views of the perception of permanence, of happiness, of the self, of loveliness, and in order that they may learn that impermanent is all this, not permanent; ill is all this, not happiness; without self is all this, not with a self; repulsive is all this, not lovely."^'^ Endowed with this thought of enlightenment, and with the previously described skill in means, taken hold of by perfect wisdom, he does not realize the reality-limit midway, before all his Buddha-dharmas are complete. He dwells thus, and he has entered on the concentration on the wishless, but he

*'^ Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse 5o/n/na/7(Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),225 *'* Ibid., 226

292 does not lose his concentration on friendliness, etc. For, upheld by skill in means, he increases more and more his pure dharmas. His faith, etc., becomes keener and keener, and he acquires the powers, the limbs of enlightenment, and the path. If a bodhisattva raisQS the following thought: "These beings also have for a long time been in the habit of coursing in the apprehension of a basis, and even just now they do so. They have for a long time been in the habit of coursing in the apprehension of a basis, and even just now they do so. They have for a long time been in the habit of coursing in the perception of signs, in perverted views, in perceptions of material objects, in perceptions of unreal objects, in wrong views, and even now they continue to do so. "Thus will I act that these faults in each and every way may cease to be in them, that they will be inconceivable in them"; if a bodhisattva brings all beings to mind in such a way, if he is endowed with this recollection of all beings, with this production of thought, and with skill in means, if he is taken hold of by perfect wisdom, and if, endowed with all these qualities, he thus contemplates the true nature of those deep cftarajasthrough their emptiness, or signlessness, or wishlessness, or through their being uneffected, unproduced, without birth, without any positivity—then it is quite impossible that such a bodhisattva, who is endowed with such a cognition, could either fall into the uneffected, or become intimate with what belongs to the triple world. That cannot possibly be.

"puna bodhisattva caramanujinma prajnam anupada skandlia imijanati adisunyanj asamahito kanma prek^ati sattvadhatu- matrantare na pariiiayati buddhadharman '^'^ "Furthermore, the Bodhisattva who courses in the wisdom of the Jinas Cognizes these skandhas as unproduced, as empty from the begiiming.

^" Akira Yuyama {QA.),Prajna Paramita-Ratna- Guna -Saijicaya -GaiAa (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 74

293 Even during the time that unconcentrated he views in compassion the world of beings, He does not become destitute of the Buddha-dharmas." Inshort, the six perfections are crucial for a bodhisattva - mahasattva 's prcatice in which wisdom perfection plays the most important role. After studying, we concluse as following: a. Prajnaparamita is the primary. It is because ''prajnaparamita hi ananda purvamgama pancanam paramitanani'' , (For the perfection of wisdom controls the five pereftions). It is, thus, that when a bodhisattva trains in the perfeion of wisdom, all the perfections are automatically incorporate, taken up, followed after and included. ''evam hi subhute prajnaparamitayam siksamanena bodhisattvena mahasattvena sarvah paramita samgrhlta bhavanti, sarvah paramita udgrhita bhavanti, sarvah paramita anugata bhavanti / sarvah paramita antargata bhavanti'^^"^ b. Prajnaparamita is the main and basic perfection. This perfection of wisdom directs the six perfections, guides, leads, instructs and advises them, is their genetrix and nurse,^^^ "e5a hi prajnaparamita sannarn paramitanam purvamgama nayikaparinayiica samdarsika avadarsikajanayitrfdhatrT .^^^ It is because if six perfections are deprived of the perfection of wisdom, the first five perfections do not come under the concept of perfections, and they do not deserve to be called "perfections". A bodhisattva should therefore train in just this perfection of wisdom if he wishes to get to a state where he cannot be led astray by others, and to stand firmlyi n it.

*^° Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse 5'u/n/na/y(Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),225 *^'>l5/a.III,p.40,p.51 ^^^Edward Conze (trans). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eiglit Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {I)Q\\\I: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),111 "^ Ibid.,252 "''/l5te.XXV,p.213 "' Edward Conze (trans), Tlie Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary {^QM: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),237 *^*/l5/a.XXII,p.l98

294 c. The behavior of a bodhisattva - mahasattva is describled by the terms danaparamita, etc., only if he has prajnaparamita. A bodhisattva who taken hold off by perfection of wisdom and skill in means, transforms into all- knowledge, the meritorious work founded on jubilation, surpasses the entire meritorious work founded on giving, morality, patience, vigour, and trance of all the bodhisattvas who observe a basis. It is just the perfection of wisdom which directs the five perfections in their ascent on the path to all-knowledge. Just as people bom blind, one hundred, or one thousand, or one hundred thousand of them, cannot, without a leader, go along a path and get to a village, town or city; just so, giving, morality, patience, vigour and trance cannot by themselves be called "perfections",for without the perfection of wisdom they are as if bom blind, without their leader unable to ascend the path to all-knowledge, and still less can they reach all-knowledge.Therefore, when giving, morality, patience, vigour and trance are taken hold of by the perfection of wisdom, then they are termed "perfections", for then these five perfections acquire an organ of vision which allows them to ascend the path to all-knowledge, and to reach all-knowledge. "yada punah kausika danam silam ksantirvTyam dhySnam ca prajnaparamitaparigrhrtam bbavati, tada paramitanamadheyam paramitasabdam labhate / tada hySsam caksuhpratilambho bhavati pancanam paramitanatn sarvajnatamargSvatarSya sarvajnatanupraptaye " ^^^ d. The value of dana and other paramitas is considered to be extremely low compared to prajnaparamitalf one bodhisattva gives himself up to devotion to perfect wisdom, and does deeds for one day only while dwelling completely in mental activities connected with perfect wisdom; and if another bodhisattva lacks in perfect wisdom, but gives gifts for countless aeons;

*" Edward Conze (trans), Tlje Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary (Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),136

295 superior to him is the bodhisattva who, for one day only, makes endeavours about perfect wisdom. A bodhisattva who for one day only makes endeavours about perfect wisdom begets greater merit than another bodhisattva who for countless aeons gives and bestows gifts on all the classes of holy persons, but lacks in perfect wisdom. If that other bodhisattva should not only bestow gifts as indicated, but in addition observe the moral precepts, but lack in perfect wisdom, then this bodhisattva, a dweller in perfect wisdom, would beget the greater merit if, after he had emerged fi-om his mental work on perfect wisdom, he would demonstrate dharma. And that would remain true even if the other bodhisattva in addition were endowed with patience. Even if in addition he would exert vigour, would make endeavours about the trances and wings of enlightenment, but were still lacking in perfect wisdom; a bodhisattva who, after he had given the gift of dharma, as said before, would turn it over to full enlightenment, would beget a merit greater than his. Greater still would be the merit of a bodhisattva who not only gave the gift of dharma, not only turned it over into ftill enlightenment, but employed the kind of turning over which has been taught in the perfection of wisdom. But if a bodhisattva, after he has done all that, makes no ftirther efforts about it in meditative seclusion, then his merit is less than that of one who also makes efforts about it in meditative seclusion and who, taken hold of by perfect wisdom, causes that meditative seclusion to be not devoid of perfect wisdom.The latter begets the gearter merit,^^°

"...evaw hi subhute yas ca bodhisattva mahasattvah prajnaparamitayogamanuyukta^, anena viharena viharan yaduta prajnaparamitapratisamyuktairmanasikaraih, ekadivasena tavatkarma karoti /yas ca prajhaparamitavirahito bodhisattva gahganadTvalukopaman kalpanisti^than danatn dadyat, ayameva tato visi^yate ya 'yaiji bodhisattva mahasattva evamekadivasam api prajMpSrawitayaiji yogamapadyate... "Asta.p. 171 *^° Edward Conze (trans), The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary (Delhi: Sri Satguru publications, 1994),210

296